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Jute Biology, Diversity, Cultivation, Pest Control, Fiber Production and

Genetics
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DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-4113-3_9
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Jute Biology, Diversity, Cultivation,
Pest Control, Fiber Production and Genetics
Susmita Maity, Sandipan Chowdhury, and Animesh K. Datta
Abstract The genus Corchorus, commonly known as jute, includes more than 170
species, all of which are annual fibrous plants. Jute fiber is totally biodegradable and
compostable and therefore an extremely attractive renewable resource. While the
cultivated species, C. olitorius L. and C. capsularis L., are economically important
for fibre production, the wild species are considered important genetic resources
for biotic and abiotic stress tolerance and fine fibre trait. However, there are some
constraints in jute cultivation and research. The cultivation requires lot of watering
which is often hampered due to late showering and low moisture content in the air.
Jute is very prone to disease and pest attack. Although application of pesticides is a
popular preventive measure it also raises the issue of biomagnifications of those
harmful chemicals by entering the food chain of the ecosystem. In addition, the fibre
processing disturbs the environment by causing water pollution during retting.
Some other negative issues related to its cultivation are indoor air emissions from
the products, and greenhouse gas emission due to using waste jute for energy.
The high cost of production in comparison to synthetic materials leads to
unemployment due to closing of jute processing factories which becomes a major
concern in terms of socio economic impact of jute cultivation. Apart from these issues
related to cultivation, some other constraints also exists in its research. The cell wall
of Corchorus is composed of high amount of lignin which is a major barrier for
cytological and cytogenetical analysis. Due to these problems the wild as well as the
S. Maity
Public Health Laboratory Division, National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases,
Kolkata 700010, India
S. Chowdhury (*)
Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Kalyani Mahavidyalaya,
Kalyani, 741 235, West Bengal, India
e-mail: [email protected]
A.K. Datta
Department of Botany, Cytogenetics and Plant Breeding Section, University of Kalyani,
Kalyani, 741 235, West Bengal, India
E. Lichtfouse (ed.), Organic Fertilisation, Soil Quality and Human Health, 227
Sustainable Agriculture Reviews 9, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-4113-3_9,
© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
228 S. Maity et al.
cultivated species of jute are poorly understood and explored and thus in most of
the cases hybridization attempts was not successful till now. However, proper
hybridization between wild and cultivated species needs adequate information on
morphological, cytological, cytogenetical biochemical and molecular aspects and
will result in the emergence of novel plant types with several beneficial characters.
With a view to all of these including the economical importance of jute species, an
overview is conducted involving nearly all essential aspects to provide updated and
adequate information to researchers for effective utilization in human benefit.
This chapter reviews morphological, biochemical, cytological, palynological,
anatomical and molecular analysis of genome along with induced mutagenesis,
interspecific hybridization, pest management, retting procedures, tissue culture and
transgenic development strategies in jute species for their successful exploitation.
Cytological and cytogenetical aspects will provide a wealth of information about the
chromosomes and their behavior that forms the basis of efficient interspecific hybri-
dization. Information on biochemical parameters is important for providing a
knowledge base regarding further research on fibre quality improvement. Although
induced mutagenesis is known as an effective tool for creating superior plant types
having morphological and biochemical marker traits, adequate reports on jute is
meager. This aspect is discussed in detail as one of the major points. Jute cultivation
has always suffered from pest attack and various microbial infections. Reports on
jute pests and disease and their management will be helpful for taking necessary
preventive measures against its damage in field. Moreover, transgenic development
and efficient tissue culture method are important for rapid propagation of jute
and for introducing desirable traits in short times and for optimum utilization of
available resource to achieve a low cost of production and high benefit.
Keywords Corchorus • Cytomixis • Hybridization • Jute • Karyotype • Meiosis

• Mutagenesis • Pests • Polyploidy • Retting
Abbreviations
2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid

AFLP amplified fragment length polymorphism
AI anaphase I
AII anaphase II
BAP 6-benzylaminopurine
cp DNA chloroplast DNA
EcoRI E. coli RI
H2SO4 sulphuric acid
I univalent
II bivalent
IAA indole-3-acetic acid
ISSR inter simple sequence repeat
MI metaphase I
Jute Biology, Diversity, Cultivation, Pest Control, Fiber Production and Genetics 229
MS Murashige and Skoog medium

mV milli volt
NaOH sodium hydroxide
NDGA nordihydroguiaretic acid
NPK nitrogen phosphorous potassium
PEG polyethylene glycol
PMC pollen mother cell
RAPD random amplified polymorphic DNA
SDS–PAGE sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis
SSR simple sequence repeat
1 Introduction
The species of the genus Corchorus (Family: Tiliaceae) are annual plants (Fig. 1)
and are found distributed in warm regions throughout the world (Kundu 1951;
Purseglove 1968). Although Corchorus is considered to be under the family Tiliaceae
(Selwin 1981; Tirel et al. 1996; Maity and Datta 2008, 2009a, 2010; Colmenero Robles
et al. 2010) for long time, but now a day some reports are coming out regarding its
belongingness to the family “Sparmanniaceae” (JCU 2010). On the basis of the two
criteria – amount produced (the total production of jute in the world is three million
Fig. 1 Plantation of jute:

At maturity in field
230 S. Maity et al.
tones, roughly around Rs. 24–25,000 Crores) and types of uses (more than 800),
jute (Corchorus sp.) is considered as the second most important fibre producing
plant throughout the world (Samira et al. 2010) and as well as in Indian sub-conti-
nent after cotton (Basu et al. 2004). The jute fibre is used mostly for making gunny
bags and packaging material for agricultural and other industrial products. While
the cultivated species (C. olitorius L. and C. capsularis L.) are globally important
for fibre yield, the wild species are potential donor for abiotic and biotic stress toler-
ance like fine fibre trait, disease resistance, drought tolerance and proved to be
important genetic resources. Interspecific hybridization between wild and cultivated
species may lead to conserve the wild germplasms and to create genetic diversity for
enrichment of jute trade in future. In this regard, adequate information on morpho-
logical, cytological, anatomical, biochemical and molecular aspects helps to ascer-
tain interrelationship between the germplasms for their successful exploitation in
interspecific hybridization and crop improvement.
2 Common Names and Synonyms
Jute was previously named ‘pat’ (Wallace 1909). Saha and Hazra (2008) docu-
mented the event of first commercial export of raw jute to England under the name
‘pat’. They also mentioned that the first commercial application of the word ‘Jute’
appeared in the customs returned of the exports for 1828 and has been found to sup-
press the word ‘pat’ till now.
3 Species Diversity
‘Index Kewensis’ includes more than 170 species (Mahapatra and Saha 2008) in
Corchorus and based on species concentration East and South Africa were considered
to be the centre of diversity and place of origin (Edmonds 1990; Kundu 1951; Singh
1976), though both the cultivated species of jute (C. capsularis L. and C. olitorius L.)
are distributed throughout India. The genus Corchorus is extremely variable but all
species are highly fibrous. Mahapatra et al. (1998) reported 10 species (2 cultivated
and 8 wild) from India namely C. capsularis L. and C. olitorius L, C. aestuans L.,
C. depressus Stooks L., C. fascicularis Lam., C. pseudoolitorius I. and Z., C. tridens
L., C. trilocularis L., C. urticaefolius W. and A. and C. velutinus Her. C. capsularis L.
(white jute) and C. olitorius L. (tossa jute) yields fibre of commerce from bark of the
stem (phloem fibre) and are widely cultivated in India, Bangladesh, Nepal, China,
Indonesia, Thailand, Myanmar and in South American countries.
The fibre obtained from the cultivated species is retted in water and termed
as jute. Although he wild species of jute though poor fibre yielder, but are
genetic resources for abiotic stress tolerance (C. trilocularis L.), disease resistance
(C. urticaefolius W. and A. – showed resistance reaction to all diseases but
anthracnose – Palve et al. 2004; C. pseudoolitorius I. and Z. and C. pseudocapsularis L. –
resistant to fungal diseases) and fine fibre quality (C. tridens L., C. trilocularis L.
and C. aestuans L.) parameters (Mahapatra and Saha 2008). C. trilocularis L. is the
only tolerant genotype to water inundation (Mahapatra and Saha 2008).
Germplasms of wild species of jute are exploited for efficient breeding endeavor
with the cultivated members for crop improvement. The germplasms are mostly
evaluated for potential donor for desirable trait(s). Although collection and
utilization of trait specific germplasms have increased the productivity but with the
advent of synthetic material jute faces serious competition in the market.
4 Distribution
Corchorus germplasms occur in diverse ecological conditions and habitats like river
banks, dry river bed, low altitude valley within mountain folds, hill cliffs, forest
floors with open canopy, marshy lands road side fallow, ditches, cultivable as well
as homestead lands. The major jute growing states in India are West Bengal, Bihar,
Assam, Uttar Pradesh, Meghalaya and Tripura and the most dominating species in
occurrence is C. aestuans L. followed by C. olitorius L., C. capsularis L., C. tridens
L., C. trilocularis L. and C. fascicularis Lam. (Mahapatra and Saha 2008). C. cap-
sularis L. is frequently distributed in Northern parts of India and gradually become
scarce towards West. In contrast, C. olitorius L. is more frequent in Western and
Northwestern India. C. tridens L. and C. trilocularis L. are restricted to Central,
Western and Southern part of the country whereas C. fascicularis Lam. is restricted
in Western and peninsular India. C. urticaefolius W. and A. is also restricted in
Tamil Nadu of Southern India while C. pseudoolitorius I. and Z. is distributed in
Western boundary of the country. C. capsularis L. is considered to be native to
South China from where it migrated to India and Bangladesh (Purseglove 1968).
However, Kundu (1951) and Mahapatra et al. (1998) believes that this species is not
an immigrant to India but had originated in Indo-Myanmar region including South
China. In contrast, C. olitorius L. is proposed to be native to Sri Lanka, India and
Kenya and it is now agreed that the species originated in Africa along with other
wild species and migrated to India and China via Egypt and Syria (Edmonds 1990;
Kundu 1951; Mahapatra et al. 1998).
The diversity and worldwide distribution of jute has now been well recognized
as economic resource providing ample scope to mankind to identify and utilize
plants especially for food, fiber and other needs.
5 Plant Descriptions
Maity et al. (2008) selected the plots of the University of Kalyani, West Bengal
plains as the experimental field having sandy loamy soil, organic carbon 0.76%,
soil pH 6.85. The field has the elevation level of 48 ft above mean sea level and
geographic co ordinates of 22° 99¢N, 88° 45¢E. The authors raised plants of
individual species of Corchorus during the period of March to September and
documented their morphological parameters (Table 1).
Table 1 Morphological characteristics of different species of Corchorus (Maity et al. 2008)
Characters
Name of the Stem Leaf
species Nature Colour Shape Serration Venation Colour
C. olitorius Terrete, solid, Dull green Ovate, acute to Serrated, rounded at 5–6 veined, unicostate, Green
woody, glabrous acuminate base, basal reticulate
serration tailed
C. capsularis Terrete, solid, Dull green Ovate, lanceolate, Serrate, basal Basal veins 5, reticulation Green above, green or
woody, glabrous acuminate serration tailed. distinct beneath dull green beneath
Tails equal or
unequal
C. aestuans Terrete, solid, Purple Ovate to broadly Serrate, serration Basal veins 5, reticulation Surface green, often
woody, hairy ovate tailed more beneath with purple blotches
C. fascicularis Terrete, solid, Dull green Linear, lanceolate, Serrate with basal 5 veined at base, reticulate Green above, dull green
woody, glabrous acuminate tailed beneath beneath
C. pseudocapsularis Terrete, solid, soft, Purple Ovate, acute Serrated, obtuse to Basally 5 veined, reticulation Dull green
hairy rounded at base distinct at both surface
C. pseudoolitorius 3–4 angular, solid, Green, rarely purple Ovate to ovate, Serrate with basal 5 veined, glabrous reticulation Dull green
woody, glabrous near the nodal lanceolate, tailed, tails more distinct beneath
region acuminate unequal
C. tridens Terrete, solid, soft, Purple Simple ovate, acute Serrated, rounded at Venation unicostate, pinnate, Green
hairy at apex base reticulate, 5–6 pairs of
secondaries, lower pair
basal
C. trilocularis Terrete, solid, soft Purple Ovate, lanceolate, Serrated, rounded at Venation brochidobromous, Green
with mucilage acute base basal paired 2, opposite
C. urticaefolius Terrete, solid, soft Purple Ovate, acute at apex Serrated, rounded at Basal vein 3, secondaries 5–7 Green above but dull
with mucilage base in pairs, unicostate, green beneath
reticulate, depressed above
and prominent below
Characters
Name of the Bud Sepal Petals
species Colour Shape Number Shape Colour Bracts Number Shape Colour
C. olitorius Yellow Pyriform 5 Spoon shaped, Purple black 2 lateral, linear, 5 Spathulate, rounded Yellow
apiculate apex, glabrous, apex rarely
glandular dull green notched, glabrous
C. capsularis Yellow Rounded 5 Oblong, Spathulate, Dull yellow 2, sebulate, 5 Spathulate, apex Yellow
glabrous purple notched or lobed,
glabrous glabrous
C. aestuans Yellow Oblong 5 Oblong, Spathulate, Purple 2 lateral, linear, 5 Spathulate, glabrous Yellow
glabrous, cuspidate glabrous
purple
C. fascicularis Yellow Pyriform 5 Oblong, cuspidate, Dull yellow 2 lateral, sebulate, 5 Broad Spathulate, Yellow
glabrous, recurved glabrous glabrous
in blooming purple
C. pseudocapsularis Deep yellow Obconical 5 Broad , glabrous Purple 2 lateral, acute 5 Spathulate Yellow
within, cuspidate,
somewhat fleshy
C. pseudoolitorius Yellow Pyriform 5 Oblong, Spathulate, Green but purple lateral, glabrous 5 Spathulate, glabrous Yellow
glabrous, cuspidate towards apex purple
C. tridens Yellow oblong 5 Nevicular with Greenish purple linear, glabrous 5 Spathulate, rounded Dull yellow
subulate or greenish apex, glabrous
mucronate apex purple
C. trilocularis Yellow Pyriform 5 Oblong with Nevicular Purple with Purple linear, purple, 5 Spathulate, oblong Yellowish
apical part with spot hairy
extended cuspidate
tail
C. urticaefolius Yellow Pyriform 5 Oblong with apiculate Dull green within Glabrous 5 Spathulate to obovate, Dull yellow
apex and Nevicular and below, greenish often retuse at
above, glabrous purple outside, purple apex, glabrous
(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
Characters
Stamen Ovary Fruit
Name of the Anther Anther
species No. shape colour Filament Shape Colour Style Stigma Shape Color
C. olitorius >25 Oblong Yellow Slender Oblong Dull green Stout Bristly Elongated, Ridged Deep green
angular cylindrical
light green
C. capsularis 10 2 celled, Yellow Glabrous Subglobose Yellow Yellow Trifid yellow Globose to Dull green
Oblong, yellow glabrous glabrous subglobose
latrorse depressed
above, glabrous
C. aestuans 15 2 celled, Yellowish Waxy yellow Oblong Waxy yellow Glabrous Inconspicuously 3 armed each bifid Purple green
Oblong, glabrous waxy 3 lobed and horny
latrorse yellow
C. fascicularis 10 2 celled, Brownish Glabrous Oblong to Dull brown Glabrous Inconspicuously Cylindrical, Green with
Oblong, yellow yellow somewhat lobed triangular in purple
latrorse angular outline, shade
glabrous glabrous
C. pseudocapsularis 18 2 celled, Yellow Yellow Oblong Dull yellow Dull yellow Trilobed Globose to Purple green
ovoid, subglobose
latrorse
C. pseudoolitorius 10 2 celled, Yellow Glabrous Oblong Dull yellow Glabrous Inconspicuously Cylindrical, 3 Green
Oblong, yellow angular 3 lobed, lobed, glabrous
latrorse glabrous yellow
C. tridens 15 Ovoid Dull yellow Glabrous dull Oblong Creamy Glabrous dull Dull yellow Capsule, elongated Green
Yellow glabrous yellow bifid
C. trilocularis >30 2 celled, Yellowish Glabrous dull Oblong Dull orange Dull yellow Dull orange Capsule, elongated Purple green
ovoid Yellow glabrous bifid
C. urticaefolius 15 Ovoid Yellow after Glabrous dull Oblong Dull Yellow Glabrous dull Dull yellow Capsule, oblong Purple green
anthesis yellow angular to creamy yellow lobed
6 Notable Varieties
Rao et al. (1983) reported the variety “TJ 40” from the inter-mutant crossing of
C. olitorius L. Chowdhury et al. (2004) documented different varieties of Corchorus
such as C. olitorius L. – JRO 3690, pedigree: inter-mutant cross; KOM 62, pedigree:
gamma-ray and JRO878; C. capsularis L. – JRC 7447, pedigree: X-ray and JRC
212; Hybrid C, pedigree: inter-mutant cross; KC 1, pedigree: gamma-ray and JRC
4444; Bidhan Pat 1, pedigree: gamma-ray and D 154; Bidhan Pat 2, pedigree: vari-
ety ‘x’ mutant cross; Bidhan Pat 3, pedigree: variety ‘x’ mutant cross having
increased variability in fibre yield and yield contributing traits.
7 Cultivation
The jute growing areas of the world are found spread over several degrees north and
south of Tropic of cancer and generally between longitudes 86° and 92°E. The crop
responds favorably to high relative humidity of 70–74% and annual rainfall of
1,500 mm or more with at least 250 mm of monthly precipitation during each of the
months of March, April and May. The requirement in regard to range of mean tem-
perature is 18–33º C (Karmakar et al. 2008).
Maity et al. (2008) successfully raised two cultivated species C. olitorius L.
(Fig. 2a) and C. capsularis L. (Fig. 2b) and seven wild species namely C. aestuans
L. (Fig. 2c), C. fascicularis Lam. (Fig. 2d), C. pseudocapsularis L. (Fig. 2e), C.
pseudoolitorius I. and Z. (Fig. 2f), C. tridens L. (Fig. 2g), C. trilocularis L. (Fig. 2h)
and C. urticaefolius W. and A. (Fig. 2i) in the experimental field plots of the
University of Kalyani, West Bengal plains having sandy loamy soil, organic carbon
0.76%, soil pH 6.85 with elevation level of 48 ft above mean sea level and geo-
graphic co ordinates of 22° 99¢ N, 88° 45¢ E. The plantation was performed by the
authors during the period of March to September.
7.1 Land Preparation
Land preparation is very important for successful cultivation. Cross ploughing for
3–5 times and laddering is necessary to prepare uniform smooth soil to have 20%
organic content. Generally seed bed is prepared by repeated drilling ploughing
and leveling to produce finely macerated and well aerated and clod free soil.
Manuring may be done during ploughing. Mostly cow dung is used, along with
NPK in appropriate proportion, according to the soil type. However, when used
(fertilizer) it must be applied in three stages; one at land preparation, and two as
top dressing at appropriate time. During cultivation, weeding is usually done in
addition to thinning.
236 S. Maity et al.
Fig. 2 Plant types of Corchorus sp.: (a), C. olitorius (b), C. capsularis (c), C. aestuans
(d), C. fascicularis (e), C. pseudocapsularis (f), C. pseudoolitorius (g), C. tridens (h), C. trilocularis
(i), C. urticaefolius
7.2 Plantation
Generally, the species is propagated by seeds either by broadcasting method

