Progress. Agric.

24(1 & 2): 251 – 262, 2013 ISSN 1017-8139

FARMING PRACTICES AND LIVELIHOOD OF THE COASTAL

PEOPLE OF BANGLADESH

M. Taj Uddin1 and M. Nasrin2

Department of Agricultural Economics, Bangladesh Agricultural University
Mymensingh-2202, Bangladesh

ABSTRACT
The present study was designed to assess the farming patterns and farmers’
livelihood in coastal regions of Bangladesh. Three coastal districts namely, Khulna,
Satkhira and Bagerhat located in the southwest of Bangladesh were selected to
conduct the study. Fifty shrimp farmers from each district (a total of 150 farmers)
were selected for necessary data collection on the basis of farm size category (i.e.,
small, medium and large) following stratified random sampling technique.
Descriptive statistics like sum, average, percentages, etc. were derived and
calculated for analyzing the data. It was found that the farming system of coastal
region was mainly shrimp based. The amount of land devoted to agricultural crop
cultivation was declined due to shrimp cultivation for all categories of farmers.
Number of livestock except poultry and duck was decreasing due to shortage of
feed. Native fish species in fresh and open water bodies were also disappearing
gradually. Lower crop production was observed through surveyed region due to
lower productivity of land caused by salinity. However, shrimp cultivation opened
up new avenues for employment for the local people especially for women. Small
farmers get higher proportion of income (75.0% of total farm income) from shrimp
farming than medium (67.4%) and large farmers (73.6%). On an average, farmers’
income was increased which enhanced overall socioeconomic condition and
livelihood status. In spite of various adverse impacts of shrimp farming, it can be
recommended that proper planning, regulation and motivation of the farmers are
needed to develop an environment friendly shrimp farming as well as to maintain
sustainable agricultural production practices in the coastal regions of Bangladesh.

Key Words: Coastal, Salinity, Farming practices, Livelihood

INTRODUCTION
Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy of Bangladesh. The economic development is
inextricably linked with the performance of this sector. It is the most important livelihood
option for the coastal people of Bangladesh (GoB and UNDP, 2009). About 40 million
people of the coastal areas of Bangladesh depend on agriculture (BBS, 2011). It has been
identified as being of prime importance for achieving development goals in coastal areas
(BPRSP, 2005). Along with disasters, the agriculture practices of these areas are always
under threat. The coastal agriculture is transforming recently (Islam, 2006). Due to the

1Professor
and 2Lecturer, the paper has been developed from the first author’s research project
(No. 2012/02/MoST) funded by Ministry of Science and Technology, Bangladesh
252 Farming practices and livelihood of the coastal people

effects of frequent cyclones and storm surges and poor management, coastal areas have
become water logged and saline (Rahman, 1995). Farmers started commercial shrimp
cultivation to mitigate the loss in traditional agriculture to maintain their livelihood in the
1970s (Karim, 1986). From 1980s to the present, shrimp cultivation has created a substantial
economic and social transformation in those coastal areas. Furthermore, in recent years,
shrimp has become a significant foreign exchange earner for Bangladesh (DoF, 2010).
Shrimp (both brackish water and freshwater) is the second largest foreign exchange earner
after garments, and the largest agro-export earner in Bangladesh, although Bangladesh is a
small player in terms of the international market (i.e. 4.2 Per cent of world production of
farmed shrimp) (Uddin, 2009).

However, shrimp farming is a subject of criticism since it can damage the local ecology by
increasing the salinity of the water and soil, change the composition of the soil and bring
about rapid changes in land use and land cover (Haque, 2004). This can also lead to
disintegration of economic and social conditions of coastal rural communities (Ali, 2006).
Because of environmental and social impacts associated with shrimp cultivation, farmers of
the coastal areas are incorporating vegetables and domestic animals into existing farming
practices, integrating shrimp or prawn and fish with rice and vegetables. As a whole, the
people of the coastal areas are trying different agricultural practices to cope with the
changing environment (Mahmood, 2006). In view of these facts, the present study has been
designed to assess the farming patterns and farmer’s livelihood in coastal regions of
Bangladesh. The specific objectives of the study were (i) to identify the current farming
patterns and agricultural production; (ii) to assess the impact of on-going farming practices
on employment creation, income generation and livelihood of the farmers and (iii) to
suggest remedial measures and strategies for future sustainable agricultural production.

