ECOSYSTEM OF WET LAND:

Fresh water swamp forest in Bangladesh

Definitions:

A patch of land that develops pools of water after a rain storm would not necessarily be
considered a "wetland", even though the land is wet. Wetlands have unique characteristics: they
are generally distinguished from other water bodies or landforms based on their water level and
on the types of plants that live within them. Specifically, wetlands are characterized as having a
water table that stands at or near the land surface for a long enough period each year to support
aquatic plants.

Technical definition:

Sunrise at Viru Bog, Estonia

A wetland is "an ecosystem that arises when inundation by water produces soils dominated by
anaerobic and aerobic processes, which, in turn, forces the biota, particularly rooted plants, to
adapt to flooding.

Kinds of wetlands:

There are four kinds of wetland

1.Marsh

2.Swamp

3.Bogs

4.Fens

Regional definition:

In the United States, wetlands are defined as "those areas that are inundated or saturated by
surface or groundwater at a frequency and duration sufficient to support, and that under normal
circumstances do support, a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil
conditions.

In the United States Code, the term wetland is defined "as land that (A) has a predominance of
hydric soils, (B) is inundated or saturated by surface or groundwater at a frequency and duration
sufficient to support a prevalence of hydrophytic vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated
soil conditions and (C) under normal circumstances supports a prevalence of such vegetation."
Related to this legal definitions, the term "normal circumstances" are conditions expected to
occur during the wet portion of the growing season under normal climatic conditions (not
unusually dry or unusually wet), and in the absence of significant disturbance. Wetlands can be
dry during the dry season and abnormally dry periods during the wet season, but under normal
environmental conditions the soils in a wetland will be saturated to the surface or inundated such
that the soils become anaerobic, and those conditions will persist through the wet portion of the
growing season.
Ecology:

The most important factor producing wetlands is flooding. The duration of flooding or prolonged
soil saturation by groundwater determines whether the resulting wetland has aquatic, marsh or
swamp vegetation. Other important factors include fertility, natural disturbance, competition,
herbivory, burial and salinity. When peat accumulates, bogs and fens arise.

Characteristics:

Wetlands vary widely due to local and regional differences in topography, hydrology, vegetation,
and other factors, including human involvement.

Hydrology:

Wetland hydrology is associated with the spatial and temporal dispersion, flow, and physio-
chemical attributes of surface and ground water in its reservoirs. Based on hydrology, wetlands
can be categorized as riverine (associated with streams), lacustrine (associated with lakes and
reservoirs), and palustrine (isolated). Sources of hydrological flows into wetlands are
predominantly precipitation, surface water, and groundwater. Water flows out of wetlands by
evapotranspiration, surface runoff, and subsurface water outflow. Hydrodynamics affects hydro-
periods by controlling the water balance and water storage within a wetland.

Landscape characteristics control wetland hydrology and hydrochemistry. The O2 and CO2
concentrations of water depend on temperature and atmospheric pressure. Hydrochemistry
within wetlands is determined by the pH, salinity, nutrients, conductivity, soil composition,
hardness, and the sources of water. Water chemistry of wetlands varies across landscapes and
climatic regions. Wetlands are generally minerotrophic with the exception of bogs.

Bogs receive most of their water from the atmosphere; therefore, their water usually has low
mineral ionic composition. In contrast, groundwater has a higher concentration of dissolved
nutrients and minerals.

Role of salinity:
Salinity has a strong influence on wetland water chemistry, particularly in wetlands along the
coast. and in regions with large precipitation deficits. In non-riverine wetlands, natural salinity is
regulated by interactions between ground and surface water, which may be influenced by human
activity.

Soil:

Carbon is the major nutrient cycled within wetlands. Most nutrients, such as sulfur, phosphorus,
carbon, and nitrogen are found within the soil of wetlands. Anaerobic and aerobic respiration in
the soil influences the nutrient cycling of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, and the
solubility of phosphorus thus contributing to the chemical variations in its water. Wetlands with
low pH and saline conductivity may reflect the presence of acid sulfates and wetlands with
average salinity levels can be heavily influenced by calcium or magnesium. Biogeochemical
processes in wetlands are determined by soils with low redox potential. Wetland soils are
identified by redoxymorphic mottles or low chroma, as determined by the Munsell Color
System.