(10–12 kg/ha) or by line sowing (lower amount of seeds is required) keeping
distance between plants (5–10 cm) and rows (20–25 cm).
Lack of proper plantation strategy leads to poor utilization of field and thus
responsible for reduced yield of jute. It is therefore very much necessary to choose
the right option for plantation among others.
8 Germination
Seed dormancy creates a major difficulty in Corchorus cultivation (Schippers 2000).

Palit and Bhattacharya (1981) reported faster rate of imbibitions of C. capsularis L.
seeds than C. olitorius L., under different degrees of water stress (either by PEG
6000 solutions or deficit moisture), resulted in the earlier germination of the previ-
ous one than the later. The authors also suggested the critical water potential for
seed germination for C. capsularis L. (−0.5 Mpa) and C. olitorius L. (−0.3 Mpa).
Under field condition, seed germination and establishment are most obviously
affected by soil water deficit resulting in poor crop stand (Palit 1987; Palit and
Singh 1991). Patel and Mandal (1983) reported wilting and early flowering ten-
dency of young jute seedlings at low humidity below 19% with soil moisture less
than 20%. Michiyama and Yamamoto (1990) observed decreased germination of
Corchorus seeds due to limited water supply. They also suggested positive impact
of temperature (25–30°C) on seed germination.
Datta and Palit (2003) reported increased seed germination with the application
of two doses (100 mV and 1,400 mV) of electromotive force. Emongor et al. (2004)
evaluated the effects of hot water, sulphuric acid, nitric acid, gibberellic acid and
etephon on germination of Corchorus seeds (C. tridens L.) and concluded that treat-
ment of Corchorus seeds with concentrated sulphuric acid (98%) for 10, 20 and 30
min significantly increased the germination compared to other treatments, while
exposure of seeds to concentrated sulphuric acid for more than 30 min significantly
decreases the germination capacity. Further, the authors also reported that hot water
(98.5°C) have a positive role in seed germination but with lesser efficiency.
Figueiredo et al. (1980) reported 30°C and light as the best conditions for germi-
nation of jute seeds. However, Chauhan and Johnson (2008) nullified the role of
light on germination and documented seed scarification and wide range (25/15,
30/20, and 35/25°C) of alternating temperature as stimulating factors for seed ger-
mination in C. olitorius L.
Seed germination is one of the crucial aspects in plant breeding. Most of the time
plant breeders as well as researchers faces failure in germinating seeds due to vari-
ous constraints like deep seeding, planting in cold soil, extremes of watering,
improper soil preparation, birds or squirrels or insect activity and poor seed quality.
Therefore a proper strategy or combination of more is needed to overcome the prob-
lem. A future researcher or plant breeder will be able to determine an effective
strategy if well aware of solutions obtained by previous researchers on the same
aspect in different time.
9 Irrigation
Irrigation is an important tool in jute cultivation but reduction in jute fibre yield,
its quality, growth and nutrient removal due to water logging, either by excessive
water (high rainfall) or irrigation, has been reported by Ghorai et al. (2005).
238 S. Maity et al.
Ghorai and Mitra (2008) suggested safe disposal of excess water such rainwater
for proper crop management to get better yield and quality.
10 Yield
Ghosh and Basak (1958) were of opinion that use of old jute seeds with poor germi-
nation capacity gave poor stand and consequently low yield. But, yield of individual
plant which constitute the crop, in an average are comparable to those raised from
fresh seeds. Water stagnation in the field has been found to possess a lasting effect
on jute yield and the quality (Choudhuri and Basak 1969; Ghosh 1983). However,
impaired seedling establishment was found to be the single most important edaphic
factor for the year to year fluctuation in jute yield (Ghosh 1983). Seedling vigor as
well as plant growth and subsequent yield have a positive correlation with seed size
(Bhattacharjee et al. 2000; Ghosh and Sen 1981).
Islam et al. (2001) observed that treating seeds with garlic extract (1:2, weigh by
volume, g/ml) and Vitavax 200 (0.04%) increased the yield by 77.50% and 82.50%
respectively while reducing several fungal attack. Datta and Palit (2003) have found
that an external application of electromotive force (emf) of 800 mV influenced stem
growth and fibre yield by affecting photosynthesis and wall thickness. Mitra et al.
(2006) reported better root growth (9.7–10.2 mm) in C. capsularis L. varieties than
C. olitorius L. under typical rain fed and moisture stressed upland situation in early
stages of growth. Saha (2008) found that seed yield of Corchorus was influenced by
sowing time, seed rate and sowing method.
C. capsularis L. have been shown to produce an initial higher rate of dry matter
production than those of C. olitorius L. with the advancement of growth
(Gopalkrishnan and Goswami 1970; Palit 1993). Palit (1999) observed that both
plant height and diameter have a direct relationship with the yield of C. olitorius L.
and C. capsularis L.
The final goal of any kind of cultivation including jute is getting better yield
performance in the field. Low yield is associated with poor germination of seed,
impaired seedling establishment, improper sowing time and method, poor photo-
synthetic activity etc. However, all these constraints have been neutralized success-
fully in different times by adopting various methods to increase the yield in
Corchorus species as discussed above.
11 Retting
The process of separation and extraction of fibres from no fibrous tissues and
woody part of the stem through dissolution and decompositions of pectines, gums
and other mucilaginous substances is called retting (Dasgupta et al. 1976; Majumdar
and Day 1977). Ghosh and Dutta (1980) proposed retting as the mechanical
extraction, washing, drying followed by marketing of fibres.
Dasgupta et al. (1976) reported the movement of microbes (bacteria) from retting
water into plant tissue through the stomata, epidermis and cambium and loosening
of fibre strand from woody core by their enzymatic action. Liberation of soluble
constituents like sugar, glycoside and nitrogenous compounds from swelled and
burst plant surface (immersed in retting tank) due to water absorption was also
documented (Ali et al. 1972; Ahmed and Akhter 2001).
11.1 Conventional Method of Retting
Majumdar et al. (2008) suggested conventional process of retting as steeping of

