Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management: An International

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Predicting purchase intention of a controversial luxury apparel product
Teresa A. Summers Bonnie D. Belleau Yingjiao Xu
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To cite this document:
Teresa A. Summers Bonnie D. Belleau Yingjiao Xu, (2006),"Predicting purchase intention of a controversial
luxury apparel product", Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management: An International Journal, Vol. 10
Iss 4 pp. 405 - 419
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ACADEMIC PAPER Predicting

purchase
Predicting purchase intention of a intention
controversial luxury apparel
405
product
Teresa A. Summers and Bonnie D. Belleau
Textiles, Apparel Design, and Merchandising Division,
School of Human Ecology, Louisiana State University,
Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA, and
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Yingjiao Xu
School of Human and Consumer Sciences, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, USA

Abstract
Purpose – The aim of this study is to determine, using the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA),
affluent female consumers’ purchase intention of a controversial luxury product, apparel made with
American alligator leather.
Design/methodology/approach – Influence variables evaluated in the model included: attitude
toward performing the behavior (purchasing alligator leather apparel); subjective norm, involvement
(fashion involvement); controversy perception (social acceptance and endangerment status of the
American alligator); price perception (price-quality schema and prestige sensitivity); personality traits
(self-confidence and self-consciousness); and demographics. A mail survey of 1,200 affluent female
consumers residing in eight US metropolitan statistical areas defined as fashion centers was conducted.
Findings – A total of 430 usable surveys were returned for a 36 percent response rate. The general
linear model regression analysis revealed that attitude toward performing the behavior, subjective
norm, controversy perception (social acceptance), and fashion involvement were significant predictors
of purchase intention.
Practical implications – The model was effective in predicting affluent females’ purchase intention
for a controversial luxury apparel product, and results suggest the TRA could be used to predict purchase
intention of other luxury products considered controversial. Producers and retailers of controversial
luxury apparel products or interested researchers could use the model in their exploration of consumer
attitudes and behavioral intentions. Luxury exotic leather producers and retailers could use the results as
they develop merchandising and promotions campaigns for their product lines.
Originality/value – The theory could be used to predict purchase intention of other controversial
and/or luxury fashion merchandise. Information about affluent female consumers’ knowledge,
perceptions, and purchase intention of American alligator leather apparel is provided, thus expanding
the current limited literature.
Keywords Clothing, Reptiles, Consumer behaviour, Purchasing
Paper type Research paper

This research was funded in part by support from the Louisiana Fur & Alligator Advisory Journal of Fashion Marketing and
Management
Council, the Louisiana Alligator Farmers and Ranchers’ Association, members of the American Vol. 10 No. 4, 2006
alligator industry, the LSU Agricultural Center, and the Louisiana Board of Regents Support pp. 405-419
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
Fund Research & Development Program. This manuscript has been approved for publication by 1361-2026
the Director of the Louisiana Agricultural Experiment Station as manuscript no. 03-36-1589. DOI 10.1108/13612020610701947
 JFMM Producers and retailers of luxury goods have thrived for decades on the premise of
10,4 telling consumers what they should have rather than asking them what they want.
However, in recent seasons as sales of luxury goods have declined, industry experts
have suggested this approach must change in order to meet luxury consumers’
increasing demands for solid value, greater functionality, and more service (D’Arpizo
et al., 2005). Luxury goods perceived as controversial by certain consumer groups
406 compound the marketing challenges faced by fashion producers and retailers. New
products may be controversial at market entry or long-established products can
become controversial as societal norms or cultural perceptions change (Buckley et al.,
2000; The Independent, 2002). Organized protests against the sale of a wide range of
luxury products including furs, apparel made from animal skins, and even
country-of-origin of diamonds have garnered negative headlines in recent years
(Buckley et al., 2000; Davidson, 1996; The Independent, 2002; Seelig, 1989; Span, 1994;
Steinberg, 1998; Williams, 2000).
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Capturing, maintaining, or increasing market share for luxury products,

