U.P.B. Sci. Bull. Series D, Vol. 74, Iss.

1, 2012 ISSN 1454-2358

ASPECTS OF USING HYDROGEN IN SI ENGINE

Niculae NEGURESCU1, Constantin PANA2, Alexandru CERNAT3

The paper presents the results of research’s carried on the SI engine,

fuelled with hydrogen by direct injection method. Using this fuelling method are
avoided the abnormally hydrogen combustion phenomena’s, achieving ~30 %
engine power increase. Hydrogen engine runs with engine load qualitative
adjustment. This provides a higher engine efficiency at low loads, the best results
was obtained for λ=2…4. Are presented the influences of the mixture quality on
burning process, on polluting and energetically engine performance. Because of
the higher combustion temperature the NOx emission level is higher for λ=1…2
comparative to gasoline fuelled engine, but decrease a lot forλ>2.

Keywords: hydrogen, lean mixture, qualitative adjustment, direct injection

1. Introduction

Fossil fuel supply reduction and environment protection preoccupations

bring in front for the last years, more than ever, ways to find alternative fuels for
internal combustion engines use in order to reduce the exhaust gas emissions.
In order to reduce the pollutant substances emissions and also the
substances with green house effect the fossil fuel with high carbon content are
replaced in burning process. Into transportation field the dependency of fossil
fuels in very high and in order to reduce the internal combustion engine exhaust
emissions the researchers act directly to improve engines and fuels.
Among the alternative fuel, hydrogen is considered as an ideal fuel of the
future. Hydrogen energetically cycle is much shorter comparative to fossil fuels
energetically cycles.
A development of hydrogen technology into the transportation domain is a
high cost process and requires solutions for many issues, like:
• a low cost of hydrogen production process
• hydrogen safety storage conditions on the vehicle and in sufficient
quantities in order to maintain the automotive autonomy

1
Professor, Mechanical Engineering and Mechatronics Faculty, University POLITEHNICA of
Bucharest, Romania
2
Professor, Mechanical Engineering and Mechatronics Faculty, University POLITEHNICA of
Bucharest, Romania
3
Lecturer, Mechanical Engineering and Mechatronics Faculty, University POLITEHNICA of
Bucharest, Romania
12 Niculae Negurescu, Constantin Pana, Alexandru Cernat

• hydrogen infrastructure implementation and the effects on the

environment
• the use with high efficiency for the replacement of the
hydrocarbons into the combustion processes
Hydrogen physical-chemical properties analysis, table 1, shows suitable
characteristics for a high efficiency burning process: a burning rate higher
comparative to other hydrocarbons fuels, wide flammability limits, very low
ignition energy – properties which provides a stable combustion process for lean
and very lean mixtures, encouraging the wide scale hydrogen use as fuel for
engines.
Table 1
Properties of hydrogen and gasoline
Property Gasoline Hydrogen
Molecular mass, [kg/kmol] 114 2.016
Theoretical air-fuel ratio, [kg/kg comb] 14.5 34.32
Density, at 0°C and 760 mmHg, [kg/m3 ] 0.735-0.760 0.0899
% vol. 1.48-2.3 4.1-75.6
Flammability limits in air, at 20 oC and 760 mm Hg
λ 1.1-0.709 10.12-0.136
Flame velocity in air (λ=1), at 20 oC and 760 mm Hg [m/s] 0.12 2.37
Octane Number 90-98 >130
Min. ignition energy in air [mJ] 0.2-0.3 0.018
Autoignition temperature, [K] 753-823 848-853
stoichiometric fuel-air mixture
Lower Heating Value (gas at 0°C 3 661 3 178
[kJ/m3]
and 760mmHg)
[kJ/kg] 42 690 119 600

The researches for using hydrogen as fuel for engines was initiated many
years ago, since the third decade of the last century, [1, 2] but for the last two
decades this issues becomes important aspects for university researchers and
world wide prestige firms [3,…21].

2. Hydrogen combustion particularities

The research’s regarding hydrogen use as fuel for engines where

especially developed for spark ignitions engines. Were developed two research
ways:
• a partial gasoline substitution with hydrogen;
• a total gasoline substitution with hydrogen.
If the hydrogen is used as additional fuel, it can be improved the engine
running at lean mixtures in order to decrease the pollutant emissions; this it
happens due to a better burning process, more efficient one, for partial loads,
knowing that hydrogen has an wide range of ignitability. For this purpose small
hydrogen quantities are used, in addition, the gasoline substitution percent being
 Aspects of using hydrogen in si engines 13