defoliated jute bundles in clean or stagnant water according to the availability with
proper jak material (usually mud or banana logs) followed by manual extraction of
fibre either by “beat – break – jerk” or single plant extraction method after completion
of retting within 15–20 days.
11.2 Chemical Retting
Dasgupta et al. (1976) reported that ammonium oxalate (0.5% at 27.77–29.44°C for
4 h at 1:10 liquor ratio) and sodium sulphate of 5 g/l at 22.22–23.89°C for 30 min
were found suitable for chemical retting of jute without any adverse effect on fibre
quality. Ahmed and Akhter (2001) were of opinion that chemical retting causes dis-
solution of tissue materials (softening of tissues due to degradation of lignin, hemi-
celluloses and pectin) with certain chemicals such as boiling with acid (0.5% H2SO4)
or alkali (1% NaOH) at normal or high or boiling temperature for 6–8 h and the
fibres obtained by this method have been found little coarser, rough and stiff.
11.3 Dew Retting
Jute plants are kept in worm and humid atmosphere by simply stretching over green
grass for 7–15 days so that plants stalks get a direct exposure to bright sunlight in
day time and moisture at night in this process (Majumdar et al. 2008).
11.4 Microbial Retting
In microbial retting pectin and hemicelluloses are decomposed into water soluble
compounds by specific enzymes secreted by bacteria or fungi present in water.
Among the fungi, Aspergillus niger (Kundu and Roy 1962), Microphomina phaseolina,
240 S. Maity et al.
Mucor, Chaetomium sp, Phoma sp, Sporotichum sp, Trichoderma sp, and
Curvularia sp (Haque et al. 2002) were reported to responsible for retting.
Several aerobic bacteria such as Bacillus subtilis (Kundu and Roy 1962),
Micrococcus sp (Haque et al. 2002) and anaerobic bacteria such as Clostridium
tertium, C. aurantibutyricum, C. felsineum have been isolated from retting water
and were found effective in retting process(Alam 1970).
12 Disease and Pests
Jute productivity suffers vastly due to the ravages caused by many insect pests and
hence the entomology of bust fibre crops requires much attention for economic
production. Das et al. (1995), Das and Singh (1976), Lefroy (1907), Singh and Das
(1979), Tripathi (1967), and Tripathi and Ghosh (1964) reported A. sabulifera as a
major pest of crop occurs in all the jute growing sectors of India. Repeated damage
by this pest checks crop growth and induces profuse branching with reduction to
fibre yield (Tripathi and Bhattachrya 1963). It was documented by Tripathi and
Ram (1971) that a third instar larva of A. sabulifera was more penetrative in action
and the larval period ranged between 9 and 16 days. Another most important pest of
jute is stem weevil (Apium corchori) exists throughout the cropping season and
damages the early sown crops (Dutt 1958). Corchorus capsularis L. is more suscep-
tible to stem weevil infestation whereas C. olitorius L. suffers little because of its
higher tannin content (Tripathi and Ram 1971). Yellow mite (Polyphagotarsonemus
latus) causes serious damages of jute since the 1940s (Das and Roychaudhuri 1979;
Das and Singh 1985; Nair 1986; Pradhan and Saha 1997).
Walker (Spilosoma obliqua) was once considered as a sporadic pest on jute (Dutt
1958) is now a major threat to jute crop. Das et al. (1999) reported some major pests
of jute like semiloper, Anomis sabulifera Guenee, stem weevil, Apion corchori,
Marshall, yellow mite, Polyphagotarsonemus latus (Banks), and indigo caterpillar,
Spodoptera exigus Hubner. Bihar hairycaterpillar, Spilosoma obliqua. A number of
minor pests (scale insect – Pinnaspis sp, Thrips – Ayyaria chaetophora, Karny,
Mealy bugs – Ferrisia virgata) of jute are also reported by Tripathi and Ram (1971).
Gray weevil (Myllocerus discolor) was first time recorded as a pest on tossa jute in
1973 by Das and Ghosh. The crop loss due the pest was estimated at upto 50% by
Dutt (1958), whereas 81% of the damage was limited to seven fully open leaves
from top and upto 95% down to the ninth leaf.
The cultivation of jute is severely affected due to disease and pest attack.
This plant type is a host of different pest and disease causing micro organisms and
the nature of damage is due to degree and intensity of infections. If the breeder is
not familiar with the pest then the nature of damage will also be unknown and no
preventive measure can be adopted. For the purpose detail knowledge on different
jute pests and disease regarding the cause of infections, nature of infection,
life cycle, and previous reports of damage is necessary before formulating any
preventive measure.
13 Integrated Pest Management
Das (2000) recommended JRO 524 (Navin) and JRC 212 (Basudev) for cultivation
in the yellow mite endemic areas as the least susceptible varieties. Studies on sea-
sonal incidence and population dynamics of major pests of jute revealed that the
intensity of damage by stem weevil, gray weevil and yellow mite were more on
early sown crops but the reverse was true for semilooper incident (Das 1995). Both
tossa and white jute varieties, sown in the late April, had shown remarkably less
incidence of stem weevil as compared to those sown in late March or early April
(Das and Singh 1985). Physalis minima was reported as an alternate host for yellow
mite (Das and Roychaudhuri 1979). Das and Singh (1976) observed negative impact on
the gut physiology of semilooper larvae due to ingestion of Bacillus thuringiensis.
Some insecticides like Neem oil at the rate of 4 ml/l (Das 2000), Endosulphun at
0.075%, Cypermethrin at 0.03% (Das et al. 1995) were reported to be effective
against jute stem weevil and semilooper. The incidence of stem weevil was observed
to be less in jute plants inoculated with rice necrosis mosaic virus (RNMV) at early
stage of growth of 20 days after germination irrespective of the fertilizer regims on
both tossa (JRO 632) and white (JRO 212) jute varieties (Pradhan and Ghosh 1995).
Although few parasitoids were reported as effective bio control agents on jute
pests but the mass culture technology is yet to be perfected and thus insecticidal
interference is unavoidable in spite of their negative impact on the ecosystem.
Besides the application of insecticides, regular pest surveillance is essential.
Advanced integrated pest management strategies on the basis of previous damage
reports and response after application of pesticides and other measures are required
for achieving further success.
14 Biochemical Studies
Laskar et al. (1987) performed studies on the protein solubility of deoiled jute
(Corchorus olitorius L.) seed in different concentrations of NaCl at pH 8.0 and
reported 16 amino acid of which nine were essential. Gel filtration on sephadex
G-200 revealed the presence of four components, and their molecular weight were
determined by standard methods. Extractable jute seed protein in salt solution were
separated into six fractions electrophoretically (SDS-PAGE) whose molecular
weight were found to be 118,000; 103,000; 96,000; 67,500; 48,000 and 15,000 Da.
Maity et al. (2009a) reported distinct polymorphism in electrophoretic banding
patterns of seed protein following SDS-PAGE in nine jute species and led to the
detection of 52 polypeptide bands (cultivated members: C. olitorius L. – 42,
C. capsularis L. – 40; wild species: C. aestuans L. – 28, C. fascicularis Lam. – 23,
C. pseudocapsularis L. – 30, C. pseudoolitorius I. and Z. – 34, C. tridens L. – 30,
C. trilocularis L. – 26 and C. urticaefolius W. and A. – 35) with molecular weight
ranging between 13,000 and 122,500 Da. On the basis of this result the authors
obtained hierarchical cluster of the species based on proximity matrix by Unweighted
242 S. Maity et al.
Pair Group Method with Arithmetic Mean analysis. It revealed three prominent
clusters – Cluster1: C. trilocularis and C. urticaefolius; cluster 2: C. fascicularis,
C. tridens and C. pseudoolitorius and cluster 3: C. olitorius, C. capsularis and
C. aestuans. The authors were of opinion that clustering of genotype signifies close
genetic proximity among species which may be used in the crossing program for
generating wider variability for selection and crop improvement as well as for hybrid
identification in breeding experiments. Hussain et al. (2002) developed an easier
modified Kappa Number Method for the estimation of lignin in different samples of
jute. The developed method was reported by the authors to be efficient in comparison
with the tedious gravimetric analysis of lignin using corrosive inorganic acid.
Sengupta and Palit (2004) induced a lignin deficient mutant (dlfp) of C. capsu-
laris L. (JRC-212) with fibre strength as similar to normal plants. The mutant
had no decrease in the amount of alpha cellulose and showed hardly any change of
cellulose structure of the fibre. It is not the lignin but the amount of alpha-cellulose
present in the fibre was more important in providing mechanical strength to the jute
fibre (Palit et al. 2004, 2006; Sengupta and Palit 2004).
Palit and Bhattacharya (1984) categorically showed that jute to be C3 plant with
high rate of photorespiration. C. capsularis L. shows greater tolerance to stress than
others species of jute by restricting H2O2 and thereby inhibiting membrane damage
(Roy Chowdhury and Choudhury 1985). The activity of RuBP carboxylase enzyme
in jute leaf was about five times higher than its phosphoenol phosphate. Palit and
Meshram (2004) reported an exotic genotype (PPO4) with almost half the amount of
leaf chlorophyll had better photosynthetic efficiency.
Over the years, information regarding the key internal factor responsible for fibre
strength of jute was unavailable. Therefore improvement of fiber strength has been
unsuccessful. However, rigorous research on this aspect has solved the problem.
Taxonomic characterization has always been difficult in jute due to poor exploration
of wild and to some extent the cultivated species also. However, hierarchical clas-
sification in recent time using protein profile has provided an accurate characteriza-
tion for their classification. The stress tolerance ability of jute has also been increased
by manipulating some enzyme activity. All these reports discussed above proved the
importance of biochemical studies in Corchorus.
15 Cytogenetical Studies
15.1 Karyotype Analysis
Karyomorphological studies in jute species are scarce (Banerjee 1932; Datta 1968;
Datta et al. 1966; Paria and Basak 1973; Rao and Datta 1953; Sharma and Roy
1958) due to small sizes of chromosomes in species of Corchorus and presence of
lignin in cell wall that produces some difficulties in the hydrolysis of materials and
improper staining. For that reasons, photoplate evidence of jute mitotic chromosomes
are lacking.
Somatic chromosome number in C. olitorius L. and C. capsularis L. were