particularly those perceived as controversial, requires a different marketing/
merchandising strategy. Suggested tactics include correctly targeting narrowly
defined segments of potential consumers with the appropriate marketing mix,
identifying unmet needs and sales opportunities, using carefully designed packaging,
or increasing advertising budgets to educate consumers (D’Arpizo et al., 2005;
Davidson, 1996; Seelig, 1989; Steinberg, 1998). Effectively predicting luxury
consumers’ purchase behaviors could be beneficial to producers and retailers. The
Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) has been successfully used to predict behavioral
intention with many different products (including clothing items), behaviors, and
services (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980; Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975; Robertson et al., 1984;
Sheppard et al., 1988; Shim et al., 1989). Some researchers have focused on behaviors
and/or products that could be considered controversial (Doll and Orth, 1993;
O’Callaghan et al., 1999). However, no studies were found in a review of the literature in
which the model was applied specifically to predicting purchase intention of a luxury
fashion product considered to be controversial. Thus, we decided to use the TRA to
determine if affluent consumers’ purchase intention of a controversial luxury product
could be successfully predicted.

Study background
Our efforts to provide producers and retailers of luxury products with information
about their consumers was part of an ongoing research project in partnership with
members of the US alligator industry to investigate US market opportunities for
American alligator leather (Summers et al., 2000). As a result of vigorous conservation
and regulations, the American alligator is no longer listed as endangered/threatened
and is now found in abundant numbers in the wild and on farms, primarily in
Louisiana and Florida (Brannan et al., 1991). Thus, a steady supply of the leather is
available to US designers and manufacturers; yet, most skins are exported to be made
into consumer products for foreign markets. Women’s apparel garments made with
genuine American alligator leather are rarely found in retail stores in the USA, and are
perceived by some consumers as risky (Nowlin, 1999). While alligator leather has long
been used as a material of choice in the production of luxury accessories for affluent
female consumers, these products are now considered controversial by certain
 consumers because of their concerns over the use of animal products (Span, 1994). Predicting
Many US consumers are uncertain of the correct endangerment status of the American purchase
alligator and question the social acceptance of owning alligator leather products
(Nowlin, 1999; Xu, 2000). Efforts by groups such as People for the Ethical Treatment of intention
Animals (PETA) to discourage the use of animals for food, fur, or experimentation
have attracted considerable media attention and may have contributed to consumers’
doubts about the social acceptance of using alligator products (The Independent, 2002; 407
Rushton, 2004; Span, 1994; Williams, 2000). This study gave us the opportunity not
only to provide our industry partners with information they desired, but to also test the
use of the TRA in predicting purchase intention for a controversial luxury fashion
product, apparel garments, made with American alligator leather.

Theoretical framework
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The TRA is based on the assumption that human beings are usually quite rational and
make systematic use of the information available to them (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975).
The model was explicitly constructed to explain relationships between attitude and
behavior by using the variables of belief, attitude, behavioral intention, and behavior.
Although the ultimate goal is to predict and understand an individual’s behavior, the
theory focuses on the influences of relevant factors on the behavioral intention, and the
intention to perform or not perform a behavior is viewed as the immediate determinant
of the action.
According to the theory, a person’s behavioral intention (BI), is determined by two
factors. One is the individual’s attitude toward the behavior (Ab), and the other is the
person’s perception of the social pressures placed on him/her to perform or not perform
the behavior in question, referred to as the subjective norm (SN). Attitude toward the
behavior (Ab) is a function of salient beliefs (bi) that performing the behavior has
certain attributes and the evaluation of those beliefs (ei). Shim et al. (1989, p. 9) noted
that in marketing-related studies centered on specific purchase and use situations:
. . . Ab could be interpreted as attitude toward purchasing and using a given brand or a
product class . . . The bi may be viewed as the person’s estimate of whether or not the product
under consideration . . . will possess a desired attribute . . .