RESEARCH METHODS
Study areas were selected purposively mainly from three coastal districts namely, Dumuria
Upazila under Khulna district, Shymnagar Upazila under Satkhira and Bagerhat Sadar
Upazila under Bagerhat district located in the southwest of Bangladesh. Fifty farmers from
each district (a total of 150 farmers) were selected for necessary data collection on the basis
of farm size category (i.e., small, medium and large) following stratified random sampling
technique. Data were collected from respondents by using structured questionnaire and
conducting FGD (Focus Group Discussion) for group information. In addition to field level
primary data for this study, secondary information having relevance with this study were
also discussed which were collected from different handouts, reports, published and
unpublished documents of the Government of Bangladesh (GOB) and its different
organizations and agencies such as Statistical Yearbook of Bangladesh, Bangladesh
Economic Review, various journals, newspaper, notifications, etc. For analyzing the data,
mainly descriptive statistics such as sum, average, ratio, percentages, etc. were derived and
calculated to present the results.
 M. Taj Uddin and M. Nasrin 253

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Average land holding of farmers
Average land holding of small and medium farmers in Bagerhat (0.89 and 1.74 ha,
respectively) is slightly higher than the other areas. On the other hand, large farmers in
Khulna had a higher average land holding (3.97 ha) comparative to other region. Farmers
having less than 1.0 hectare land were small farmers, 1.1 to 3.0 hectare land were medium
farmers and more than 3.0 hectare land were identified as large farmers (Zaman et al., 2010).

Table 1. Average land holding of coastal farmers

Types of land Small Medium Large
Area (ha) Per cent Area (ha) Per cent Area (ha) Per cent
Khulna
Homestead Area 0.06 9.09 0.08 2.91 0.11 1.58
Owned cultivable land 0.33 50.00 0.25 34.55 1.21 17.36
Rented/mortgaged/leased- 0.29 43.94 0.63 33.09 1.34 47.92
in land
Rented/mortgaged/leased- 0.06 9.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
out land
Area under pond 0.04 6.06 0.41 29.45 1.31 33.14
Pasture land 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total 0.66 100.00 1.37 100.00 3.97 100.00
Bagerhat
Homestead Area 0.14 15.73 0.23 13.22 0.14 1.66
Owned cultivable land 0.17 19.10 0.21 12.07 1.26 14.95
Rented/mortgaged/leased- 0.24 26.97 1.02 58.62 1.87 51.84
in land
Rented/mortgaged/leased- 0.00 0.00 0.63 36.21 1.21 14.35
out land
Area under pond 0.34 38.20 0.91 52.30 1.77 45.91
Pasture land 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total 0.89 100.00 1.74 100.00 3.83 100.00
Satkhira
Homestead Area 0.05 5.75 0.09 5.77 0.11 1.50
Owned cultivable land 0.47 54.02 1.18 75.64 2.16 81.20
Rented/mortgaged/leased- 0.28 32.18 0.41 26.28 1.11 15.12
in land
Rented/mortgaged/leased- 0.00 0.00 0.24 15.38 0.00 0.00
out land
Area under pond 0.07 8.05 0.11 7.05 0.15 2.04
Pasture land 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.64 0.01 0.14
Total 0.87 100.00 1.56 100.00 3.54 100.00
Source: Field Survey, 2011
254 Farming practices and livelihood of the coastal people