reported as 2n = 14 and the chromosome length varied from 1.3 to 2.7 mm (Sharma
and Roy 1958) and 1.7–3.7 mm (Paria and Basak 1973) in C. olitorius L. and C.
capsularis L. respectively. However, Datta et al. (1975) were of opinion that chro-
mosomes of C. olitorius L. are larger (1.95–3.30 mm) than those of C. capsularis L.
(1.65–3.10 mm). The authors also suggested that C. capsularis L. were with 7
median chromosomes and C. olitorius L. had 5 median and 2 sub-median chromo-
somes. Datta et al. (1975) observed that C. urticaefolius W. and A. (5 submedian, 2
sub terminal; length: 2.0–3.0 mm) and C. aestuans L. (2 median, 3 submedian and 2
sub terminal; length: 1.00–2.5 mm) also had 2n = 14 chromosomes while 3 median
and 4 submedian chromosomes were reported in C. trilocularis L. (2n = 14) by Datta
(1968). From karyotype analysis of some jute species it was indicated that evolution
in the genus was not only divaricated but intricate also (Datta et al. 1966, 1975).
Akhter et al. (1991) made karyotype analysis in diploid and colchicine induced tet-
raploids of C. olitorius L. and C. capsularis L. and suggested that there exist intra-
pair chromosomal heteromorphicity in few pairs apart from predicting distinct
centromeric and chromosomal formula. Samad et al. (1992) reported homomorphic
nature of chromosomes in C. olitorius L. Alam and Rahman (2000) observed
14 equal sized metacentric chromosomes in C. olitorius L., C. capsularis L. and
C. trilocularis L. with presence of one interstitial CMA-positive band in each of the
two chromosomes of C. capsularis and also one interstitial DAPI-positive band and
suggested common ancestral origin of the species due to the base specific banding
similarity of the chromosomes.
Maity and Datta (2009a) performed karyotype analysis in nine species of
Corchorus and provided first photo plate evidence of 2n = 14 mitotic chromosomes
(Fig. 3a) in this regard. The authors documented three (C. fascicularis Lam. –
2Amsc + 8Bm + 4Cm), two (C. olitorius L. – 2Bsmsc + 6Bm + 6Cm, C. capsularis L. – 2B
sc
m
+ 2Bsm + 4Bm + 2Csm + 4Cm, C. aestuans L.−2Bsmsc + 6Bm + 4Bsm + 2Cm; C. pseudooli-
torius I. and Z. – 2Bmsc + 8Bm + 4Cm; C. pseudocapsularis L. – 4Bm + 2Csmsc + 8Cm) and
one (C. tridens L. – 2Csmsc + 12Cm; C. trilocularis L. – 2Cmsc + 12Cm; C. urticaefolius
W. and A. – 2Cmsc + 10Cm + 2Csm) morphologically distinct chromosome types
(A = long: ³3.26 mm; B = medium: 2.26–3.25 mm and C = small: 1.25–2.25 mm) in the
genus. Variation in absolute chromosome length was also noted among the species
(C. olitorius L. –2.10–2.94 mm; C. capsularis L. –2.10–3.15 mm; C. aestuans L. –
2.03–2.83 mm; C. fascicularis Lam. – 1.77–3.50 mm; C. pseudocapsularis L.– 1.58–
2.74 mm; C. pseudoolitorius I. and Z. – 2.00–2.73 mm; C. tridens L.– 1.37–2.00 mm;
C. trilocularis L. – 1.50–2.07 mm and C. urticaefolius W. and A. – 1.61–2.25 mm).
15.2 Meiotic Studies
The haploid chromosome number in C. capsularis L. and C. olitorius L. was first

reported to be seven (Banerjee 1932) and later confirmed by Bhaduri and Chakraborti
(1948). The haploid chromosome number in C. tridens L., C. trilocularis L. and
244 S. Maity et al.
Fig. 3 Cytologiaogical behavior in Corchorus sp.: (a), Mitotic configuration in C. olitorius show-
ing 2n = 14 chromosomes at metaphase (b), Meiotic configuration at metaphase I showing normal
7II formation (c), 7–7 separation at Anaphase I (d), Aneuploidy at metaphase I showing n = 5
chromosome configuration (e), Aneuploidy at metaphase I showing 14II (f), Two adjacent PMCs
with n = 7 at upper and n = 5 at lower (g), Cytomictic chromosome behavior at diplotene (h),
Desynaptic behavior of chromosomes with 3II + 8I (i), 2n = 28 chromosomes in amphidiploid at
diplotene (Scale Bar = 10 mm)
C. fascicularis Lam. were also observed as seven (Datta 1952, 1953, 1954;
Mukherjee 1952; Rao and Datta 1953; Sharma and Datta 1953). Meiotic lability
was reported by Datta (1953) in both the cultivated species of jute and later in
C. fascicularis Lam. by Rao and Datta (1953) along with hypo- and hyperploid pollen
mother cells containing 4–12 bivalents, even 14 also observed in C. olitorius L. sug-
gesting possibility of the occurrence of polyploids under natural condition. Sharma
and Datta (1953) reported a type of C. capsularis L. (roundish leaf), with hypo- and
hyperploid PMCs containing 6–12 bivalents in addition to the normal number of

seven. Presence of secondary association of bivalents in C. capsularis L. was also
documented (Nandi 1937). Occasional presence of two bivalents in attachment with
the nucleolus was observed both in C. capsularis L. and C. olitorius L. (Datta 1952).
Kumar et al. (1981) reported 7 bivalents in two cultivated species of jute where ring
bivalents were most frequent and rod present occasionally. In C. tridens L. and C.
aestuans L., 5–9 bivalents and 5–14 bivalents respectively were reported in addition
to the normal seven bivalents (Annual Report JARI, 1952–53).
Maity and Datta (2009b) performed mean chromosome association in nine spe-
cies of jute and suggested that C. olitorius L. (mean/cell: 7 II – Fig. 3b), C. capsu-
laris L. (mean/cell: 6.98 II + 0.03 I), C. tridens L. (6.98 II + 0.03 I), C. trilocularis L.
(7 II) and C. urticaefolius W. and A. (7 II) always form 2n = 14 chromosomes at
metaphase I with balanced anaphase I (7/7) segregation (Fig. 3c). The authors also
noted numerical variations in chromosome number like n = 1,2,3,4,5 (Fig. 3d),6,9,10
and 14 (Fig. 3e) in addition to n = 7 (normal number – Fig. 3f) in the meiocytes of
C. fascicularis Lam. (24.42% – MI; 1.79% – AI), C. aestuans L. (33.33% – MI;
28.57% – AI), C. pseudoolitorius I. and Z. (24.69% – MI; 15.73% – AI) and
C. pseudocapsularis L. (2.56% – MI; 0.0% – AI) with aneuploidy and polyploidy.
Average chromosome association per cell at metaphase I was 0.002 VI + 0.006
IV + 6.98 II + 0.31I in C. fascicularis Lam., 6.55 II + 0.60 I, in C. aestuans L., 6.60
II in C. pseudoolitorius I. and Z. and 7.08 II + 0.21 I in C. pseudocapsularis L. Study
on meiotic chromosome configurations and chiasma frequency at diplotene in the
cultivated species of Corchorus revealed ring and rod (C. olitorius L.: ring –
2.66 ± 0.37/cell, rod – 4.25 ± 0.35/cell, chiasma: 1.37/bivalent, out of 24 cells ana-
lyzed; C. capsularis L.: ring – 4.68 ± 0.14/cell, rod: 2.32 ± 0.14/cell, chiasma: 1.67/
bivalent, out of 59 cells analyzed, C. aestuans L. : ring – 2.00 ± 0.22 /cell, rod –
4.96 ± 0.20/ cell, chiasma 1.28/ bivalent, 23 cells observed; C. fascicularis Lam. :
ring – 2.84 ± 0.16/cell, rod – 4.25 ± 0.14/cell, chiasma 1.42/ bivalent, 63 cells
estimated; C. pseudocapsularis L.: ring – 2.33 ± 0.20/ cell, rod – 4.08 ± 0.21/ cell,
chiasma 1.25/ bivalent, 24 cells noted; C. pseudoolitorius I. and Z. : ring – 1.44 ± 0.13/
cell, rod – 5.44 ± 0.14/ cell, chiasma 1.20/ bivalent, 27 cells observed; C tridens L. :
ring – 1.89 ± 0.10/ cell, rod – 5.11 ± 0.10/ cell, chiasma 1.27/ bivalent, 36 cells
scored; C. trilocularis L. : ring – 2.38 ± 0.19/ cell, rod – 4.60 ± 0.19/ cell, chiasma
1.34/ bivalent, 50 cells studied; C. urticaefolius W. and A.: ring – 1.94 ± 0.15/ cell,
rod – 5.06 ± 0.15/ cell, chiasma 1.28/ bivalent, 54 cells observed) configurations
having nonrandom in distribution of (p < 0.001) ring and rod bivalents among the
species; with random (p = 0.50−0.70) occurrence of chiasmata per cell and per biva-
lent (Maity and Datta 2009b).
15.3 Cytomixis
Cytomixis, a phenomenon relating to cell to cell migration of nuclear materials

through cytoplasmic connections (Gates 1911) was first noted by Kornicke (1901)
in pollen mother cells of Crocus sativus and since then its occurrence has been
246 S. Maity et al.
reported more commonly during microsporogenesis in countless flowering plants.