The subjective norm is a function of an individual’s beliefs that specific individuals or

groups think he/she should or should not perform the behavior (NBj) and the
individual’s motivation to comply with those referents (MCj). The model can be
represented by the following formula:

B e BI ¼ w1 ð Ab Þ þ w2 ðSNÞ

where:
P
Ab ¼ biei.
P
SN ¼ NBjMcj.
Although the above concepts and variables are the focus of the theory and are
considered to be central for predicting and understanding human behavior, Ajzen and
Fishbein (1980) proposed that certain “external variables” may affect behavior
indirectly by their effects on behavioral beliefs, outcome evaluations, normative beliefs,
 JFMM motivation to comply, or on the relative weights of the attitude and normative
10,4 components. They suggested that external variables such as traditional attitude
toward objects, personality traits, and demographics could provide insight into the
factors determining beliefs which, in turn, could provide a better understanding of the
behavior in question. Other researchers have suggested additional external variables
such as past behavior, past experiences, or involvement could be included in the model
408 to help predict behavior (Bagozzi et al., 2000; Bunce and Birdi, 1998; Shim et al., 1989).
The concept of involvement has gained recognition for the important role it plays in
the operation of almost every major concept used to explain consumer behavior
including attitude formation, consumer satisfaction, and brand loyalty (Foxall et al.,
1998). Involvement was defined by Zaichkowsky (1985, p. 342) as: “A person’s
perceived relevance of the object based on inherent needs, values, and interests”. Like
many other researchers, she also noted that different involvement levels may lead to
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different consumer responses.

Because the product of consideration in this study was fashion-related, we included
a measure of fashion involvement as one of our external variables. Shim et al. (1989)
included a similar measure in their study of consumer attitudes toward domestic and
imported clothing. They found that attitude toward performing a behavior was
strongly influenced by the level of involvement and recommended that involvement be
included as an external variable in future studies utilizing the Ajzen and Fishbein
(1980) model. We used the Fashion Involvement Index (FII) developed by Tigert et al.
(1976) as our measure of involvement. The FII has been successfully used in multiple
studies as a valid and reliable measure of fashion involvement (Fairhurst et al., 1989).
Tigert et al. (1976, p. 51) described their measure “. . . as a summary or cumulative
statement of at least five dimensions of fashion adoption-related behavior . . . ”. A
consumer’s level of fashion involvement as measured by the FII, whether minimal or
intense, can influence her choices in the marketplace for all types of products and
services and is directly influential on her choices of fashion items.
External variables of controversy, price, and prestige may also exert influence on
consumer behavior or intention. Consumers’ perceptions of products as controversial
can affect purchase behavior (Davidson, 1996; Seelig, 1989; Steinberg, 1998). Ehrenberg
et al. (1997) noted that consumers have their individual price perceptions and will buy
products that are priced within their portfolios of prices that they are willing to pay
for products. Since alligator products are usually more expensive than other leather
products, and are considered luxury items, they are viewed as prestigious by many
consumers. Some consumers regard the use of alligator as controversial. Thus,
consumers’ perceptions of controversy, price, and prestige were important additions to
the model. Measures of self-confidence and public self-consciousness, aspects of the
self-concept personality trait, and demographics were other external variables included
in the model.
Among the studies we reviewed that used the TRA, most researchers focused only
on the central variables of attitude toward the behavior and subjective norm, though
some researchers did also include the influence of external variables. However, many of
the studies that examined the influences of external variables used t-tests or analysis of
variance (ANOVA) to determine influence, but did not include the external variables in
the model (Elliott et al., 1995; Shim et al., 1989). From a statistical standpoint,
one-at-a-time tests, like t-test, may not be as valid when other variables, in this case, the
 central variables, have an effect on the dependent variables. Considering the relative Predicting
influence of each factor in an environment with all possible factors in the model may be purchase
more statistically valid. This approach of considering the effect of external variables
intention
together with the central variables in the full model has been used successfully by
other researchers (Cummings and Corney, 1987; Lowe and Frey, 1983; Liedtke, 1983;
Slotton, 1983). Because we were particularly interested in the influence of several of the
external variables in our study on respondents’ purchase intention, we decided to
409
include both the central and external variables in the full model to predict purchase
intention of a controversial luxury apparel product.
The research model for the study is presented in Figure 1. Based on the model, the
following hypotheses were developed:
H1. Attitude toward the behavior will influence consumer purchase intention.
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H2. Perception of subjective norm will influence consumer purchase intention.

