JUAN MIGUEL V.

ESPORLAS
2 CHE A

ASSIGNMENT IN LOGIC

CHAPTER 2
PIMPLE APPREHENSION, IDEA AND TERM

DEFINITION OF IDEA
 A thought or collection of thoughts that generate in the mind. An idea is usually
generated with intent, but can also be created unintentionally. Ideas often form
during brainstorming sessions or through discussions. – Business Dictionary

 In philosophy, ideas are usually construed as mental representational images of

some object. Ideas can also be abstract concepts that do not present as mental
images. Many philosophers have considered ideas to be a
fundamental ontological category of being. The capacity
to create and understand the meaning of ideas is considered to be an essential
and defining feature of human beings. – Wikipedia

 any conception existing in the mind as a result of mental understanding,

awareness, or activity. – Dictionary.com

 A thought or suggestion as to a possible course of action – Oxford Dictionary

HOW IDEAS ARE FORMED

 Simple Apprehension is the act of perceiving an object intellectually, without
affirming or denying anything concerning it. To apprehend is to take hold of a
thing as if with the hand; an apprehension, as an act of the mind, is an
intellectual grasping of an object. The mind cannot take an object physically into
itself; but it knows an object by taking it in intellectually, in a manner suited to its
own nature; forming to itself an intellectual image, called a species of the object.
 The act of forming this mental image is called a conception, and the fruit of
it, the image itself, is the concept, idea or notion of the object. The
word simple added to apprehension emphasizes the fact that the apprehension
neither affirms nor denies the existence of the object; it affirms nothing and
denies nothing, it simply conceives the idea of the object.

 This image of the imagination is the first step in the formation of an idea. All
knowledge starts with the senses. Generally speaking, nothing is in the mind
unless it passes thru the senses.

 The process of forming ideas will be of great help to us in understanding their

nature. All knowledge starts with the senses. Thus, man is able to produce the
sensible image of a thing called phantasm. This phantasm of the imagination is
the first step in the formation of an idea.

NATURE OF IDEAS
 Ideas are the building blocks of knowledge. They are the elements that constitute
judgments and judgments express either truth or error. Ideas must be thoroughly
understood because no building can be solid unless its foundation is solid.

 The idea is an abstract representation of things, and may be expressed or

defined by meaningful terms.

 Idea is Found in the INTELLECT, UNIVERSAL, CONSTATNT and possible of

COMPLEX and IMMATERIAL things.

 The idea must be carefully distinguish from the phantasm. The idea is the
meaning of the phantasm. In our present condition a phantasm usually
accompanies the idea. It helps fixate our thoughts.

MAIN PROPERTIES OF IDEA

1) Comprehension/ Intension
 is the set of thought elements or conceptual features contained in an idea. It is
also referred to as the implication, or the connotation of the idea.

 Includes all notes applicable to a term. The term “man”, for instance, implies
several defining notes, namely: “being”, “living”, “sentient”, “rational”.
  Thus, when someone asks for the meaning of a term, he expects an answer from
its comprehension. E.g., What is philosophy? – a science of all things by their
ultimate causes and principles as known by natural reason alone

 In logic, the comprehension of an object is the totality of intensions, that is,

attributes, characters, marks, properties, or qualities, that the object possesses,
or else the totality of intensions that are pertinent to the context of a given
discussion.

2) Extension / Denotation
 Is the range or scope of individuals and classes to which idea may be applied. It
is also referred to as denotation, application.
 Extension, instead, applies to the set of individuals that may be referred to by the
same term, as when I use “man” to refer to all the Earth’s humanoid inhabitants.
The extension concerns the universality (of individuals).
 It is manifested by division. Also known as application or denotation. The sum-
total of the individuals and classes or groups to which an idea can be applied.
The extension of an idea expresses the application of the thought-content to the
individuals and groups in which it is found.

 Thus, when a student asks for an example of Philosophy, he expects an answer

from its extension, as Logic, Epistemology, etc.