Farming pattern and agricultural production in coastal region

The farming system of coastal region is generally shrimp based. Shrimp farming has
adversely affected the potential farming pattern as well as cropping pattern. Farmers
cultivate both local and HYV aman rice in kharif-II season. During kharif-I and rabi seasons,
the salinity intensity becomes higher and most of the farmers grow vegetables in their
homestead for their own consumption. Fruit trees like mango, jackfruit, black berry, battle
nut, date palm, etc. are disappearing gradually. Number of livestock is also decreasing due
to lack of grazing lands, shortage of feed, e.g. forage, straw, etc. However, the number of
poultry and duck is increasing. Some trees like babla, raintree and fruits like sofeda are
growing satisfactorily. Native fish species in fresh and open water bodies are also
disappearing gradually.

The farming pattern is revealed for Khulna, Bagerhat and Satkhira in Tables 2, 3 and 4,
respectively. The amount of land devoted to agricultural crop cultivation has been declined
except for sofeda due to shrimp cultivation for all categories of farmers. In Khulna, mainly
tomato and brinjal are grown in homestead area whereas in Bagerhat, tomato, bean and
pumpkin are grown. Brinjal, cabbage and cucumber represent the main homestead
vegetables in Satkhira. Among the livestock enterprises, dairy cattle and poultry have been
declined in number. However, ducks were found to increase in number due to shrimp
farming.

Table 2. Farming pattern of sampled farmers, Khulna

Name Small Medium Large Average
Crop (decimal)
Aman 81.5 214.7 498.9 265.0
Homestead vegetables (decimal)
Tomato 8.7 15.3 19.6 14.5
Brinjal 12.6 20.4 24.4 19.1
Spices (Chilli) 4.3 6.2 5.4 5.3
Fruits (decimal)
Mango 5.6 6.4 6.8 6.3
Sofeda 8.7 8.8 8.0 8.5
Shrimp (decimal) 116.0 404.8 1095.6 538.8
Livestock (Number)
Dairy cattle 0.9 1.7 1.9 1.5
Poultry 7.1 7.8 8.3 7.7
Duck 7.9 8.2 7.6 7.9
Source: Field Survey, 2011
 M. Taj Uddin and M. Nasrin 255

Table 3. Farming pattern of sampled farmers, Bagerhat

Name Small Medium Large Average
Crop (decimal)
Aman 65.1 151.9 811.2 342.7
Homestead vegetables (decimal)
Tomato 7.3 13.4 11.2 10.6
Bean 2.0 3.7 4.7 3.5
Pumpkin 5.2 9.6 6.6 7.1
Spices (Chilli) 3.1 5.5 7.1 5.2
Fruits (decimal)
Mango 10.9 58.1 81.4 50.1
Sofeda 15.8 27.1 45.8 29.6
Shrimp (decimal) 120.3 316.7 1435.3 624.1
Livestock (Number)
Dairy cattle 1.1 1.9 1.8 1.6
Poultry 9.4 8.9 8.3 8.9
Duck 13.7 17.5 12.4 14.5
Source: Field Survey, 2011

Table 4. Farming pattern of sampled farmers, Satkhira

Name Small Medium Large Average
Crop (decimal)
Aman 76.5 128.4 541.2 248.7
Homestead vegetables (decimal) 0.0
Brinjal 7.2 12.7 25.7 15.2
Cabbage 3.4 5.1 11.9 6.8
Cucumber 4.1 2.7 8.4 5.1
Spices (Chilli) 5.4 4.7 6.4 5.5
Fruits (decimal) 0.0
Mango 6.5 5.8 8.9 7.1
Banana 2.1 2.7 5.0 3.3
Sofeda 8.1 10.0 12.3 10.1
Shrimp (decimal) 116.9 271.5 1172.1 520.2
Livestock (Number) 0.0
Dairy cattle 0.8 2.1 3.0 2.0
Poultry 7.2 6.7 8.6 7.5
Duck 10.9 9.4 14.7 11.7
Source: Field Survey, 2011
256 Farming practices and livelihood of the coastal people