H3. External variables, as follows, will influence consumer purchase intention:
(a) fashion involvement;
(b) controversy perception;
(c) price/quality/prestige perceptions;
(d) personality traits; and
(e) demographics.

Figure 1.
Variables hypothesized to
influence purchase
intention
 JFMM Methodology
10,4 Measures
Purchase intention (BI). Behavior intention (BI) referred to the consumer’s intention
to purchase an apparel garment made of American alligator leather and was
measured by asking, “I would like to buy alligator leather apparel?”, using a
seven-point Likert-type scale with 1 ¼ extremely disagree, 2 ¼ quite disagree, 3 ¼
410 slightly disagree, 4 ¼ mixed feelings, 5 ¼ slightly agree, 6 ¼ quite agree, 7 ¼
extremely agree. Use of a seven-point scale was recommended by Ajzen and
Fishbein (1980).
Attitude toward the behavior (Ab). Attitude toward the behavior was determined as
a function of the strength of beliefs about owning and using the product (bi) and
evaluations of these beliefs (ei). Beliefs were determined using an index developed by
Shim et al. (1989) and adapted by Nowlin (1999) and Xu (2000) as shown in Table I.
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Using the seven-point scale, an eight-item index was used to assess respondents’
beliefs about attributes of owning and using alligator leather apparel, and a companion
eight-item index was used to evaluate the importance of these beliefs. The overall

Agree Mixed feelings Disagree

(%) (%) (%)

Attribute of owning and using alligator leather

apparel
Alligator leather apparel has unique qualities, such
as texture, suppleness and luster 75 18 7
Alligator leather apparel is durable 68 29 3
Alligator leather apparel requires special care 38 53 9
Apparel made from alligator leather is higher priced
than products made from other leathers 54 40 6
Alligator leather apparel is available in a wide
assortment of colors 47 45 8
Alligator leather apparel is fashionable 59 23 19
Alligator leather apparel is attractive 69 9 22
Wearing alligator leather apparel is prestigious 43 27 31
It’s important for my apparel to be unique 57 6 37
Evaluation of attribute
Durability is an important quality to be considered
when selecting apparel 96 1 3
Care of the product is a factor that influences my
selection of apparel 91 4 5
Price is very influential on my selection of apparel 92 2 6
Color is very influential on my choice of apparel 95 2 3
I buy apparel that is fashionable 86 5 9
Wearing apparel that is pleasing to others is
Table I. important to me 50 9 41
Respondents’ beliefs Wearing prestigious apparel is important 38 8 54
about and evaluations of
attributes of owning and Note: For tabular presentation purposes only, response categories were collapsed to Agree (slightly
using alligator leather agree þ quite agree þ extremely agree), and Disagree (extremely disagree þ quite disagree þ slightly
apparel disagree)
 attitude score was computed as the sum of the products of the score of bi and the score Predicting
of ei for all the attributes:
X
purchase
Ab ¼ bi ei : intention
Subjective norm (SN). The subjective norm (SN) was defined as the consumer’s
perception of social pressures placed on her by others regarding the purchase of the 411
product. The subjective norm is a function of normative belief (NBj) reflecting the
consumer’s perception of what a specific referent j thinks about whether she should or
should not purchase the product and her motivation to comply with referent j (MCj).
Referents identified to measure the consumer’s normative belief included significant
other/husband, friends, colleagues, social status, and media. Subjects were asked to
indicate their opinions of the likelihood that a specific referent would think they should
or should not purchase an alligator apparel product using the seven-point scale.
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Consumers’ motivation to comply with the referents was also measured using the
seven-point scale. The overall subjective norm score was derived as the summation of
the products of the score of NBj and the score of MCj for all the referents:
X
SN ¼ NBj MCj :