The phenomenon has also been recorded in root meristems (Brown 1947; Bobak
and Herich 1978; Jacob 1941; Sarvella 1958; Tarkowska 1960), leaves and epider-
mal scales (Tarkowska 1960) and tapetal cells (Cooper 1952; Sapre and Deshpande
1987). In spite of its wide occurrence and reports, the validity and significance of
the phenomenon is still ambiguous. Maity and Datta (2009b, 2010) noted cytomixis
in both cultivated (Fig. 3g) and wild species of jute leading to aneuploidy in the spe-
cies and also reported it from all hybrid lines.
15.4 Desynapsis
Maity and Datta (2009c) reported a spontaneous viable desynaptic (medium strong)
mutant (monogenic recessive) in C. fascicularis Lam. with morphological varia-
tions than normal (1 out of 27 plants scored) jute species following male meiotic
analysis and demonstrated enhanced univalent frequency per cell – Fig. 3h (4.05,
normal – 0.31), reduced number of chiasma (6.67, normal – 7.28) and bivalent
(5.12, normal – 6.99) per nucleus, few meiocytes (13.64%, normal – 5.36%) with
unequal separation at AI, Cytologically near normal AII (94.83%, normal –
100.00%) cells and high male fertility (81.77%, normal – 92.06%).
15.5 Polyploidy
Maity and Datta (2010) induced an amphidiploid (2n = 4× = 28) with normal pairing
(Fig. 3i) behavior (to expand the gene pool for crop improvement) from the seeds
of F1 hybrid (C. trilocularis L. × C. capsularis L.) plants (Fig. 4a) by treating the
meristematic tips of young seedlings bearing only two cotyledonary leaves with
aqueous solution of colchicine (0.25% and 0.5% treatments for 6 h on 1, and 2
consecutive days; 10 seedlings were treated in each lot for each variety). The
amphidiploids (allopolyploid) induced (0.5% colchicine, 6 h, 2 consecutive days)
was found to possess general polyploid traits like reduced growth (Fig. 4b), vigor
and viability but with enhanced chlorophyll content in leaf and enlarged stomata
(Fig. 4c) than F1 (Fig. 4d) but with near normal pairing behavior (12.95 bivalent/
cell and 2.10 univalent /cell) and high pollen fertility (82.53%). The pollen
(Fig. 4e) size was also enhanced in this allopolyploid in comparison to F1
(Fig. 4f). The plant yielded a total of 32 seeds but seed size increased signifi-
cantly than F1.
Lignification of somatic cells has been a major constraint of karyotype analysis
for a long time in jute. Due to unavailability of karyotype data and poor information
on behavior of meiotic chromosomes it was difficult to ascertain the interrelation-
ship among the species of Corchorus. It has led to unsuccessful hybridization
Fig. 4 Morphological and different attributes in Corchorus plant types: (a), F1 plant
(b), Amphidiploid plant (c), Enlarged stomata in amphidiploid (d), Normal sized stomata in F1
(e), Enlarged pollen grains in amphidiploid with micropollen formation marked by arrow
(f), Pollen morphology in F1 plant (Scale Bar of Fig. 3c–f is 100 mm)
248 S. Maity et al.
among species and responsible for limiting the scope of raising a superior hybrid.
However, recent reports on all of these aspects will be helpful to the future
researchers for creating superior plant types following successful hybridization.
16 Pollen Morphology
Maity et al. (2009b) performed palynological studies of two cultivated (Corchorus

capsularis L. and C. olitorius L.) and seven wild (C. aestuans L., C. fascicularis
Lam., C. pseudocapsularis L., C. pseudoolitorius I. and Z., C. tridens L., C. trilocu-
laris L. and C. urticaefolius W. and A.) species of jute following acetolysis (Erdtman
1952) and Scanning Electron Microscopic Analysis and revealed subprolate (excep-
tion: C. pseudocapsularis L. – prolate), tricolporate (excepting: C. trilocularis L.
had both tricolporate – 90.0% and tetracolporate – 10.0% pollen grains) Nature of
pollen grains having medium to relatively longer colpi with normal or incurved
margin. The authors also reported variable pollen size with lalongate pore (raised or
inconspicuous edges), reticulated exine surface and irregular morphology of walls
among the species.
Identification of pollen characters through Scanning Electron Microscopy and
acetolysis techniques may be the additional parameters to decipher inter relation-
ship among different species of Corchorus.
17 Genetical Studies
17.1 Induced Mutagenesis
The systematic breeding programme in jute has been inadequate (since the early
1940s) due to its lack of genetic variability. To get rid of this constraints, physical
mutagens (X-ray, gamma-ray) were applied extensively for obtaining genetic varia-
tion in short period of time and various aspects on both basic and applied mutagen-
esis in jute were documented over time by Basu (1965), Bose and Banerjee (1976),
Chattopadhyay et al. (1999), Kundu et al. (1961), Rakshit (1967), Sharma and
Ghosh (1961), Shaikh and Miah (1985), Singh et al. (1973), and Thakare et al.
(1973). Jacob and Sen (1961) obtained three X-ray induced haploids in C. olitorius
L. but not exploited further. Thakare et al. (1974) reported four primary trisomics
from irradiated population of C. olitorius L. Basak et al. (1979) documented hap-
loids in C. olitorius L. by crossing mutant strains but the genetic combination was
found to possess profound negative effect on fibre yield.
Apart from cytological variation by mutagenesis, plant type induced mutation in
C. olitorius L. are crumpled leaf (40 kR X-ray – tolerance to drought and non-
shattering pod; Singh et al. 1973); tobacco leaf (50 kR X-ray – increased number
of internodes; Singh et al. 1973); narrow leaf (60 kR X-ray + 1.0% EMS – small
Fig. 5 Morphological and anatomical attributes in normal and mutant plant types of Corchorus
sp.: (a), Induced chlorophyll deficient mutant plant type chloroxantha in C. olitorius at left posi-
tion with the normal plant at the right side (b), Stick of thick stem mutant plant of C. olitorius at
the right and normal plant at left position (c), Stem anatomy of normal C. olitorius plant
(d), Distinct variation in fibre pyramid size and distribution in the stem anatomical section of thick
stem mutant plant (Scale Bar of Fig. 4c–d is 500 mm)
narrow deep green leaf; Chattopadhyay et al. 1999); KOM 62 (gamma-ray induced
– Chowdhury et al. 2004) and those of C. capsularis are patchy albino leaf (30 kR
X-ray – rectangular fibre wedge, Singh et al. 1973); ribbon leaf (male sterile –
Rakshit 1967); soft stem – (absence of lignified fibres, Chattopadhyay et al. 1999);
unfolded lamina (50 kR X-ray – no lignification in secondary phloem, Chattopadhyay
et al. 1999); snow white (snow white fibre – Ahmed et al. 1983); short petiole –
(efficient solar radiation utiliser – Sinhamahapatra 2005); narrow erect leaf
(Anonymous 1970); JRC 7447 (X-ray induced – Chowdhury et al. 2004); KC l
(Gamma-ray induced – Chowdhury et al. 2004); Bidhan Pat I (Gamma-ray –
Chowdhury et al. 2004) amongst others.
Maity and Datta (2009d) reported eight induced (different doses of gamma-irra-
diations: 50, 100, 200 and 300 Gyre and EMS: 0.25, 0.50 and 1.00% for 2 and 4 h
durations) viable morphological mutants of C. olitorius L. including chloroxantha
(Fig. 5a), viridis, pigmented stem, thick stem I (Fig. 5b) and II, broad leaf, lax
250 S. Maity et al.
branching and late flowering at M2. Normal and mutants had 2n = 14 chromosomes
at metaphase I. Mutation frequency were higher in EMS induced mutants (1.49%)
than gamma irradiations (0.52%). The mutant traits were found monogenic reces-
sive to normal. Analysis of stem anatomical features from suitable transverse sec-
tions in control (Fig. 5c) and in 3 mutants (thick stem I – Fig. 5d and thick stem II
and pigmented stem) revealed that fibre zone, number of fibre pyramid/ section and
number of fibre bundles / pyramid enhanced significantly in mutants than control.
The authors also reported these mutants as promising plant types (in comparison to
the normal untreated plant) on the basis of physiological (Thick stem I and broad
leaf – high photosynthetic efficiency; thick stem I and lax branching – drought toler-
ant), biochemical (seed protein content: Thick stem I – 18.1% and broad leaf 17.2%),
yield (Lax branching – enhanced fibre yield) parameters and possessed lower
amount of lignin content in fibre (3.5–8.5%) than control (11.0%).
Jute mutants are available as marker traits and genetic linkage between two
marker genes in C. capsularis L. were: (i) bitter leaf taste and branching habit
(Ghosh et al. 1948), (ii) branching habit and fasciation of stem (Basak et al. 1971),
(iii) blue seed-coat and snow white fibre (Ahmed et al. 1983), (iv) snow white fibre
and green stem (Ahmed et al. 1983); (v) leafy stipule and green seed-coat (Basak
1993), (vi) cordate leaf and dwarf stem (Basak 1993) and leaf stipule and non-
abscisic leaf petiole (Basak 1993). Maity and Datta (2009d) suggested viridis, chlo-
roxantha (seedling colour) and pigmented stem mutants to be used as genetic
markers in efficient breeding programme in tossa jute.
Induced mutagenesis is as an effective tool for creating superior plant types hav-
ing morphological and biochemical marker traits. The mutants evolved seem to be
in the direction of the objective for better exploitation being looked for in the crop.
Proper agronomic management of mutants is most desirable for their future explo-
ration in the field of genetics and efficient breeding in the species.
18 Anatomy
18.1 Stem Anatomical Parameters in Relation to Fibre Yield
In jute, fibre bundles form definite layers of concentric arcs in succession in cones
or pyramids which lie next to the cambial layer towards the periphery of the stem in
the cortical region and the number of layers in each arc varies according to species
or varieties in each species (Hazra and Karmakar 2008). The length and breadth,
thickness of wall and dimensions of lumen of the fibre cells are different in different
axial positions of the plant parts. The degree of variations in each character is
different in different jute varieties and strains (Haque 1992; Haque et al. 1976). The
genetic relationship between anatomical characters and fibre yield and quality in
white jute was reported (Chen 1991; Chen et al. 1990). It was reported by Kundu
(1954, 1968), Kundu et al. (1959) and Maiti (1997) that fibre yield depends on the
anatomical parameters like bark thickness, number of fibre pyramids, number of