Biota:

The biota of a wetland system includes its flora and fauna as described below. The most

important factor affecting the biota is the duration of flooding. Other important factors include
fertility and salinity. In fens, species are highly dependent on water chemistry. Biota may vary
within a wetland due to season or recent flood regimes.

Flora:
 Bud of Nelumbo nucifera, an aquatic plant.

Submerged wetland vegetation can grow in saline and fresh-water conditions. Some species have
underwater flowers, while others have long stems to allow the flowers to reach the surface.
Submerged species provide a food source for native fauna, habitat for invertebrates, and also
possess filtration capabilities. Examples include seagrasses and eelgrass.

Trees and shrubs, where they comprise much of the cover in saturated soils, qualify those areas
in most cases as swamps. The upland boundary of swamps is determined partly by water levels.
This can be affected by dams Some swamps can be dominated by a single species, such as silver
maple swamps around the Great Lakes.

Fauna:
 Many species of frogs live in wetlands, while others visit them each year to lay eggs.

Snapping turtles are one of the many kinds of turtles found in wetlands.

Fish are more dependent on wetland ecosystems than any other type of habitat. Seventy-five
percent of the United States' commercial fish and shellfish stocks depend solely on estuaries to
survive.

Amphibians such as frogs need both terrestrial and aquatic habitats in which to reproduce and
feed. While tadpoles control algal populations, adult frogs forage on insects.

Reptiles such as alligators and crocodiles are common in wetlands of some regions. Alligators
occur in fresh water along with the fresh water species of the crocodile.The Florida Everglades is
the only place in the world where both crocodiles and alligators coexist.

Birds, particularly waterfowl and wading birds, use wetlands extensively

Mammals include numerous small and medium-sized species such as voles, bats, and platypus in
addition to large herbivorous and apex species such as the beaver, coypu, swamp rabbit, Florida
panther, and moose. Wetlands attract many mammals due to abundant seeds, berries, and other
vegetation components, as well as abundant populations of prey such as invertebrates, small
reptiles and amphibians.

Insects and invertebrates total more than half of the 100,000 known animal species in wetlands. I

Algae:

Algae are diverse water plants that can vary in size, color, and shape. Algae occur naturally in
habitats such as inland lakes, inter-tidal zones, and damp soil and provide a dedicated food
source for many animals, including some invertebrates, fish, turtles, and frogs. There are three
main groups of algae:

 Plankton are algae which are microscopic, free-floating algae.

 Filamentous algae are long strands of algae cells that form floating mats.
 Chara and Nitella algae are upright algae that look like a submerged plant with roots.

Climates:

Temperature:

Wetlands contrast the hot, arid landscape around Middle Spring, Fish Springs National
Wildlife Refuge, Utah

Wetlands are located in every climatic zone temperature vary greatly depending on the location
of the wetland. Many of the world's wetlands are in temperate zones, midway between the North
or South Pole and the equator. In these zones, summers are warm and winters are cold, but
temperatures are not extreme. In a subtropical zone wetland, such as one along the Gulf of
Mexico, a typical temperature might be 11 °C (52 °F). Wetlands in the tropics are much warmer
for a larger portion of the year. Wetlands on the Arabian Peninsula can reach temperatures
exceeding 50 °C (122 °F) and would therefore be subject to rapid evaporation. In northeastern
Siberia, which has a polar climate, wetland temperatures can be as low as −50 °C (−58 °F).
Peatlands insulate the permafrost in subarctic regions, thus delaying or preventing thawing of
permafrost during summer, as well as inducing the formation of permafrost.

Precipitation:

The amount of precipitation a wetland receives varies widely according to its area. Wetlands in
Wales, Scotland, and western Ireland typically receive about 1,500 mm (59 in) per year. In some
places in Southeast Asia, where heavy rains occur, they can receive up to 10,000 mm (390 in). In
some drier regions, wetlands exist where as little as 180 mm (7.1 in) precipitation occurs each
year.