Fashion involvement. The fashion involvement index developed by Tigert et al. (1976)
was used to measure consumers’ fashion involvement. The multi-dimensional index
defines fashion involvement based on the aggregate effect of multiple fashion
behavioral activities and includes fashion innovativeness and time of purchase;
fashion interpersonal communication; fashion interest; fashion knowledgeability; and
fashion awareness and reaction to changing fashion trends. As specified in the Index,
each of the first four dimensions was measured by a single item on a three-point scale.
The last dimension was measured by a single item on a five-point scale.
Controversy perception. The consumer’s controversy perception was measured by
two dimensions – awareness of endangerment status of the American alligator and
social acceptance of wearing American alligator leather products (Xu et al., 2004).
Using the seven-point scale, subjects were asked to indicate their perception of the
current endangerment status of the American alligator and their evaluation of the
importance of the endangerment status to their purchase decision. Similarly, subjects
were asked to indicate their perception of the social acceptance of wearing American
alligator leather apparel and their evaluation of the importance of social acceptance to
their purchase decision.
Price-quality-prestige perception. A four-item index was used to measure the
price-quality schema, and prestige sensitivity was measured by an eight-item index.
Both indices developed by Lichtenstein et al. (1993) used a seven-point, Likert-type
scale.
Personality traits. Two aspects of personality traits were measured. Self-confidence
was measured as the consumers’ perception of themselves as leaders and having
confidence by using the modified six-item index developed by Wells and Tigert (1971).
Each item was measured on a seven-point, Likert-type scale. Public self-consciousness
was measured as the degree to which a person expresses an awareness of self as a
social object with an effect on others by the seven-item index developed by Fenigstein
et al. (1975) using the seven-point, Likert-type scale.
 JFMM Demographics. Race, age, marital status, education, work status, occupation, and
10,4 income were determined. Forced-choice items and open-ended questions were used.

Sample
Industry partners in our research project were specifically interested in information
412 about affluent female consumers residing in primary fashion markets whom they
perceived to be the most likely consumers of upscale alligator leather products. Thus,
the intended samples in all studies in the project were limited to affluent females, 21
years of age and older, residing in the metropolitan statistical areas of Atlanta,
Chicago, Dallas, Los Angeles, Miami, New Orleans, New York, and San Francisco. All
regarded as key US fashion centers.
While there is no widely accepted threshold standard of affluence, and the concept is
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difficult to define, some researchers have operationalized affluence as a multiplier (such

as 7 £ ) of the poverty line (Danziger and Gottschalk, 1995) or as a fixed percentage of
the highest earners in a society (such as top 5 percent, 10 percent, or 20 percent) (Levy,
1998; Ryscavage, 1999; US Bureau of the Census, 2000). We defined affluent consumers
as individuals having a reported household income of at least $75,000. This amount
corresponded to approximately 20 percent of the top earners in the US population and a
7 £ multipler of the poverty line. The sample was representative of the racial mix of
the female population of each locale within the desired age and income ranges.
Names and addresses of 1,200 female consumers were purchased from Survey
Sampling, International (SSI), Fairfield, Connecticut. According to information
provided by SSI (www.surveysampling.com/), the sample was systematically
nth-selected from a relevant sampling frame constructed of all qualifying records for
the eight locales. This multidimensional procedure uses multiple regression analysis of
both individual household data and census data at the block group level to derive the
income predictor. Data are based on over 200 variables related to income from the US
Census, and over 100 million US households are represented. Targeted affluence
samples can be combined with other demographic variables such as age, gender,
geographic location, and ethnic group to refine selection targeting. Using this
procedure, response rates of individuals within the study sample’s desired income
levels was projected by SSI to be 35 percent.

Data collection and analysis

A mail survey was used to collect quantitative data to test the proposed model. The
survey was conducted using Salant and Dillman’s (1994) total survey design strategy.
A premium (alligator leather key chain) was offered to the first 100 respondents as an
inducement for subjects to complete and return the survey instrument in a timely
manner.
Data were analyzed using SAS programs. Descriptive analyses were conducted to
determine respondents’ profile, beliefs, evaluations, perceptions, and purchase
intention of the product. Reliability analyses were employed, where appropriate, to
test the results of the survey measures that were determined by groups of variables. A
general linear model (GLM) analysis was conducted to test the hypotheses.
 Results Predicting
Profile of respondents purchase
From the valid sample of 1,200, 430 questionnaires were completed and returned for a
response rate of 36 percent. Approximately 79 percent of respondents were Caucasian, intention
68 percent were between 41-60 years of age, and 86 percent were married. Respondents
were well educated with 87 percent having completed at least some college; and of that
group, 65 percent had completed one or more degrees. A total of 60 percent of 413
respondents were currently employed; and among those employed, 54 percent were
professionals, 23 percent had management positions, and the remainder were
self-employed, employed in other unidentified occupations, or in technical positions.
Respondents were affluent with 20 percent having annual household incomes between
$75,000-$100,000 and 50 percent with incomes over $100,000. Achieving a 70 percent
incidence of respondents at the targeted income level was double the natural incidence
within the sample predicted by SSI, as previously discussed.
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Consumers’ purchase intention