EXPRESSION OF IDEA
 Focus on development, organization, and language use in relation to the
speaker’s purpose.

 Verbal expression of ideas involves putting ideas into words. In most cases, you
need to verbally communicate your train of thoughts for you to be understood by
your listeners. In the articulation of your thoughts, many factors are considered to
convey the message effectively.

DEFINITION OF TERM
  A word or group of words (phrases) is called term. A term is the oral or written
representation of an idea or group of ideas (concept). It is also the basic
component of a statement.

 is the verbal expression of an idea. It is an articulate sound which serves as a

conventional sign of an idea. It may also be understood as an idea or group of
ideas expressed in words. We form ideas from the things we perceive, and then
we express or manifest our ideas to others by means of terms or words. Not all
words, however, are terms; some words have no referents, such as if, from, by,
and in. But all terms are words, for all terms are articulate sounds signifying
things.

TYPES OF TERMS
A. According to Comprehension

1. Univocal
 When a term is being applied to their inferiors in the same exact
essence

 When it retains the same meaning regardless of the subject to which

it is applied. A univocal term correctly and suitably designates a
subject.
 It has one meaning. This is when a term means the same thing in
more than one statement, e.g. “tasty” breakfast and “tasty” desert.
“Tasty” has the same meaning in both statements.

 A terms that has only one meaning. That is, it signifies only one
concept, and thus corresponds to only one definition. Such a term
always has the same intension wherever it is used. E.g. the term
"entomology" signifies the study of insects.

2. Analogical
 When is may be applied to several subjects having something in
common and something different from each other. Such a term fails
to designate a subject clearly but not necessarily incorrectly. Its
function is apparent in figurative language, such as metaphors.

 A term that is intended to convey one or more similar characteristics

that exist between two concepts. E.g. the term "data owner" is
applied to individuals who have no legal title to the data they
manage, but are expected to exercise responsibilities like those
 owners would typically exercise. Sometimes an analogous term can
be no different to an equivocal term.

 Terms become analogous when their inferiors are partly the same
but also partly different in their use or essence. The emphasis on the
analogy of inferiors, in this case called analogues, depends on the
degree of their relation with each other and to the general term.

3. Equivocal
 A term that has more than one meaning. That is, it signifies more
than one concept, and thus corresponds to more than one
definition. An equivocal term has different intensions when it is
used. E.g. the term "chihuahua" can signify (a) a breed of dog; (b) a
state of Mexico.

 When instances are under the same term but of entirely different
meaning, the term is equivocal. The term is referred by instances of
different meanings.

 It has two meanings. This is when there are two, unrelated

meanings, e.g. tree “bark” and a dog’s “bark.” We have same term
but two different meanings.
 A term is said to be equivocal (or ambiguous) when it may be
applied to several subjects but with a different meanings so as to
engender misunderstanding.
4. Collective/ Distributive
 Is a word which refers to a collection of things taken as a whole.

 Are names for a collection or a number of people or things. Words

like group, herd, and array are collective term.

DEFINITION OF SUPPOSITION
 The various functions of a term in the proposition is called the supposition of
term.

 is the property by which a term stands for a definite one of the various things it
can stand for

 The exact meaning it has in relation to the other words in a given sentence
KINDS OF SUPPOSITION
A. Material Supposition
 This refers to the use of the term in a manner by which it signifies simply
the spoken sound or the written symbol. It refers only to the given term
and not to the meaning of the term.
 is when an utterance supposits for itself.

 It is the use of a term for the spoken or written sign itself, but not for what
it signifies (Bacchuber, 1957, p.231). In the following examples, the
supposition of “chair” is material: “Chair rhymes with hair,” and “Chair has
R as its last letter”. In all these usages, chair is really a furniture, but the
fact that chair’s being a furniture has nothing to do with the
fact chair rhymes with hair, or that its last letter is R. Hence, in these
examples we only consider the material make up of the word “chair”.