Lower crop production was observed due to lower productivity of land caused by salinity.
Crop yield has been reduced in all the regions. During kharif-II season, farmers usually
cultivate BR-23 rice (salinity tolerant variety) and sometimes vegetables. In addition, spices
are cultivated in rabi season. Overall production of fruit, vegetables, spices, etc. was
gradually declining due to shrimp farming. Vegetation, crops, fish and livestock are
seriously damaged by the processes of shrimp cultivation. However, shrimp production
was increasing year by year. Small farmers were cultivating their land more efficiently than
medium farmers. As a result, they were getting more production in many cases (Table 5).

Table 5. Agricultural production in coastal regions

Name Small Medium Large Average
Khulna
Kharif-II season
Rice (Kg) 1484.8 3911.6 9089.3 4828.6
Vegetable (Kg) 17.2 33.7 53.2 34.7
Rabi season
Vegetable (Kg) 20.7 40.5 59.7 40.3
Spices (Chilli) (Kg) 10.2 21.4 16.4 16.0
Fruits (Kg) 22.0 42.5 48.2 37.6
Shrimp (Kg) 179.8 245.8 665.3 363.6
Bagerhat
Kharif-II season
Rice (Kg) 1186.3 2766.9 13778.9 5910.7
Vegetable (Kg) 13.8 33.0 26.5 24.4
Rabi season
Vegetable (Kg) 21.7 47.6 39.5 36.3
Spices (Chilli) (Kg) 8.2 7.5 14.2 10.0
Fruits (Kg) 36.0 51.4 68.2 51.9
Shrimp (Kg) 182.8 192.3 871.6 415.6
Satkhira
Kharif-II season
Rice (Kg) 1393.7 2339.3 9859.1 4530.7
Vegetable (Kg) 15.4 23.4 31.6 23.5
Rabi season
Vegetable (Kg) 16.5 26.1 35.0 25.9
Spices (Chilli) (Kg) 11.5 13.0 14.3 12.9
Fruits (Kg) 39.0 40.2 59.7 46.3
Shrimp (Kg) 178.1 164.9 711.8 351.6
Source: Field Survey, 2011
 M. Taj Uddin and M. Nasrin 257

Employment status in coastal region

Shrimp farming is the major source of employment for people in coastal regions. Shrimp
farms require labour for various activities such as gher preparation (drying, clearing,
leveling of land, canal preparation, liming, manuring, etc.), carrying and releasing of post
larvae, weeding, guarding farms, harvesting, transporting and marketing of shrimp and
fish. Shrimp cultivation has opened up new avenues of employment for the local people
especially for women. Women get involved in shrimp fry collection. It was found that
around 40 % of total labourer was women who were involved in fry collection in the coastal
regions. They also worked as labourers in shrimp fields. After shrimp cultivation, most of
them were found to be working in shrimp related processing activities. Children are also
involved in shrimp culture to some extent. However, this is the fact only for small farmers.
In case of medium and large farmers, women are least involved in these activities.

Average labour hour spent (man-days) was comparatively lower in Rabi season in case of
both male and female labourers because the scope for labour selling was only for shrimp
production during this season. Whereas labours were employed for rice cultivation, canal
preparation, shrimp cultivation, etc, in kharif-II season. As a result, they spent more hours
on these activities.