Temporal variation:

 Perennial systems
 Seasonal systems
 Episodic (periodic or intermittent) system of the down
 Surface flow may occur in some segments, with subsurface flow in other segments
 Ephemeral (short-lived) systems
 Migratory species

Uses of wetlands:

Depending partly on a wetland's geographic and topographic location,[45] the functions it

performs can support multiple ecosystem services, values, or benefits. United Nations
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment and Ramsar Convention described wetlands as a whole to be
of biosphere significance and societal importance in the following areas, for example:[citation needed]

 Water storage (flood control)

  Groundwater replenishment
 Shoreline stabilisation and storm protection
 Water purification
 Reservoirs of biodiversity
 Pollination
 Wetland products
 Cultural values
 Recreation and tourism
 Climate change mitigation and adaptation

The economic worth of the ecosystem services provided to society by intact, naturally
functioning wetlands is frequently much greater than the perceived benefits of converting them
to 'more valuable' intensive land use – particularly as the profits from unsustainable use often go
to relatively few individuals or corporations, rather than being shared by society as a whole.

Water storage (flood control):

Storage reservoirs and flood protection: The wetland system of floodplains is formed from major
rivers downstream from their headwaters. "The floodplains of major rivers act as natural storage
reservoirs, enabling excess water to spread out over a wide area, which reduces its depth and
speed. Wetlands close to the headwaters of streams and rivers can slow down rainwater runoff
and spring snowmelt so that it doesn't run straight off the land into water courses. This can help
prevent sudden, damaging floods downstream." Notable river systems that produce large spans
of floodplain include the Nile River, the Niger river inland delta, Mississippi River (USA),
Amazon River (South America), Yangtze River (China), Danube River (Central Europe) and
Murray-Darling River (Australia).

Human impact: Converting wetlands to upland through drainage and development forces
adjoining or downstream water channels into narrower corridors. This accelerates watershed
hydrologic response to storm events and this increases the need in some cases for alternative
means of flood control. That is because the newly formed channels must manage the same
amount of precipitation, causing flood peaks to be [higher or deeper] and floodwaters to travel
faster.

Water management engineering developments in the past century have degraded these wetlands
through the construction of artificial embankments. These constructions may be classified as
dykes, bunds, levees, weirs, barrages and dams but serve the single purpose of concentrating
water into a select source or area. Wetland water sources that were once spread slowly over a
large, shallow area are pooled into deep, concentrated locations. Loss of wetland floodplains
results in more severe and damaging flooding.

Groundwater replenishment:

The surface water which is the water visibly seen in wetland systems only represents a portion of
the overall water cycle which also includes atmospheric water and groundwater. Wetland
systems are directly linked to groundwater and a crucial regulator of both the quantity and
quality of water found below the ground. Wetland systems that are made of permeable sediments
like limestone or occur in areas with highly variable and fluctuating water tables especially have
a role in groundwater replenishment or water recharge. Sediments that are porous allow water to
filter down through the soil and overlying rock into aquifers which are the source of 95% of the
world's drinking water. Wetlands can also act as recharge areas when the surrounding water table
is low and as a discharge zone when it is too high.

Human impact: Groundwater is an important source of water for drinking and irrigation of
crops. Over 1 billion people in Asia and 65% of the public water sources in Europe source 100%
of their water from groundwater. Irrigation is a massive use of groundwater with 80% of the
world's groundwater used for agricultural product.

Shoreline stabilization and storm protection:

Wetland type: Mangroves, coral reefs

Tidal and inter-tidal wetland systems protect and stabilize coastal zones. Coral reefs provide a
protective barrier to coastal shoreline. Mangroves stabilize the coastal zone from the interior and
will migrate with the shoreline to remain adjacent to the boundary of the water. The main
conservation benefit these systems have against storms and storm surges is the ability to reduce
the speed and height of waves and floodwaters.

Human impact: The sheer number of people who live and work near the coast is expected to
grow immensely over the next fifty years. From an estimated 200 million people that currently
live in low-lying coastal regions, the development of urban coastal centers is projected to
increase the population by fivefold within 50 years

Water purification:

Wetland types: floodplain, closed-depression wetlands, mudflat, salt marsh, mangroves

Nutrient retention: Wetlands cycle both sediments and nutrients balancing terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems. A natural function of wetland vegetation is the up-take, storage, and (for nitrate) the
removal of nutrients found in runoff from the surrounding soil and water.[50] In many wetlands,
nutrients are retained until plants die or are harvested by animals or humans and taken to another
location, or until microbial processes convert soluble nutrients to a gas as is the case with nitrate.