Subjects were asked directly if they would buy American alligator leather apparel.
Frequency analysis of responses (n ¼ 416) revealed that 29 percent of respondents
expressed at least some level of agreement that they would like to buy alligator
apparel, 29 percent had mixed feelings about purchasing, and 42 percent indicated
some level of disagreement with buying.

Respondents’ attitude toward the behavior

Attitude toward the behavior was determined as a function of the strength of beliefs about
owning and using the product (bi) and evaluations of these beliefs (ei). An overall attitude
score (Ab) was derived as the sum of the products of the score of belief about a specific
attribute (bi) and the score of evaluation of that attribute (ei) for all attributes. Based on the
mean of the computed attitude score, respondents, in general, had a positive attitude
toward the behavior (purchasing American alligator leather apparel). Respondents’ beliefs
about owning and using American alligator leather apparel and their evaluation of the
importance of these attributes in the selection of apparel is shown in Table I.

Respondents’ subjective norm

The overall subjective norm score was derived as the summation of the products of the
scores reflecting the consumer’s perceptions of what specific referents thought about
whether she should or should not perform the behavior, and the scores of her
motivation to comply with the referents. In general, respondents did not feel strong
pressure to buy American alligator leather apparel.

External variables
Fashion involvement. Reliability analysis produced a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.74, indicating
high intra-correlations among the five items used to measure fashion involvement. The
fashion involvement index was computed as the mean of the five items that make up the
Index. Respondents, in general, were not highly fashion involved.
Controversy perception. Most respondents indicated mixed feelings about the
American alligator having been removed from the endangered species list. The
majority indicated they would not purchase products made of skins from endangered
 JFMM animals. Respondents were almost equally divided in their views on the social
10,4 acceptance of wearing alligator leather apparel. However, a majority agreed on the
importance of social acceptance in their purchase selection of apparel.
Price-quality-prestige perception. The Cronbach’s alpha of 0.80 indicated a high
internal consistency for the price-quality measure. The items used to measure prestige
sensitivity also showed very high intra-correlations (Cronbach’s alpha ¼ 0:90). A
414 price-quality schema score was computed as the mean of the four items in the survey
measure, and prestige sensitivity was computed as the mean of the eight items.
Respondents, in general, had a positive view of the price-quality relationship, but they
did not view high price as a sign of the purchaser’s status.
Personality traits. Analysis revealed the correlation of the six items used to measure
self-confidence was acceptable based on the Cronbach’s alpha of 0.59, though the
reliability of this index was the weakest of any of the validated indexes used. The
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seven items used to measure public self-consciousness showed higher

intra-correlations as indicated by the Cronbach’s alpha of 0.77. Indices were
computed for both measures of personality traits. In general, the respondents did not
have high self-confidence and did not express high self-consciousness.

Hypotheses test results

A SAS GLM analysis was employed to test the hypotheses with purchase intention as the
dependent variable and the proposed determinants – attitude toward the behavior,
subjective norm, and external variables of fashion involvement, controversy perception,
price-quality-prestige perception, personality traits, and demographics as independent
variables of the regression model. The model was significant in explaining the variance of
the dependent variable (p , 0:01, R 2 ¼ 0:49) as shown in Table II.