Table 6. Labour utilization in coastal regions

Particulars Small Medium Large
Male Female Male Female Male Female
Kharif-II season
Working hours/day 7.8 5.6 7.3 3.2 6.7 1.8
Duration (man-days) 115.9 93.8 112.5 65.7 90.9 33.7
Wage/day 200.0 133.3 200.0 133.3 200.0 133.3
Rabi season
Working hours/day 7.2 4.8 6.7 2.6 6.0 1.4
Duration (man-days) 106.3 84.4 102.6 49.3 79.7 25.7
Wage/day 206.7 110.0 206.7 110.0 206.7 110.0
Source: Field Survey, 2011

Annual income of farmers in coastal regions

There are two main sources of income for the farmers: farm income and non-farm income.
Shrimp farming is the largest source of farm income for all categories of farmers in coastal
regions. Income from all other sources is declining. Next to shrimp farming, crop cultivation
is the major source of farm income for the farmers. However, small farmers get higher
proportion of income from shrimp farming than medium and large farmers. Shrimp
farming generated about 75.0% of total farm income for small farmers, 67.4 for medium
farmers and 73.6% for large farmers. Total income from shrimp farming as percentage of
total income was 72.3%, 60.0% and 56.9% for small, medium and large farmers, respectively
(Table 7).
258 Farming practices and livelihood of the coastal people

Table 7. Average annual income of farmers in coastal region

Particulars Small Medium Large
Total farm income (Tk.) 273053.0 338301.0 420633.0
Total non farm income (Tk.) 9679.0 42695.0 114125.0
Total income (Tk.) 282732.0 380996.0 534758.0
Income from shrimp farming as percentage of total farm income 75.0 67.4 73.6
Income from shrimp farming as percentage of total income 72.3 60.0 56.9
Source: Field Survey, 2011

Livelihood status of coastal people

The farmers’ overall livelihood status was assessed on the basis of asset pentagon which is
composed of five types of capitals namely human capital, social capital, natural capital,
physical capital and financial capital (DFID, 2000). Farmers’ income was increased which
enhanced overall socioeconomic condition and livelihood status. Their technical knowledge,
social network, housing and sanitation facilities, communication facilities, cash income and
savings, managerial capacities, etc. were improved. However, farmers’ health condition was
deteriorated to some extent due to disease outbreak, scarcity of safe drinking water, etc.
Majority of the respondents had decreased access to forest resources due to increasing
salinity impacts of shrimp farming. Educational status of majority of the respondents was
enhanced. Household asset possession was increased. The number of dwelling houses,
household furnitures, luxury items like mobile phone, TV, fan, refrigerators, etc. was
increased (Table 8).

Table 8. Perceived livelihood status of farmers in the coastal regions

(Percentages of farm household reported)
Asset category Responses
Increase Decrease Constant
Human capital
Health 34 40 26
Education 71 5 24
Training 19 10 71
Knowledge/Efficiency 73 - 27
Access to information 23 15 62
Social capital
Involved in social group 15 62 23
Political involvement 70 9 21
Self managerial capability 78 7 15
Social access/network 64 6 30
 M. Taj Uddin and M. Nasrin 259

Asset category Responses

Increase Decrease Constant
Natural capital
Cultivable land 7 10 83
Using open water resources 4 20 76
Forests 7 53 40
Physical capital
Building 13 7 80
Tin roof 57 5 38
Tube well 69 5 26
Paka toilet 52 7 41
Electric fan 80 2 18
Bicycle/Motorcycle 67 5 28
Radio/TV 70 3 27
Cot/ Chair/Table 85 2 13
Mobile phone 81 2 17
Refrigerator 22 3 75
Shop 13 29 59
Financial capital
Cash in hand 79 5 16
Cash at bank/ Liquid assets/ Saving 45 13 42
Remittances/ Donation/Grant/Aid 7 5 88
Source: Field Survey, 2011

Problems faced by the coastal farmers and probable suggestions

Various problems were faced by the farmers in coastal regions. Some of the major problems
as revealed during the field survey are mentioned in Table 8. Ranking of the problems and
solutions was done on the basis of farmer’s responses. An individual reported more than
one problem. So, addition of percentages will not necessarily equal to 100.