fibre bundles in a fibre pyramid, fibre bundle compactness, density of fibre bundles
per unit area and arcs of non fibrous tissue between the epidermis. Lower value for
last parameter as stated above indicate higher yield and higher values for the rest of
the parameters indicate higher yield (Islam et al. 1980). Maiti (1997) proposed posi-
tive correlation between fibre fitness and area of transverse section of fibre bundle
and number of cells per bundles. Majumdar (2002) documented that fibre quality
depends on fibre fitness and mean area of fibre bundle minus lumen area, followed
by that mean area of fibre bundle and number of cells per fibre bundle.
Maity et al. (2009c) performed transverse section of nine jute species – two cul-
tivated: of C. olitorius L. and C. capsularis L.; seven wild: C. aestuans L., C. fas-
cicularis Lam., C. pseudocapsularis L., C. pseudoolitorius I. and Z., C. tridens L.,
C. trilocularis L. and C. urticaefolius W. and A. from stem of uniformly matured
plant (at fruit ripening stage,175–180 days from sowing) having basal zone: 1.5–
2.0 cm. above ground level and upper zone: 15.0–20.0 cm. from apex, following the
double staining method of Johansen (1940), considering the following aspects: fibre
zone, appearance and shape of phloem fibre, number and area of fibre pyramid,
number of bundles per pyramid, diameter of fibre cell, xylem area and Nature of
pith and reported distinct variation in the species (C. oilitorius L.: discontinuous
phloem fibre with disintegrated pith and elongated phloem patches having oblong
outline; C. capsularis L.: phloem zone one third of the xylem zone, pith disinte-
grated; C. fascicularis Lam.: continuous patches of phloem fiber with linear bun-
dles, phloem zones more or less half of the xylem zone, pith intact; C. tridens L.:
phloem zone one fourth of the xylem zone with rectangular bundles, pith intact; C.
urticaefolius W and A.: discontinuous patches of phloem with irregular, polygonal
fibrous zone, phloem and xylem zone occupying equal spaces, pith initiate to disin-
tegrate; C. pseudocapsularis L.: phloem zone one fourth of the xylem zone with
rectangular bundles, pith intact; C. aestuans L.: fibrous zone square in outline and
patches are pyramidal at base; C. trilocularis L.: phloem patches interrupted and
elongated oblong in outline; C. pseudoolitorius I. and Z.: phloem fiber continuous
and pyramidal at base with intact pith).
In jute mutants, variability in the anatomical features effecting fibre development
process indicates the possibility of influence of genetic control on fibre production
harnessing higher fibre yield. During searching for donors for fibre quality improve-
ment, these anatomical parameters should also be given emphasis along with physi-
cal parameters of the fibre. Apart from that inter relationship between different
species of Corchorus can also be depicted from anatomical parameters.
19 Interspecific Hybridization
Interspecific hybridization between C. aestuans L. and C. capsularis L. (Islam and

Sattar 1961), C. trilocularis L. and C. capsularis L. (Arangzeb and Khatun 1980;
Faruqi 1962; Maity and Datta 2008), C. aestuans L. and C. olitorius L. (Haque and
252 S. Maity et al.
Islam 1970) and C. trilocularis L. and C. capsularis L. and C. olitorius L. (Arangzeb

