KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN

PRT RECRUITMENT-2018
STUDY MATERIAL FOR GENERAL SCIENCE
(BIOLOGY,CHEMISTRY,PHYSICS)
COMPLETE SYLLABUS
(AS PER NCERT TEXT BOOKS)

LATEST EDITION
ACCORDING TO THE NEW SYLLABUS

2018

BY
SAIKRISHNA SIR
9494876469

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 INDEX

PART-1 : BIOLOGY
S.NO TOPIC NAME PAGE
1. LIVING WORLD 4
2. HUMAN BODY 9
3. PLANT LIFE 23
4. NATURAL VEGETATION & WILDLIFE 34
5. FOOD 40
6. NATURAL PHENOMENON 42
7. SOLAR SYTEM - PLANETS 47
8. INDIA – IT’S SURFACE 52
9. INDIA – NATURAL RESOURCES 57
10. INDIA – FOOD & CROP 63

PART -2 : CHEMISTRY
S.NO TOPIC NAME PAGE
1. PHYSICAL and CHEMICAL CHANGES 67
2. MATTER 69
3. SOLIDS, LIQUIDS and GASES 70
4. ATOMS and MOLECULES 75
5. STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM 78
6. ELEMENTS 81
7. CLASSIFICATION OF HYDROCORBONS 83
8. RADIOACTIVITY 86
9. GREEN HOUSE EFFECT 88
10. PHOTOSYNTHESIS 89

PART -3 : PHYSICS
S.NO TOPIC NAME PAGE
1. MOTION 91
2. FORCE and MOTION 92
3. MOTION ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE 94
4. ACCELERATION 96
5. UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION 97
6. LAWS OF MOTION 97
7. LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 98
8. LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 98

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Growth, reproduction, ability to sense environment and mount a suitable response metabolism, ability to
self-replicate, self-organise, interact and emergence etc..are unique features of living organisms.
GROWTH :
+Increase in mass and increase in number of individuals are twin characteristics of growth.
+A multicellular organism grows by cell division. In plants, this growth by cell division occurs continuously
throughout their life span.
+In animals, this growth is seen only up to a certain age. However, cell division occurs in certain tissues to
replace lost cells.
+Unicellular organisms grow by cell division.
+Increase in body mass is considered as growth.
+Growth exhibited by non-living objects is by accumulation of material on the surface.
REPRODUCTION :
+In multicellular organisms, reproduction refers to the production of progeny possessing features more or
less similar to those of parents.
+Invariably and implicitly we refer to sexual reproduction. Organisms reproduce by asexual means also.
+In lower organisms like yeast and hydra, we observe budding. In Planaria (flat worms), we observe true
regeneration, the fungi, the filamentous algae, the protonema of mosses, all easily multiply By
fragmentation.
+unicellular organisms like bacteria, unicellular algae or Amoeba, reproduction is synonymous with
growth, i.e., increase in number of cells.
+There are many organisms which do not reproduce (mules, sterile worker bees, infertile human couples).
METABOLISM :
+All living organisms are made of chemicals.
+There are thousands of metabolic reactions occurring simultaneously inside all living organisms, be they
unicellular or multicellular.
+All plants, animals, fungi and microbes exhibit metabolism.
+The sum total of all the chemical reactions occurring in our body is metabolism.
+No non-living object exhibits metabolism. Metabolic reactions can be demonstrated outside the body in
cell-free systems.
CELLULAR ORGANISATION OF THE BODY :
+The most obvious and technically complicated feature of all living organisms is this ability to sense their
surroundings or environment and respond to these environmental stimuli which could be physical,
chemical or biological.
+ Plants also respond to external factors like light, water, temperature, other organisms, pollutants, etc.
+All organisms, from the prokaryotes to the most complex eukaryotes can sense and respond to
environmental cues.
+ Human being is the only organism who is aware of himself, i.e., has self-consciousness.