B. Formal Supposition
 This is the use of a term for what it really means or signifies.

 Formal supposition is the use of a term not for the sign itself, but for what
it signifies. In the example “Chair is furniture”, chair has a formal
supposition because it is not the word chair that is furniture but what
the chair signifies that is furniture.

CHAPTER 3
PREDICABLES AND PREDICAMENTS

MEANING OF PREDICABLES
 Are the different kinds of logical universals, that is, universal concepts that may
applied to many subjects. Taken as classifications, they are universal concepts
bearing different kinds of logical relationship to the subject.

 is, in scholastic logic, a term applied to a classification of the possible relations in

which a predicate may stand to its subject.
MAIN TYPES OF PREDICABLES
A. Genus

 “Genus” comes from the Greek word for “race” or “family” and is related to
words such as genesis and generation. By extension “genus” has come to
mean “kind of thing.” In logic we use the word “genus” to refer to a kind of
thing which has other kinds underneath it.

 Genus is that which is predicated in answer to “What is it?” of many differing

in species.

 A genus (plural, "genera") is a class of things that differ in kind--e.g., "animal"

is a genus, because it is a class of things (e.g., cats, dogs, cows, etc.) that
differ in species.

 A universal term that expresses the essential feature which a things has in
common with other species; e.g., man is an animal. The predicate animal is
the genus or generic feature which man shares with the brutes.

 EXAMPLE:
Living things are divided into two basic kinds, plants and animals. Animals
themselves, however, are divided into kinds, e.g., dogs, men, horses, etc.
Therefore, “animal” is a term which signifies a kind of thing that has other kinds
under it. Animal, therefore, is a genus. It is the genus of dogs, men, horses,
etc. In the same way, since there are different kinds of living things, but living
thing is a kind of thing, then living thing is also a genus–the genus of plants
and animals.

B. Species
 “Species” comes from the Latin for “outward appearance.” Since things
with the same outward appearance are often the same kind of thing, by
extension “species” has come to mean “kind of thing.”

 Species is that which is arranged under genus. Alternatively, species is

that of which genus is predicated in answer to “What is it?”

 A universal term that expresses the whole essence or nature of the

subject. It embodies both the genus and the specific difference as
constituent or essential features of the subject; e.g., man is a RATIONAL
– ANIMAL.
  is a class of things that differ in number (i.e., many individuals) but not in
kind--e.g., "man" is a species, because it is a class of numerous
individuals of the same kind.

 EXAMPLE:
“Animal” is a genus for the species “man,” since man is arranged below
animal. In the same way, “living thing” is a genus for the species “animal”,
since animal is arranged below living thing. We call a species that which is
arranged below a genus.

C. Specific Difference
 A universal tern that expresses the essential feature which distinguishes
the essence of the subject from the essence of other things with which the
subject shares the same genus; e.g., man is a rational being. Rationality is
the essential feature which distinguishes the essence or nature of man
from that of brutes.

 Is what naturally separates those under the same genus. Alternatively,

specific difference is predicated in answer to “Of what quality?” of those
differing in species.

 In its most ordinary meaning, “difference” signifies whatever causes one

thing to differ from another.

 EXAMPLE:
Men and brute animals are both animals, but they are different
species of animals. What makes man different from the brutes? It is
primarily man’s rational powers; and so we call man the “rational animal.”

D. Logical Property
 A universal term that expresses a feature that does not form part of the
essence of the subject, but necessarily derives from its essence in an
exclusive and distinctive manner; e.g., man is a being capable of
education, of wonderment, of religious sentiment, etc.

 Is a universal term which is predicated of a species, not of an individual. It

does not tell us what a thing is, nor does it divide a genus into species.
Rather, it signifies a characteristic peculiar to all of one species.

 Is what happens to one species only, to all those in that species, and at all
times

 Example:
 An example of a property is risibility, i.e., the ability to laugh. All
men are risible, only men are risible, and we all possess the power to
laugh at all times. Furthermore, although none of the brute animals laugh,
the ability to laugh is not the root difference between man and the brutes.
It is, however, closely connected with that root difference–rationality. Thus,
“risible” is a property of man.