Sediment and heavy metal traps: Precipitation and surface runoff induces soil erosion,
transporting sediment in suspension into and through waterways. These sediments move towards
larger and more sizable waterways through a natural process that moves water towards oceans.
All types of sediments which may be composed of clay, sand, silt, and rock can be carried into
wetland systems through this process. Wetland vegetation acts as a physical barrier to slow water
flow and trap sediment for short or long periods of time. Suspended sediment often contains
heavy metals that are retained when wetlands trap the sediment. In some cases, certain metals are
taken up through wetland plant stems, roots, and leaves. Many floating plant species, for
example, can absorb and filter heavy metals. Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), duckweed
(Lemna) and water fern (Azolla) store iron and copper commonly found in wastewater. Many
fast-growing plants rooted in the soils of wetlands such as cattail (Typha) and reed (Phragmites)
also aid in the role of heavy metal up-take. Animals such as the oyster can filter more than 200
litres (53 US gal) of water per day while grazing for food, removing nutrients, suspended
sediments, and chemical contaminants in the process. On the other hand, some types of wetlands
facilitate the mobilization and bioavailability of mercury

Capacity: The ability of wetland systems to store or remove nutrients and trap sediment and
associated metals is highly efficient and effective but each system has a threshold. An
overabundance of nutrient input from fertilizer run-off, sewage effluent, or non-point pollution
will cause eutrophication. Upstream erosion from deforestation can overwhelm wetlands making
them shrink in size and cause dramatic biodiversity loss through excessive sedimentation load.
Retaining high levels of metals in sediments is problematic if the sediments become resuspended
or oxygen and pH levels change at a future time. The capacity of wetland vegetation to store
heavy metals depends on the particular metal, oxygen and pH status of wetland sediments and
overlying water, water flow rate (detention time), wetland size, season, climate, type of plant,
and other factors.

Examples: An example of how a natural wetland is used to provide some degree of sewage
treatment is the East Kolkata Wetlands in Kolkata, India. The wetlands cover 125 square
kilometres (48 sq mi), and are used to treat Kolkata's sewage. The nutrients contained in the
wastewater sustain fish farms and agriculture.

Constructed wetlands:

Constructed wetland in an ecological settlement in Flintenbreite near Lübeck, Germany

The function of most natural wetland systems is not to manage wastewater. However, their high
potential for the filtering and the treatment of pollutants has been recognized by environmental
engineers that specialize in the area of wastewater treatment. These constructed wetland systems
are highly controlled environments that intend to mimic the occurrences of soil, flora, and
microorganisms in natural wetlands to aid in treating wastewater effluent. Constructed wetlands
can be used to treat raw sewage, storm water, agricultural and industrial effluent. They are
constructed with flow regimes, micro-biotic composition, and suitable plants in order to produce
the most efficient treatment process. Other advantages of constructed wetlands are the control of
retention times and hydraulic channel . The most important factors of constructed wetlands are
the water flow processes combined with plant growth.

Reservoirs of biodiversity:

Wetland systems' rich biodiversity is becoming a focal point at International Treaty Conventions
and within the World Wildlife Fund organization due to the high number of species present in
wetlands, the small global geographic area of wetlands, the number of species which are endemic
to wetlands, and the high productivity of wetland systems. Hundred of thousands of animal
species, 20,000 of them vertebrates, are living in wetland systems. The discovery rate of fresh
water fish is at 200 new species per year. The impact of maintaining biodiversity is seen at the
local level through job creation, sustainability, and community productivity. A good example is
the Lower Mekong basin which runs through Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam. Supporting over
55 million people, the sustainability of the region is enhanced through wildlife tours. The U.S.
state of Florida has estimated that US$1.6 billion was generated in state revenue from
recreational activities associated with wildlife.

Productive intertidal zones: Intertidal mudflats have a level of productivity similar to that of
some wetlands even while possessing a low number of species. The abundance of invertebrates
found within the mud are a food source for migratory waterfowl.

Critical life-stage habitat: Mudflats, saltmarshes, mangroves, and seagrass beds have high
levels of both species richness and productivity, and are home to important nursery areas for
many commercial fish stocks.
Genetic diversity: Populations of many species are confined geographically to only one or a
few wetland systems, often due to the long period of time that the wetlands have been physically
isolated from other aquatic sources. For example, the number of endemic species in Lake Baikal
in Russia classifies it as a hotspot for biodiversity and one of the most biodiverse wetlands in the
entire world.