around 10%. This process is easy to imply, because the small hydrogen quantities
admitted into the engine inlet don’t produce any abnormal combustion
phenomena’s. In this case the engine modifications are minimal and the hydrogen
tank or the hydrogen producing devices on the vehicle board are easy to equipped,
due to a small hydrogen quantity required by the engine.
This process can be considered a step forward for a hydrogen total fuelled
engine; in that case the advantages of the exhaust emissions decrease are obvious.
Hydrogen doesn’t pollute. For an engine running only with hydrogen the exhaust
gases don’t contain: carbon oxides, hydrocarbons, particles and lead compounds;
all this excluding the unburned hydrocarbons or the carbon oxides provided by oil
burning inside the combustion chamber. Nitrogen oxides are still exists in exhaust
gases because of a higher burning temperature inside the cylinder. The NOx
concentration is much higher comparative to the petrol engine runs with
stoichiometric dosage, when the burning temperature increases, but the
concentration decreases a lot for leaner mixtures, λ>2, mixture conditions very
easy to imply due to hydrogen large flammability limits
(λ = 0.14...10.12), [10, 20, 21]. This particularity allows the use of qualitative load
adjustment for spark ignition engine, leading to a better engine indicate efficiency
for partial loads comparative to the load adjustment classic process of intake
shuttering by throttle.
Running with stoichiometric mixture becomes necessary option in order to
attenuate the litre power decrease, knowing that at this dosage hydrogen fill up
(occupies) almost 30% from the mixture volume. To avoid this power decrease
the supercharging or hydrogen direct injection method can be use, avoiding thus
the reduction of admission air quantity. At λ=1...2 different methods can be
applied in order to reduce the exhaust NOx emission concentration: catalytic
converters use, ignition timing tuning, cooled exhaust gas recirculation.
The control of the running of the hydrogen fuelled engine is made it in a
first step by a qualitative load adjustment until λ=3.5…4, after that a quantitative
load adjustment is required in a second step, in order to prevent the engine
efficiency decrease because of the combustion duration increase, increasing
caused by an excessive lean mixture, λ>4, [10].
Theoretically the methods used for the engine fuelling with gaseous fuels
can be applied for hydrogen too, but considering some particularity issues. The
research’s regarding the hydrogen use in engines shows specific burning process
aspects:
• spontaneous ignition followed by intake misfire (“back fire”) or the pre-
ignition phenomena followed by a higher in-cylinder pressure increase, with
negative effect on the engine performance (brutally engine running, the
efficiency and power decreases), all because of hydrogen large flammability
limits and because of a lower ignition energy of the hydrogen-air mixtures;
14 Niculae Negurescu, Constantin Pana, Alexandru Cernat

• in-cylinder high pressure rise rate because of higher burning rate.

This specific burning phenomenon’s appears with a maximum intensity at
stoichiometric mixtures, for maximum burning rate and minimum ignition energy.
In order to assure the control of the running of the hydrogen fuelled engine is
important to take special precautions in order to eliminate this phenomena’s:
• uncontrolled ignition sources elimination thru design solutions regarding
cylinder head, valves, ignition system, piston and piston rings;
• using an adequate mixture forming process in order to avoid inflammable
mixtures forming in areas when the ignition may occurs from the sources;
• burning rate control in order to decrease the in-cylinder pressure rate.
Hydrogen use as fuel for engines implies fuelling system and safety issues
and combustion process control issues. In order to avoid litre power decrease
because of the reduction of the inlet air quantity, hydrogen is admitted inside the
cylinder after the inlet valve closing, figure 1, achieving in this way inside
cylinder mixture forming. Thus is avoided the inlet air quantity reduction, and the
cycle mixture mass, the cycle release heat increases with almost 24 %
comparative to classic engine and with almost 43% comparative to solution when

a) b)
Fig. 1. a)-Direct injection of hydrogen inside the cylinder thru a valve in the combustion chamber.
b)-The duration of hydrogen valve open on the compression stroke.

the air-hydrogen mixture forming is made it outside the cylinder. Also this
hydrogen fuelling method, after the inlet valve closing at the beginning of the
compression stroke, allows cylinder cooling with air and eliminates the
uncontrolled burning process or intake back fire.

3. Experimental investigations and results

Investigations carried on the experimental single cylinder engine derived

from a 4 stroke automotive SI engine, with following the characteristics: bore
 Aspects of using hydrogen in si engines 15

D=73 mm, stroke S=77 mm, compression ratio ε=8.5, liquid cooled, normal
admission, speed n=5000 rpm; three valves: one for admission, one for hydrogen
supply, one for exhaust; ignition system with central spark plug. Hydrogen valve
is actuated by a hydraulic system with the adjustment possibility for opening
timing or the opening duration of the valve. Hydrogen flow rate is controlled by
valve opening duration or by the fuelling pressure.