Source df Sum of squares Type III SS Mean square F

Model 19 430.29 22.65 13.26 * *

Error 265 452.57 1.71
Corrected total 284 882.86
R 2 ¼ 0.488
Attitude toward behavior 1 60.63 60.63 35.50 * *
Subjective norm 1 29.83 29.83 17.47 * *
Social acceptance 1 11.26 11.26 6.59 * *
Endangerment status 1 0.05 0.05 0.31
Fashion involvement 1 7.68 7.68 4.50 *
Self-confidence 1 2.30 2.30 1.35
Self-consciousness 1 4.30 4.30 2.52
Price/quality prestige 1 1.25 1.25 0.73
Race 1 0.61 0.61 0.36
Age 1 0.68 0.68 0.40
Marital status 1 0.64 0.64 0.37
Table II. Education 3 1.01 0.34 0.20
GLM analysis predicting Work status 2 7.02 3.51 2.05
purchase of a Income 1 1.92 1.92 1.13
controversial product Occupation 1 0.20 0.20 0.12
(dependent variable:
purchase intention) Notes: * p , 0:05; * * p , 0:01
 H1. Respondents’ attitude toward the behavior had a highly significant influence on Predicting
their purchase intention. The more favorable the respondent’s attitude was toward the purchase
behavior, the higher the purchase intention. Therefore, H1 was accepted.
H2. The subjective norm was highly significantly related to purchase intention. The intention
stronger the respondent’s perception of social pressure on her to buy American
alligator leather apparel, the more likely she was to purchase the product. Therefore,
H2 was accepted. 415
H3a. Two of the external variables were significantly related to purchase intention.
Fashion involvement was significant in predicting the consumers’ purchase intention.
The greater the respondent’s fashion involvement, the more likely she was to purchase
American alligator leather apparel. Therefore, H3a was accepted.
H3b. The social acceptance component of the controversy perception had a highly
significant influence on consumers’ purchase intention. Consumers who agreed that
wearing American alligator leather apparel was socially acceptable and that social
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acceptance was important in their selection of products had greater purchase

intentions. The other component of controversy perception, knowledge of
endangerment status and importance of this knowledge in purchase decisions, was
not significant. Therefore, H3b was partially accepted.
H3c-H3e. With other variables in the model, the addition of price/quality/prestige
perception, personality traits, or demographics produced no statistically significant
relationships to consumers’ purchase intention. Therefore, H3c, H3d, and H3e were
rejected.

Discussion
As predicted by the model, attitude toward the behavior had the most influence on
purchase intention. The more favorable a respondent’s attitude, the more likely she
was to purchase. Thus, educating consumers about product attributes may increase
their favorable impressions toward purchasing a luxury apparel product, particularly
one considered controversial. Results indicated that consumers were confident of and
accurate in some of their beliefs about the attributes of American alligator leather
apparel, but were unsure and less knowledgeable about others. Apparel garment
producers who wish to use American alligator leather in their merchandise lines will
need to educate consumers about the desirable characteristics of American alligator
leather as well as provide care and maintenance recommendations. In addition, they
may wish to structure their advertising campaigns to emphasize the prestige
associated with owing and wearing genuine American alligator leather garments.
The subjective norm was the second most significant factor influencing respondents’
purchase intention of the product. This finding was also consistent with the TRA. The
stronger the perceived subjective norm was in favor of purchasing the product, the more
likely the purchase intention. Even though respondents, in general, were fairly
independent and were less motivated to comply with others, a majority wanted their
behavior to fit their social status. However, few of the respondents agreed that their social
status made them think of purchasing alligator leather apparel. This hesitation may have
been related to respondents’ uncertainty about the social acceptance of wearing alligator
leather apparel. The other referents, including husband/significant other, close friends,
professional colleagues, or media, had little influence on the respondents’ behavior
decision. This result was a bit unexpected since previous studies had suggested the
 JFMM influence from referents on an individual’s behavior was important (Rabolt and Drake,
10,4 1984-1985; Robertson et al., 1984). The affluence of the consumer sample used in this
study may explain the findings. As Kahle (1995) noted, consumers who are low in
susceptibility to normative influence tend to be relatively affluent people. Similar findings
were also reported by Xu et al. (2004).
With other variables in the model, fashion involvement was the third most
416 influential determinant of purchase intention. We hypothesized that consumers with
high fashion involvement would be more likely to purchase alligator leather products
than those with lower involvement, and this proved to be the case. Apparel products
made with alligator leather were growing in importance as a major fashion trend just
prior to and during the time our data were collected (Swerczek, 2000). Research has
shown that consumers with higher fashion involvement are more likely to be
influenced by trends (Tigert et al., 1976).
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One of the components of the controversy measure was the next most important
variable in predicting purchase intention. Consumers who indicated that wearing
American alligator leather apparel was socially acceptable and that social acceptance was
important in their apparel selection were more likely to purchase alligator leather apparel.
Drake et al. (1992) noted that when the product is conspicuous, the social acceptability of
the item is of greater importance to an individual’s purchase behavior. Xu et al. (2004) also
found social acceptance was an important predictor of purchase intention for a
controversial luxury product. Interestingly, endangerment status of the American
alligator was not significantly related to purchase intention. We were surprised by this
finding since the majority of respondents agreed that the endangerment status of an
animal was very important to their selection process and that they would not buy
products made of skins from endangered animals. A strong majority of respondents had
mixed feelings, did not know the correct status, or held incorrect views of the American
alligator which may have contributed to the lack of differences. Even though
endangerment status did not have a statistically significant influence on purchase
intention, inaccurate knowledge could influence perceptions of social acceptability.
Educationally-focused promotional strategies could be used to encourage potential
consumers of controversial luxury apparel products to rethink the social acceptability of
the products in order to increase potential sales. Accurately informing and educating
consumers about the materials from which their luxury products are made are vital steps
in increasing consumers’ purchase intention.
None of the other external variables in the model were shown to be statistically
related to respondents’ purchase intention. The homogenous nature of the sample may
have contributed to a lack of significance of these variables.