1994) were attempted with the objective to incorporate fine fibre trait from wild
species (donor) to cultivated members of jute. Of practical importance, it was found
that C. trilocularis L. donated fine fibre trait to C. capsularis L. in the elite strain
‘Tri Cap’ an interspecific hybrid from Bangladesh (Khatun 2007). Datta and Sen
(1961) performed crossings between Corchorus sidoides F.Muell. (as female par-
ent) × C. siliquosus L. (as male parent) and obtained 19.05% pod setting in com-
parison to 8.7% in reciprocal crossings but in either case crossed pods had nonviable
seeds. The authors were of opinion that the species were phylogenetically unrelated
and therefore the possibilities of getting viable hybrids were rather impossible.
Islam et al. (1973) isolated a spontaneous amphidiploid in the F3 progeny of the
cross, C. olitorius L. × C. depressus Stooks L. Islam et al. (1981) failed to develop
any plantlet in an attempt to produce polyploids through anther culture from a
spontaneous amphidiploid of the hybrid C. olitorius L. × C. depressus Stooks L.
Maity and Datta (2008) raised viable F1 hybrids (C. capsularis L. – male parent ×
C. trilocularis L. – female parent) plants and cytomorphologically assessed. The cross
derivatives of F1 hybrid were examined at diploid (F2 and F3 generations) and
tetraploid (amphidiploid) levels by the authors.
Although the wild species of Corchorus are poor fibre yielder, but are reported as
genetic resources for disease resistance (Palve et al. 2004). Conservation and exploi-
tation by interspecific hybridization between wild and cultivated species is an effi-
cient strategy for creating genetic diversity in jute.
20 Molecular Genetics
20.1 Genetic Diversity
Study of jute at molecular level has been very brief till now (Samira et al. 2010).
Molecular study of jute carried out till date includes genetic diversity analysis of
jute using different molecular markers e.g. RAPD, AFLP, chloroplast – SSR, SSR,
STMS and ISSR (Qi et al. 2003 a, b; Basu et al. 2004; Roy et al. 2006; Akter et al.
2008; Mir et al. 2008) and construction of genomic and cDNA library followed by
subsequent sequencing of randomly selected clones (Islam et al. 2005; Wazni et al.
2007). Hossain et al. (2002) investigated the genotype characteristics of cultivars
(12 accessions) along with varieties (9 different ones) of both of the jute species,
Corchorus olitorius and Corchorus capsularis by DNA fingerprinting analysis using
RAPD and generated species specific RAPD markers that helped to relates molecu-
lar marking data with existing genetic classification. Basu et al. (2004) evaluated
genetic diversity from 49 genotypes of C. olitorius and C. capsularis using ampli-
fied fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) and simple sequence repeat analysis
(SSR) and reported high level of variation between them. Qi et al. (2004) docu-
mented the fact that random amplification of polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and inter
simple sequence repeat (ISSR) markers, used for genetic diversity analysis of 27
accessions of jute from China, India, Vietnam and Japan, were found to be efficient
in revealing inter and intra specific genetic differences and diversity. Mir et al.
(2007) assessed the genetic diversity between C. olitorius and C. capsularis (81
genotypes used) for fibre yield and four other related traits, using SSR marker devel-
oped from C. olitorius.
In earlier time’s only morpho-physiological traits like plant height, harvest index,
stomata size, protein profile etc. were considered for genetic diversity analysis in
Corchorus. But they are limited in number and are often influenced by environment,
making them unsuitable for proper assessment of the genetic diversity. This con-
straint can be overcome by the use of molecular markers as they are unlimited in
number and not influenced by the environment. Apart from this genetic diversity
analysis by molecular markers are also considered as the most advanced and accu-
rate tool for taxonomic characterization, predicting evolution and performing phy-
logenetic analysis in all living organisms including jute.
20.2 Gene(s) Identified
The number of genes identified so far in jute is very limited (Samira et al. 2010).
Islam et al. (2005) documented sequences of 15 jute genomic and cDNA clones
having significant similarity to Arabidopsis genes. Wazni et al. (2007) reported 16
expressed sequence tags (ESTs) showing significant similarity to Arabidopsis.
EST’s reported from C. capsularis were RNA polymerase C1 (rpoC1) gene and
putative phosphate transport ATP Binding protein (Ingram et al. 2006), and that
from C. olitorius was chloroplast 18S ribosomal RNA gene (Stone et al. 2005).
Among three genes (caffeoyl-CoA-Omethyltransferase, cinnamyl alcohol dehydro-
genase and 4-coumaryl CoA-ligase) involved in lignin biosynthesis pathway, com-
plete cDNA sequences of the first two genes from C. capsularis have been deposited
in Gene Bank by Basu et al. (2004). Alam et al. (2010) identified a putative leucine-
rich repeat receptor-like protein kinase (LRR-RLK) gene together with its 5¢ and 3¢
untranslated regions of jute (Corchorus olitorius L.) and sequenced. The gene
(3,371 bp) contains two exons and one intron (coding sequence 2,879 bp long
encoding a peptide of 957 amino acids) and expressed in low temperature, high salt
concentration, dehydration, abscisic acid treatment, and fungal infection, suggest-
ing the involvement of the gene in multiple stress response pathways in jute (C.
olitorius L.). The authors were of opinion that LRR-RLK is the only jute gene
which has been completely sequenced and characterized till date. Samira et al.
(2010) reported the presence of nuclear, chloroplast and mitochondrial genes related
to signaling pathway, metabolic and functional processes of jute biology, to deter-
mine molecular marker linked to different biotic and abiotic stresses, after perform-
ing bioinformatics analyses of two jute Simple Sequence Repeat (SSR) libraries and
their analyses also revealed seven CpG islands and one rRNA gene.
254 S. Maity et al.
21 In Vitro Studies
21.1 Tissue Culture
The scope of crop improvement through gene introgression is limited due to presence
of a strong sexual incompatibility barrier between the two cultivated species of jute.
Protocols have been developed for jute explants and protoplast culture systems to
address these issues. Halder and Seraj (1992) obtained friable calli of Corchorus cap-
sularis L.var. D-154, var. CVL-1 and C. olitorius L.var. 0–4 by sub culturing compact
calli through suspension culture (MS + BAP + tyr and MS + BAP + tyr + NDGA hypo-
cotyl segments were used as inoculums) and found greater friability of callus in media
containing NDGA. They also observed optimum growth curves for suspension cul-
tures in MS + BAP + tyr + 2, 4-D. Saha and Sen (1992) have successfully performed
somatic embryogenesis in protoplast derived calli of C. capsularis L. Khatun et al.
(2003) established an efficient seed germination system and healthy seedling produc-
tion in different varieties (O4, O9897, OM1 and O72) of C. olitorius L. on agar sup-
ported hormone free MS medium and cotton free hormone supported Murashige and
Skoog (MS) medium and concluded that the percentage (98%) seed germination on
cotton supported medium was higher than the agar supported medium (46%). The
authors also observed that plant regeneration from the cotyledonary petioles of the
varieties on Murashige and Skoog agar solidified medium supplemented with IAA:
0.5 mg l−1 and BAP: 3.0 mg l−1 was as good as agar supported seedlings.
A liquid culture protocol was developed to regenerate shoots from cotyledons of
germinating seeds of C. capsularis L. by Saha et al. (2004). Mir et al. (2008) reported
a chloroplast DNA (cp DNA) marker, showing species specific hybridization pat-
terns with EcoRI – digested total genomic DNA of C. capsularis L. and C. olitorius
L., and used in the characterization of the somatic hybrid cell lines at their early
stages of growth.
Although tissue culture is a popular approach to overcome sexual incompatibil-
ity barrier between different species of Corchorus either for regeneration in short or
performing hybridization between distantly related species, some limitations also
exist. In earlier time regeneration of plant from cotyledons without petioles, hypo-
cotyles and root explants was nearly unachievable. This problem was solved by
adopting the method of callus culture and also regenerating plant from internodes,
zygotic embryo etc. using various combinations of growth regulators in Murashige
and Skoog medium.
22 Transgenic Development
Khatun et al. (1993) developed a direct transgenic plant regeneration protocol from
Agrobacterium tumifaciens infected explants. Biolistic particle delivery system
developed by Ghosh et al. (2002) is an efficient protocol for the generation of stable
genetic transformants in jute variety JRC 321. Transgenic hairy roots were induced
in jute cotyledons and hypocotyles of both C. capsularis L. and C. olitorius L.
using A. rhizogens strains and somatic embryos were obtained from these tissues.
The bialaphos resistance gene bar and rolC genes of A. rhizogens were used for
transformation and transgenic plants obtained showed resistance to bialaphos
(Mir et al. 2008).
Conventional breeding approach by various traditional methods has always been
the popular choice to breeders for creating high yielding varieties in jute. However,
these methods have some limitations like creating sexual hybrids, successful intro-
duction of foreign genes etc. Therefore biotechnological approach is necessary for
developing superior plant types with desirable foreign genes. Although information
on such kind of research is meager in jute but a future researcher will be benefited
with the existing reports discussed above for formulating convenient methods.
23 Market Value
The crop suits well in crop rotation and has high socio-economic (about 2.5 lakh
people are employed in the jute industry and 25 lakhs people are engaged in
jute based ancillary sector) significance in India and contributes about 40% of the
world production of jute fibre earning annually 1,200 crore rupees approximately as
foreign exchange by exporting different jute products (Karmakar et al. 2008).
24 Conclusion
The time and effort that has been devoted for the improvement of fibre crops is
much less as compared to vegetable and cereals. A detailed report regarding all
essential biological aspects will be helpful for widening the genetic base in
Corchorus. Molecular characterization of Corchorus species is essential and
together with the other information may provide better precision for exploring the
genetic diversity in jute.
Reports on normal and as well as abnormal cytological phenomenon, induced
mutagenesis, transgenic development, gene identification, anatomical features were
meager in jute over long time. Information on these aspects of both cultivated and
wild species provide a certain knowledge base which are essential to formulate an
appropriate research strategy to utilize valuable molecular techniques and generate
information on genome structure for its best exploitation. A beginning has already
been made in all these areas which need to be strengthening further for achieving
the desired goal in varietal improvement of jute. In addition, the collection and uti-
lization of jute germplasms have made a significant increase in productivity and
have to be assessed further for desirable traits to create market demand. Hence,
256 S. Maity et al.
introduction of trait specific germplasms has become a compulsion. However, strong

promotional efforts and price competitiveness has to be adopted also to make it a
popular choice for use.
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Jute Biology, Diversity, Cultivation, Pest Control, Fiber Production and

Chapter · April 2012

Animesh Kumar Datta

Nano-bio interaction, toxicity and mutagenesis View project

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Susmita Maity, Sandipan Chowdhury, and Animesh K. Datta

Keywords Corchorus • Cytomixis • Hybridization • Jute • Karyotype • Meiosis

2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid

MS Murashige and Skoog medium

Fig. 1 Plantation of jute:

2 Common Names and Synonyms

7.1 Land Preparation

Generally, the species is propagated by seeds either by broadcasting method

Seed dormancy creates a major difficulty in Corchorus cultivation (Schippers 2000).

11.1 Conventional Method of Retting

Majumdar et al. (2008) suggested conventional process of retting as steeping of

11.2 Chemical Retting

11.3 Dew Retting

11.4 Microbial Retting

12 Disease and Pests

13 Integrated Pest Management

15.1 Karyotype Analysis

Somatic chromosome number in C. olitorius L. and C. capsularis L. were

15.2 Meiotic Studies

The haploid chromosome number in C. capsularis L. and C. olitorius L. was first

hyperploid PMCs containing 6–12 bivalents in addition to the normal number of

Cytomixis, a phenomenon relating to cell to cell migration of nuclear materials

reported more commonly during microsporogenesis in countless flowering plants.

Maity et al. (2009b) performed palynological studies of two cultivated (Corchorus

17.1 Induced Mutagenesis

18.1 Stem Anatomical Parameters in Relation to Fibre Yield

anatomical parameters like bark thickness, number of fibre pyramids, number of

Interspecific hybridization between C. aestuans L. and C. capsularis L. (Islam and

Islam 1970) and C. trilocularis L. and C. capsularis L. and C. olitorius L. (Arangzeb

20.1 Genetic Diversity

20.2 Gene(s) Identified

21.1 Tissue Culture

introduction of trait specific germplasms has become a compulsion. However, strong

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