i) Agricultural crop production was mostly affected by shrimp farming as its effects
reflected on land fertility. Cultivation of shrimp needs storage of saline water for a long
period which results in percolation of salt. Moreover, shrimp producers keep on adding
extra salt into the water to ensure better growth of shrimp during monsoon. The extra
salt gets stored in the field and adds to the salinity level further. Thus, shrimp farming
increases soil salinity in non-saline area that hampers crop cultivation seriously. Crop
and vegetable yield reduces in shrimp prone areas due to lack of salt tolerant varieties.
In the study area the fruit tree like jackfruit, date, palms, etc. were reducing gradually.
260 Farming practices and livelihood of the coastal people

ii) Soils in the coastal regions contain high acidity which causes cultured shrimps
vulnerable to diseases. In addition, shrimp production mainly depends on good quality
of shrimp fry. Lack of good quality of shrimp fry was another major problem as
reported by the respondents in the coastal regions of Bangladesh.
iii) Moreover, higher prices of inputs, financial constraints, inadequate marketing facilities
such as, storage and transport facilities, theft of shrimp from the field etc., were some of
the more common problems in the coastal regions.

Table 9. Major problems faced by the respondents and their probable solutions
Major problems faced by Per cent of Rank Probable solutions Rank Per cent of
the respondents responses responses
Decreasing agricultural 78 1 Switching facility of public 1 71
production dam
Shortage of fresh water 48 2 Zoning of coastal regions 2 39
Outbreak of viral diseases 41 3 Precautions for viral 3 35
diseases
Lack of good quality of 25 4 Technical support to ensure 4 24
shrimp fry quality shrimp fry
Source: Field Survey, 2011

In spite of various adverse impacts, economic benefit of shrimp farming cannot be

overlooked for a developing country like Bangladesh. Shrimp farming has a great potential
in the country. In order to ensure a sustainable agricultural production including shrimp
production in coastal regions, the following suggestions were given:
i) Zoning of coastal regions on the basis of ecological conditions, soil and water quality
may be implemented. Shrimp cultivation can be restricted only where the salinity level
is high so that surrounding agricultural production is not hampered.
ii) Facility of public dam maintaining a minimum water depth should be ensured so that
salinity level does not increase in the surrounding area of shrimp ghers. Infrastructure
facilities for different types of farming should be developed.
iii) Precautions for viral diseases should be undertaken. The scientific use of chemicals
should be ensured.
iv) Technical support to ensure quality shrimp fry should be provided.
v) Efficient transport and marketing system should be developed.

CONCLUSION
This study assessed the farming patterns and farmers’ livelihood in coastal regions of
Bangladesh. The farming system of coastal region is generally shrimp based. The major field
crop was rice (i.e., Aman). During kharif-I and rabi season, the salinity intensity becomes
higher and farmers do not cultivate aus and boro rice in the coastal regions. Fruit trees like
 M. Taj Uddin and M. Nasrin 261

mango, jackfruit, black berry, bettle nut, date palm, etc. were disappearing gradually.
Number of livestock was also decreasing due to shortage of feed and fresh water. However,
the number of poultry and duck was increasing. Native fish species in fresh and open water
bodies were also disappearing gradually. Lower crop production was observed through
surveyed regions due to lower productivity of land caused by salinity. Vegetation, crops,
fish and livestock were seriously damaged by the processes of shrimp cultivation. The
labour hour spent by both men and women has increased for shrimp cultivation in coastal
regions. Small farmers get higher proportion of income from shrimp farming than medium
and large farmers as they were cultivating their land more efficiently and getting more
production in many cases. Although increased income enhances overall socioeconomic
condition and livelihood status of the farmers, their health condition was deteriorated to
some extent due to disease outbreak, scarcity of safe drinking water, etc. In spite of various
adverse impacts, shrimp farming has a great potential in a developing country like
Bangladesh. Good management practice (GMP) can ensure a sustainable growth and return
from agricultural production. Finally, it can be recommended that proper planning,
regulation and motivation of the farmers are needed to develop environment friendly
shrimp farming as well as to maintain sustainable agricultural production practices in the
coastal belt of Bangladesh.

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