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+Living organisms are self-replicating, evolving and self-regulating interactive systems capable of
responding to external stimuli. Biology is the story of life on earth.
+Biology is the story of evolution of living organisms on earth. All living organisms – present, past and
future, are linked to one another by the sharing of the common genetic material, but to varying degrees.
DIVERSITY IN THE LIVING WORLD
+If you look around you will see a large variety of living organisms, be it potted plants, insects, birds, your
pets or other animals and plants. There are also several organisms that you cannot see with your naked
eye but they are all around you. This refers to biodiversity or the number and types of organisms present
on earth.
+There is a need to standardise the naming of living organisms such that a particular organism is known
by the same name all over the world. This process is called nomenclature.
+Nomenclature or naming is only possible when the organism is described correctly and we know to what
organism the name is attached to. This is identification.
+For plants, scientific names are based on agreed principles and criteria, which are provided in
International Code for Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN).
+ Animal taxonomists have evolved International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN).
Binomial nomenclature :
+ Biologists follow universally accepted principles to provide scientific names to known organisms. Each
name has two components – the Generic name and the specific epithet. This system of providing a
name with two components is called Binomial nomenclature.
+ This naming system given by Carolus Linnaeus is being practised by biologists all over the world. This
naming system using a two word format was found convenient.
Other universal rules of nomenclature are as follows:
1. Biological names are generally in Latin and written in italics. They are Latinised or derived from Latin
irrespective of their origin.
2. The first word in a biological name represents the genus while the second component denotes the
specific epithet.
3. Both the words in a biological name, when handwritten, are separately underlined, or printed in italics to
indicate their Latin origin.
4. The first word denoting the genus starts with a capital letter while the specific epithet starts with a small
letter. It can be illustrated with the example of Mangifera indica.
5. Name of the author appears after the specific epithet, i.e., at the end of the biological name and is
written in an abbreviated form, e.g., Mangifera indica Linn. It indicates that this species was first described
by Linnaeus.

+It is necessary to devise some means to make this possible. This process is classification.
+ Classification is the process by which anything is grouped into convenient categories based on some
easily observable characters.
+ The scientific term for these categories is taxa. Taxa can indicate categories at very different levels.
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+ Based on characteristics, all living organisms can be classified into different taxa. This process of
classification is taxonomy.
+External and internal structure, along with the structure of cell, development process and ecological
information of organisms are essential and form the basis of modern taxonomic studies.
+ Characterisation, identification, classification and nomenclature are the processes that are basic to
taxonomy.
+ knowing more about different kinds of organisms and their diversities, but also the relationships among
them. This branch of study was referred to as systematics.
+The word systematics is derived from the Latin word ‘systema’ which means systematic arrangement of
organisms. Linnaeus used Systema Naturae as the title of his publication.
+ Classification is not a single step process but involves hierarchy of steps in which each step represents
a rank or category. Since the category is a part of overall taxonomic arrangement, it is called the
taxonomic category and all categories together constitute the taxonomic hierarchy.
+ Taxonomical studies of all known organisms have led to the development of common categories such
as kingdom, phylum or division (for plants), class, order, family, genus and species. All organisms,
including those in the plant and animal kingdoms have species as the lowest category.
Species :
+Taxonomic studies consider a group of individual organisms with fundamental similarities as a species.
+ Human beings belong to the species sapiens which is grouped in the genus Homo. The scientific name
thus, for human being, is written as Homo sapiens.
Genus :
+Genus comprises a group of related species which has more characters in common in comparison to
species of other genera.
+ Genera are aggregates of closely related species.
Family :
+Family, has a group of related genera with still less number of similarities as compared to genus and
species.
+Families are characterised on the basis of both vegetative and reproductive features of plant species.
Order :
+Earlier categories like species, genus and families are based on a number of similar characters.
+Generally, order and other higher taxonomic categories are identified based on the aggregates of
characters. Order being a higher category, is the assemblage of families which exhibit a few similar
characters.
Class :
+This category includes related orders.
Phylum :
+Classes comprising animals like fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds along with mammals constitute the
next higher category called Phylum.

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Kingdom :
+All animals belonging to various phyla are assigned to the highest category called Kingdom Animalia in
the classification system of animals. The Kingdom Plantae, on the other hand, is distinct, and comprises
all plants from various divisions.

+The taxonomic categories from species to kingdom have been shown in ascending order.
+As we go higher from species to kingdom, the number of common characteristics goes on decreasing.
Lower the taxa, more are the characteristics that the members within the taxon share.
+Higher the category, greater is the difficulty of determining the relationship to other taxa at the same
level.