Variable Oil enter air

gasoline jet

Oil discharge

Carburetor

Action cylinder
H2 valve H2 valve
ensemble Air +
a) gasoline
Pressure H2
transducer
Exhaust
gases
Water
temperature
transducer

b)
Fig. 2 a)-The engine test bed schema; b)-The test bed picture

Figure 2a presents engine test bed and a detail image for cylinder head,
figure 2b. The test bed devices and instrumentations allow to determinate the
following engine operating parameters: torque, speed, temperatures, pressures, air
and hydrogen flow rate and for p-α diagram acquisition was used a Kistler
pressure transducer, and an AVL acquisition system. Crank angle position is
given by a Kubler incremental transducer. Hydrogen supply is provided by a
bottle at 15 MPa pressure, using two step pressure reductor’s in order to achieve
the fuelling pressure: on the first step (for high pressure circuit), the hydrogen
pressure from the bottle is reduced at 1 MPa and on the second step (for low
pressure circuit) the pressure decrease till the fuelling pressure value, adjusted in
the area of 0.1…1 MPa.
16 Niculae Negurescu, Constantin Pana, Alexandru Cernat

For a normal operating regime, without knocking process or in-cylinder

higher pressure rise rate, the engine spark timing was adjusted. The operating
regimes were carried on wide open throttle. Spark ignition timing was adjusted for
each operating regime for maximum power. In case of hydrogen fuelling the spark
ignition timing was reduced comparative to classic solution due to much higher
burning rate of hydrogen.
In figs. 3…8 is presented the mixtures quality influence on some cycle
characteristics parameters. The maximum pressure, pmax, takes higher values at the
same dosage, λ=1, for hydrogen fuelling comparative to petrol engine figure 3.
This fact confirms the results of thermodynamic calculus, because hydrogen
burning rate is superior to gasoline and for hydrogen direct injection method the
cycle heat release increases with almost 24%. The increase of maximum pressure
value (~ 30 %) doesn’t affect the engine reliability. One reduction factor for
maximum pressure rise rate increase is represented by molar chemical shrinking
at hydrogen combustion.
For stoichiometric dosage the molar chemical shrinking coefficient at
hydrogen combustion is 0.85, and at gasoline burning a molar expansion process
takes place, the molar coefficient being 1.05.
1
HYDROGEN

λ=1.01
0.8
HYDROGEN
8 HYDROGEN
λ=3,15
HYDROGEN
WTO λ=1.31 λ=3,6
n=3000 rot/min 0.6
ξ[-]

HYDROGEN
6 λ=2.71
pmax [MPa]

HYDROGEN 0.4
GASOLINE

4 λ=1.02 HYDROGEN

λ=1,97
GASOLINE 0.2

2
0
330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400 410
0 alfa [0CA]
0 1 2 λ 3 4

Fig.3. Maximum pressure versus λ Fig. 5. Heat release versus crankshaft angle

0.4 40
WTO
(dp/d )max [MPa/ RAC]

n=3000 rot/min
10%) [0RAC]

0.3 GASOLINE
0

HYDROGEN 30
HYDROGEN
0.2
GASOLINE
α90%-

20
0.1 WTO
(α

n=3000 rot/min
0 10
0 1 2 λ 3 4 0 1 2 λ 3 4

Fig.4. Maximum pressure rate versus λ Fig. 6. Burning combustion duration versus λ
 Aspects of using hydrogen in si engines 17

6.0
n=3000 rpm
WOT
5.0

4.0 HYDROGEN
1.5
WTO

Pe [kW]
GASOLINE n=3000 rot/min 3.0
1
pi [MPa]

2.0
HYDROGEN GASOLINE
0.5
1.0

0 0.0
0 1 2 λ 3 4 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 lambda 4.0 5.0 6.0

Fig. 7. Indicated mean pressure versus λ Fig.9. Engine power versus λ

35000
n=3000 rpm
GASOLINE WOT
30000

25000
15000
WTO
ce [kJ/kWh]

GASOLINE n=3000 rot/min 20000

12000
HYDROGEN
ci [kJ/kWh]

15000
9000
10000
HYDROGEN
6000
5000

3000
0 1 2 3 4 0
λ 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 lambda 5.0 6.0

Fig. 8. ISFC, ci, versus λ Fig.10. BSFC versus λ

The maximum pressure rise rate, (dp/dα)max, for stoichiometric dosage, is

higher comparative to petrol engine, figure 4, due to a superior burning rate and
shorter combustion duration for hydrogen, figures 5, 6. For hydrogen fuelling the
maximum pressure rise rate values don’t exceed significantly the classic values,
but they can be controlled by spark ignition timing adjustment. The maximum
pressure rise rate takes lower values for lean dosages λ>2, with a lower pressure
rise rate during combustion.
For hydrogen operating engine the qualitative load adjustment was
applied. For leaner mixtures λ=1….3.6, the IMEP, pi, decreases from 1.32 MPa to
0.36 MPa, figure 7, fact which is directly related with load variation between the
range χ=100%...25%. At stoichiometric dosage the indicate pressure increases
with ~25% due to combustion improvement and cycle burning heat increase.
A much higher burning rate, flammability lower limit for very lean
dosages, λi=10.12 and lower ignition energy, all this hydrogen qualities provides
efficiency engine running at partial loads when the qualitative load adjustment is
used. At stoichiometric dosage the ISFC, ci, decreases with ~10% for hydrogen
comparative to gasoline, figure 8. Engine efficiency increases when the mixture
18 Niculae Negurescu, Constantin Pana, Alexandru Cernat