Wetland products and productivity:

Wetland productivity is linked to the climate, wetland type, and nutrient availability. Low water
and occasional drying of the wetland bottom during droughts (dry marsh phase) stimulate plant
recruitment from a diverse seed bank and increase productivity by mobilizing nutrients. In
contrast, high water during deluges (lake marsh phase) causes turnover in plant populations and
creates greater interspersion of element cover and open water, but lowers overall productivity.

Wetlands naturally produce an array of vegetation and other ecological products that can be
harvested for personal and commercial use. The most significant of these is fish which have all
or part of their life-cycle occur within a wetland system. Fresh and saltwater fish are the main
source of protein for one billion people and comprise 15% of an additional two billion people's
diets. In addition, fish generate a fishing industry that provides 80% of the income and
employment to residents in developing countries. Another food staple found in wetland systems
is rice, a popular grain that is consumed at the rate of one fifth of the total global calorie count

Food converted to sweeteners and carbohydrates include the sago palm of Asia and Africa
(cooking oil), the nipa palm of Asia (sugar, vinegar, alcohol, and fodder) and honey collection
from mangroves. Other mangrove-derived products:

 Fuelwood
 Salt (produced by evaporating seawater)
 Animal fodder
 Traditional medicines (e.g. from mangrove bark)
 Fibers for textiles
  Dyes and tannins

Additional functions and uses of wetlands:

Some types of wetlands can serve as fire breaks that help slow the spread of minor wildfires.
Larger wetland systems can influence local precipitation patterns. Some boreal wetland systems
in catchment headwaters may help extend the period of flow and maintain water temperature in
connected downstream waters. Pollination services are supported by many wetlands which may
provide the only suitable habitat for pollinating insects, birds, and mammals in highly developed
areas. It is likely that wetlands have other functions whose benefits to society and other
ecosystems have yet to be discovered.

Wetlands and climate change:

Wetlands perform two important functions in relation to climate change. They have mitigation
effects through their ability to sink carbon, converting a greenhouse gas (carbon dioxide) to solid
plant material through the process of photosynthesis, and also through their ability to store and
regulate water. Coastal wetlands, such as tropical mangroves and some temperate salt marshes,
are known to be sinks for carbon that otherwise contributes to climate change in its gaseous
forms (carbon dioxide and methane). The ability of many tidal wetlands to store carbon and
minimize methane flux from tidal sediments has led to sponsorship of blue carbon initiatives that
are intended to enhance those processes.

However, depending on their characteristics, some wetlands are a significant source of methane
emissions and some are also emitters of nitrous oxide which is a greenhouse gas with a global
warming potential 300 times that of carbon dioxide and is the dominant ozone-depleting
substance emitted in the 21st century.Data on nitrous oxide fluxes from wetlands in the southern
hemisphere are lacking, as are ecosystem-based studies including the role of dominant organisms
that alter sediment biogeochemistry. Aquatic invertebrates produce ecologically-relevant nitrous
oxide emissions due to ingestion of denitrifying bacteria that live within the subtidal sediment
and water column[86] and thus may also be influencing nitrous oxide production within some
wetlands.
Wetland Disturbance:

Wetlands, the functions and services they provide as well as their flora and fauna, can be affected
by several types of disturbances. The disturbances (sometimes termed stressors or alterations)
can be human-associated or natural, direct or indirect, reversible or not, and isolated or
cumulative. When exceeding levels or patterns normally found within wetlands of a particular
class in a particular region, the predominant ones include the following[88][89]

 Enrichment/Eutrophication
 Organic Loading and Reduced Dissolved Oxygen
 Contaminant Toxicity
 Acidification
 Salinization
 Sedimentation
 Altered Solar Input (Turbidity/Shade)
 Vegetation Removal
 Thermal Alteration
 Dehydration/Aridification
 Inundation/Flooding
 Habitat Fragmentation

They can be manifested partly as:

o Water Scarcity
o Impacts to Endangered species
o Disruption of wildlife breeding grounds
o Imbalance in sediment load and nutrient filtration

Water Chemistry:

Anthropogenic nitrogen inputs to aquatic systems have drastically effected the dissolved nitrogen
content of wetlands, introducing higher nutrient availability which leads to eutrophication. Due
to the low dissolved oxygen (DO) content, and relatively low nutrient balance of wetland
environments, they are very susceptible to alterations in water chemistry. Key factors that are
assessed to determine water quality include:

 Major Anion Analysis: (HCO3-,Cl-,NO3-,SO42-)

 Major Cation Analysis (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+)
 pH
 Conductivity- Conductivity increases with more dissolved ions in the water
 Turbidity
 Dissolved Oxygen
 Temperature
 Total Dissolved Solids

These chemical factors can be used to quantify wetland disturbances, and often provide
information as to whether a wetland is surface water fed or groundwater fed due to the different
ion characteristics of the two water sources.[93] Wetlands are adept at impacting the water
chemistry of streams or water bodies that interact with them, and can withdraw ions that result
from water pollution such as acid mine drainage or urban runoff.,[94][95]

Conservation:

Wetlands have historically been the victim of large draining efforts for real estate development,
or flooding for use as recreational lakes or hydropower generation. Some of the world's most
important agricultural areas are wetlands that have been converted to farmland. Since the 1970s,
more focus has been put on preserving wetlands for their natural function yet by 1993 half the
world's wetlands had been drained.
In order to maintain wetlands and sustain their functions, alterations and disturbances that are
outside the normal range of variation should be minimized.

Balancing wetland conservation with the needs of people:

Wetlands are vital ecosystems that provide livelihoods for the millions of people who live in and
around them. The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) called for different sectors to join
forces to secure wetland environments in the context of sustainable development and improving
human wellbeing. A three-year project carried out by Wetlands International in partnership with
the International Water Management Institute found that it is possible to conserve wetlands while
improving the livelihoods of people living among them. Case studies conducted in Malawi and
Zambia looked at how dambos – wet, grassy valleys or depressions where water seeps to the
surface – can be farmed sustainably to improve livelihoods. Mismanaged or overused dambos
often become degraded, however, using a knowledge exchange between local farmers and
environmental managers, a protocol was developed using soil and water management practices.
Project outcomes included a high yield of crops, development of sustainable farming techniques,
and adequate water management generating enough water for use as irrigation. Before the
project, there were cases where people had died from starvation due to food shortages. By the
end of it, many more people had access to enough water to grow vegetables. A key achievement
was that villagers had secure food supplies during long, dry months. They also benefited in other
ways: nutrition was improved by growing a wider range of crops, and villagers could also invest
in health and education by selling produce and saving money

Valuation:

The value of a wetland to local communities, as well as the value of wetland systems generally to
the earth and to humankind, is one of the most important valuations that can be conducted for
sustainable development. This typically involves first mapping a region's wetlands, then
assessing the functions and ecosystem services the wetlands provide individually and
cumulatively, and evaluating that information to prioritize or rank individual wetlands or wetland
types for conservation, management, restoration, or development. Over a longer period, it
requires keeping inventories of known wetlands and monitoring a representative sample of the
wetlands to determine changes due to both natural and human factors. Such a valuation process
is used to educate decision-makers such as governments of the importance of particular wetlands
within their jurisdiction.

Monitoring:

A wetland needs to be monitored over time to assess whether it is functioning at an ecologically

sustainable level or whether it is becoming degraded. Degraded wetlands will suffer a loss in
water quality, loss of sensitive species, and aberrant functioning of soil geochemical processes.

Further improvements :

Methods to develop a classification system for specific biota of interest could assist with
technological advances that will allow for identification at a very high accuracy rate. The issue of
the cost and expertise involved in remote sensing technology is still a factor hindering further
advancements in image acquisition and data processing. Future improvements in current wetland
vegetation mapping could include the use of more recent and better geospatial data when it is
available.

Restoration:

Restoration and restoration ecologists intend to return wetlands to their natural trajectory by
aiding directly with the natural processes of the ecosystem These direct methods vary with
respect to the degree of physical manipulation of the natural environment and each are associated
with different levels of restoration. Restoration is needed after disturbance or perturbation of a
wetland.Disturbances include exogenous factors such as flooding or drought Other external
damage may be anthropogenic disturbance caused by clear-cut harvesting of trees, oil and gas
extraction, poorly defined infrastructure installation, over grazing of livestock, ill-considered
recreational activities, alteration of wetlands including dredging, draining, and filling, and other
negative human impacts. Disturbance puts different levels of stress on an environment depending
on the type and duration of disturbance. There is no one way to restore a wetland and the level of
restoration required will be based on the level of disturbance although, each method of
restoration does require preparation and administration.