E. Logical Accident
 “Accident” comes from the Latin for “happening.” Whatever just happens
to be the case is an accident. Any term that denotes neither genus nor
species nor difference nor property is an accident

 Is what belongs contingently to a species and to the individuals of that

species.
 A universal term that expresses a feature which is not part of the essence
of the subject, not necessarily connected with it, but is found in the subject
only in an accessional or contingent manner; e.g., Pedro is healthy,
handsome or virtuous. Contingent means that the feature may be present
or may be absent from the subject.

 EXAMPLE:
For example, if Plato happens to have a tan, “tan” is an accident of Plato.

DEFINITION OF PREDICAMENTS
 A predicament in logic may be defined as a logical string of concepts
having universal extension, starting from a superior genus and
progressing down to an individual subject.

 Refer to the set of fundamental ideas in terms of which all other ideas can
be expressed.

TYPES OF PREDICAMENTS
A. SUBSTANCE
 Is a being that exists by or for itself and does not need any other subject
in order to exist. Ex. Man; house. It answers the question “who or what is
this thing?”

 Substance is defined as that which neither can be predicated of anything

nor be said to be in anything. Hence, this particular man or that particular
tree are substances. Later in the text, Aristotle calls these particulars
 “primary substances”, to distinguish them from secondary substances,
which are universals and can be predicated. Hence, Socrates is a
primary substance, while man is a secondary substance. Man is
predicated of Socrates, and therefore all that is predicated of man is
predicated of Socrates.

B. ACCIDENTS
 Is anything that cannot exist by itself and must be attached to a
substance. The following as the accidents:

1. Quantity – an accident which determines the spatial extension of a thing in

the form of magnitude or multitude. Ex. The pole is 10 feet long., I have ten
cookies. It answers the question “how much or how big?”

2. Quality – is an accident which specifies or characterizes a thing. Ex.

Intelligent; brave. It answers the question “what sort of a thing it is?”

3. Relation – is an accident which logically or really connects one thing with

another. Ex. Fatherhood; taller than. It answers the question “to what or to
whom does it refer to?”

4. Action – is the motion of the substance commonly inducing a result on doing

something in another time. Ex. Painting; running. It answers the question
“what he is doing?”

5. Passion – is the reception of an effect from another. Sometimes, it is called

reaction. Ex. Being heated; being killed. It answers the question “what does it
do to another?”

6. Time – is an accident that measure the duration of mobile beings. Ex.

Yesterday; at 8:30 am. It answer questions, “when?”

7. Place – is an accident that determines the location. Ex, in Catbalogan; in the

air. It answer the question, “where?”

8. Posture -– is an accident which tells the position of part of the body. Ex.
Standing; to sit down.

9. Habit – is an accident signifying the coverings of the things that are placed
around the body. Ex. Clothed; armed. It answers the question “how
surrounded, equipped or conditions?”

REFERENCES/LINK
[1] https://www3.nd.edu/~maritain/jmc/etext/lamp01.htm
[2] http://ourhappyschool.com/philosophy/term-logic
[3] http://www.slideshare.net/JoelMiano/logicideas-terms
[4] http://www.conanhughes.com/2010/11/kinds-of-terms-in-logic.html
[5] http://keysonlogic.com/en/term/univocal-equivocal-and-analogous-terms.html
[6] http://fbcweb.org/Doctrines/Logic.10.pdf
[7] http://logicwrendolf.blogspot.com/2013/11/supposition-of-terms.html
[8] http://josephbellophilosophy.blogspot.com/2009/01/predicaments-and-predicables.html
[9] http://artsofliberty.org/sites/default/files/final%20Lesson_03_0.pdf
[10] http://keysonlogic.com/en/term/the-predicaments.html
[11] http://philofbeing.com/2009/07/aristotle%E2%80%99s-ten-categories/