becomes leaner till λ∼3.2 due to hydrogen suitable burning properties and due to
the reduction of heat loses. For much leaner mixtures the ISFC increases because
the burning duration also increases, figures 5, 6.

4. Energetic and polluting performance

In order to have a general view on hydrogen engine energetic performance

figure 9 presents the variation of effective power versus volumetric efficiency for
wide open throttle conditions at 3000 rpm engine speed. For each operating
regime the spark ignition timing was set at optimal value. The maximum power
increases with ~30% due to the fuelling method used: hydrogen direct injection at
the beginning of compression stroke. Load qualitative adjustment was used for
hydrogen running engine. Comparative to petrol classic engine the engine
efficiency is improved for hydrogen fuelling at stoichiometric dosages, figure 10.
This advantage appears due to better hydrogen burning properties, but as a
disadvantage appears the increase of heat loses caused by a much higher burning
temperature. But for leaner mixtures the hydrogen engine efficiency is clearly
superior to petrol engine. For gasoline fuelling the short flammability limits of
gasoline can’t provide engine running for dosage values over λ=1.3. For hydrogen
fuelling and load qualitative adjustment use for dosage values till λ∼5.5 engine
efficiency decreases insignificantly, the best results where obtained for λ=2…4,
figure 10. For this dosage area, λ=2…3.2, efficiency improvement is explained by
shorter burning duration and heat loses decrease due to a lower combustion
temperature. For mixtures leaner to excess, λ > 3.2, the increasing of combustion
duration, figure 5, explains brake specific fuel consumption BSFC increase,
figure 10.
160
WTO
140
NOx [% versus gasoline λ=1]

n=3000 rpm
120

100

80

60 GASOLINE
40 HYDROGEN

20

0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 λ 4.0 5.0 6.0

Fig.11. Relative NOx emissions versus excess air ratio at full load and 3000 rpm

Hydrogen fuelled engine don’t produce like petrol engines a lots of

polluting substances as, CO, HC, particles and lead compounds and CO2
 Aspects of using hydrogen in si engines 19

emission. Excluding the unburned hydrocarbons or the carbon oxides provided by

oil burning inside the combustion chamber, the only polluting substances are
nitrogen oxides because of a higher burning temperature inside the cylinder. The
NOx emission level is much higher comparative to the petrol engine for λ=1-2,
figure 11, because the burning temperature increases. At much leaner dosages,
λ>2, nitrogen oxides emission level decreases very much, figure 11. In order to
reduce NOx concentration from exhaust gases at hydrogen fuelling for λ=1-2,
different neutralisation methods can be use, such as NOx catalytic converters.

5. Conclusions

From the research results analysis, the following conclusions can be

formulated:
1. Hydrogen fuelled engine efficiency is superior to gasoline engine,
especially at small partial loads operating conditions, due to a better
combustion process and load qualitative adjustment method.
2. The level of pollutant emissions decreases at the hydrogen fuelling.
The exhaust gases don’t contains CO2 or lots of polluting substances
provided by classic engines such as CO, HC, particles and lead
compounds. Excluding the unburned hydrocarbons or the carbon
oxides provided by oil burning inside the combustion chamber,
nitrogen oxides emission level is the only issue. NOx exists in exhaust
gases because of a higher burning temperature inside the cylinder
reached at λ=1-2. In order to resolve these issue different methods can
be applied like: cooled exhaust gas recirculation, ignition timing
optimization for this purpose and/or catalytic converters use.
3. The solution of hydrogen direct injection at the beginning of the
compression stroke provides engine running, at stoichiometric dosage,
without abnormal burning phenomena’s.
4. Direct injection hydrogen fuelled engine power is bigger with almost
30% comparative to gasoline engine, due to avoiding of the inlet air
quantity reduction.
On medium term hydrogen application in use can be developed in order to
replace the fossil fuels into engine combustion processes. This becomes an
efficient solution for pollutant emissions level decrease and hydrocarbons fuels
dependency reduction.
Due to its properties hydrogen has proved to be an excellent fuel for
internal combustion engines and signifies a reliable option to the fossil fuels
replacement, providing also the benefit of maintaining the main principles of the
existing engines design.
20 Niculae Negurescu, Constantin Pana, Alexandru Cernat

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