Levels of restoration:

Factors influencing selected approach may include

 Project goals
 Level of disturbance
 Landscape and ecological constraints
 Political and administrative agendas
 Socioeconomic priorities

1. Prescribed Natural Regeneration

There are no biophysical manipulation and the ecosystem is left to recover based on the
process of succession alone. The focus of this method is to eliminate and prevent further
disturbance from occurring. In order for this type of restoration to be effective and
successful there must be prior research done to understand the probability that the
wetland will recover with this method. Otherwise, some biophysical manipulation may be
required to enhance the rate of succession to an acceptable level determined by the
project managers and ecologists. This is likely to be the first method of approach for the
lowest level of disturbance being that it is the least intrusive and least costly.
 2. Assisted Natural Regeneration

There are some biophysical manipulations however they are non-intrusive. Example
methods that are not limited to wetlands include prescribed burns to small areas,
promotion of site specific soil microbiota and plant growth using nucleation planting
whereby plants radiate from an initial planting site, and promotion of niche diversity or
increasing the range of niches to promote use by a variety of different species. These
methods can make it easier for the natural species to flourish by removing competition
from their environment and can speed up the process of succession.

3. Partial Reconstruction

Here there is a mix between natural regeneration and manipulated environmental control.
These manipulations may require some engineering and more invasive biophysical
manipulation including ripping of subsoil, agrichemical applications such as herbicides
and insecticides, laying of mulch, mechanical seed dispersal, and tree planting on a large
scale. In these circumstances the wetland is impaired and without human assistance it
would not recover within an acceptable period of time determined by ecologists. Again
these methods of restoration will have to be considered on a site by site basis as each site
will require a different approach based on levels of disturbance and ecosystem dynamics.

4. Complete Reconstruction

The most expensive and intrusive method of reconstruction requiring engineering and
ground up reconstruction. Because there is a redesign of the entire ecosystem it is
important that the natural trajectory of the ecosystem be considered and that the plant
species will eventually return the ecosystem towards its natural trajectory

List Of Wetland Ecosystem:

The following list is that used within Australia to classify wetland by type:

 A—Marine and Coastal Zone wetlands

1. Marine waters—permanent shallow waters less than six metres deep at low tide; includes
sea bays, straits
2. Subtidal aquatic beds; includes kelp beds, seagrasses, tropical marine meadows
3. Coral reefs
4. Rocky marine shores; includes rocky offshore islands, sea cliffs
5. Sand, shingle or pebble beaches; includes sand bars, spits, sandy islets
6. Intertidal mud, sand or salt flats
7. Intertidal marshes; includes saltmarshes, salt meadows, saltings, raised salt marshes, tidal
brackish and freshwater marshes
8. Intertidal forested wetlands; includes mangrove swamps, nipa swamps, tidal freshwater
swamp forests

 B—Inland wetlands

1. Permanent rivers and streams; includes waterfalls

2. Seasonal and irregular rivers and streams
3. Inland deltas (permanent)
4. Riverine floodplains; includes river flats, flooded river basins, seasonally flooded
grassland, savanna and palm savanna
5. Permanent freshwater lakes (> 8 ha); includes large oxbow lakes
6. Seasonal/intermittent freshwater lakes (> 8 ha), floodplain lakes
7. Permanent saline/brackish lakes
8. Seasonal/intermittent saline lakes

 C—Human-made wetlands

1. Water storage areas; reservoirs, barrages, hydro-electric dams, impoundments

2. Ponds, including farm ponds, stock ponds, small tanks
3. Aquaculture ponds; fish ponds, shrimp ponds
 4. Salt exploitation; salt pans, salines
5. Excavations; gravel pits, borrow pits, mining pools
6. Wastewater treatment; sewage farms, settling ponds, oxidation basins
7. Irrigated land and irrigation channels; rice fields, canals, ditches
8. Seasonally flooded arable land, farm .

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