Limitations
The sample was limited to affluent females who are a likely target market of luxury
apparel made with American alligator leather, but are not representative of the general
population. Because attributes of purchasing and owning the product contributed
differently in calculating the attitude toward the behavior, combining all attributes into
a single index may be less effective in determining influential attributes. Limitations of
this study may affect the ability to generalize findings.
 Conclusions and implications Predicting
This study gave us the opportunity to not only test the use of the TRA in predicting purchase
purchase intention for a controversial luxury fashion product, apparel garments, made
with American alligator leather but also to provide our industry partners with information intention
they desired about their target market. We believe our research makes a contribution to the
literature by verifying that the Fishbein and Ajzen (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975; Ajzen and
Fishbein, 1980) model can successfully serve as a tool in predicting consumers’ purchase 417
intention for luxury fashion items made from materials considered controversial. Attitude
toward the behavior and subjective norm were the two most significant predictors of
purchase intention. As previously discussed, these two variables are considered central to
the model and have been repeatedly shown to be the best predictors of intent to purchase.
Our findings correspond to the suggested predictive abilities of the central variables of the
model, thus strengthening the reliability of our use of the theory with a test product
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category not previously studied. In addition, our inclusion of both the central and external
variables in the full model, though less commonly used, proved worthwhile. By using this
approach, we were able to show that fashion involvement and social acceptance (part of
controversy perception) were also significant predictors of purchase intention. While
results are specific to our test product, we believe the model could successfully be used to
predict purchase intention of other types of luxury fashion products or items of adornment
made with materials considered controversial.
In conclusion, fashion producers and retailers of all types of luxury products may
find our study useful as they strive to better understand their desired target markets.
As D’Arpizo et al. (2005) suggested to luxury producers, “First, strive to know your
consumer, not just be known by them.”

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About the authors

Teresa A. Summers, PhD serves as Assistant Vice-President in Academic Affairs for the
Louisiana State University System and is the LSU Spanier Alumni Professor in the Textiles,
Apparel Design, and Merchandising Division of the School of Human Ecology. Teresa
A. Summers is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: [email protected]
Bonnie D. Belleau, PhD is Professor and Division Head in the Textiles, Apparel Design, and
Merchandising Division of the School of Human Ecology at Louisiana State University.
Yingjiao Xu, PhD is an Assistant Professor in Retail Merchandising in the School of Human
and Consumer Sciences at Ohio University.

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