Common Biological Genus Family Order Class Phylum/

Name Name Division
Man Homo sapiensHomo Hominidae Primata Primata Chordata
Housefly Musca Musca Muscidae Diptera Insecta Arthropoda
domestica
Mango Mangifera MangiferaAnacardiaceae Sapindales Dicotyledonae Angiospermae
indica
Wheat Triticum Triticum Poaceae Poales MonocotyledonaeAngiospermae
aestivum

Herbarium :
Herbarium is a store house of collected plant specimens that are dried, pressed and preserved on sheets.
Further, these sheets are arranged according to a universally accepted system of classification.
Thesecspecimens, along with their descriptions on herbarium sheets, become acstore house or repository
for future use.
+ Herbaria also serve as quick referral systems in taxonomical studies.
Botanical Gardens :
+These specialised gardens have collections of living plants for reference. Plant species in these gardens
are grown for identification purposes and each plant is labelled indicating its botanical/scientific name and
its family.
+The famous botanical gardens are at Kew (England), Indian Botanical Garden, Howrah (India) and at
National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow (India).
Museum :
+Biological museums are generally set up in educational institutes such as schools and colleges.
Museums have collections of preserved plant and animal specimens for study and reference.

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Zoological Parks :
These are the places where wild animals are kept in protected environments under human care and which
enable us to learn about their food habits and behaviour. All animals in a zoo are provided, as far as
possible, the conditions similar to their natural habitats.
Key :
Key is another taxonomical aid used for identification of plants and animals based on the similarities and
dissimilarities. The keys are based on the contrasting characters generally in a pair called couplet. It
represents the choice made between two opposite options. This results in acceptance of only one and
rejection of the other. Each statement in the key is called a lead.
+Separate taxonomic keys are required for each taxonomic category such as family, genus and species
for identification purposes. Keys are generally analytical in nature.
+Flora contains the actual account of habitat and distribution of plants of a given area. These provide the
index to the plant species found in a particular area.
+Manuals are useful in providing information for identification of names of species found in an area.
+Monographs contain information on any one taxon.

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+We are able to move a few parts of our body easily in various directions and some only in one direction.
+We are able to bend or rotate our body in places where two parts of our body seem to be joined together
— like elbow, shoulder or neck. These places are called joints.
+If our body has no joints, it would not be possible for us to move in any way at all.
+The hard structures in our body are the bones.
+Bones cannot be bent.
+There are many bones present in each part of the body. We can bend or move our body only at those
points where bones meet.
+There are different types of joints in our body to help us carry out different movements and activities.
Ball and socket joints :
+In these type of joints ,The rounded end of one bone fits into the cavity (hollow space) of the other bone.
+Such a joint allows movements in all directions.
+(i)Shoulder and arm joint (ii)Hip and thigh joint are examples of ball and socket joint.
Pivotal Joint :
+The joint where our neck joins the head is a pivotal joint.
+It allows us to bend our head forward and backward and turn the head to our right or left.
+In a pivotal joint a cylindrical bone rotates in a ring.
Hinge joints :
+The elbow has a hinge joint that allows only a back and forth movement.
+Hinge joint is at knee also.
Fixed joints :
+The bones cannot move at some joints. Such joints are called fixed joints.
+There is a joint between the upper jaw and the rest of the head which is a fixed joint.
BONE & MASCULAR SYSTEM
+All the bones in our body also form a framework to give a shape to our body.
+The human skeleton is composed of around 305 bones at birth.
+The number of bones in the skeleton changes with age. It decreases to 206 bones by adulthood after
some bones have fused together.
+This framework is called the Skeleton.
+We could know this shape better would be to look at Xray images of the human body.
+Our wrist is made up of several small bones called carples.
+When we take a deep breath our chest bones and the back bone by gently pressing the middle of the
chest and back at the same time.
+We can call bones of the chest as Ribs.
+Ribs join the chest bone and the backbone together to form a box. This is called the Rib cage.

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+There are 12 ribs on each side of chest.
+Some important internal parts of our body lie protected inside this cage.
+Backbone is made up of many small bones called Vertebrae.
+The backbone consists of 33 vertebrae.
+The rib cage is joined to these bones.
+We can feel two bones on the back are prominent where the shoulders are.They are called Shoulder
bones.
+Pelvic bones, enclose the portion of your body below the stomach. This is the part you sit on.
+The skull is made up of many bones joined together.
+It encloses and protects a very important part of the body, the brain.
+There are many bones and the joints are there in our skeleton. There are some additional parts of the
skeleton that are not as hard as the bones and which can be bent. These are called Cartilage.
+The upper parts of the ear that is not as soft as the ear lobe but, not as hard as a bone.This is called
cartilage. Cartilage is also found in the joints of the body.
Muscles :
+The muscle bulged due to contraction (it became smaller in length).
+We can observe contraction of muscles in your leg when you walk or run and muscles of arm when it is
stretched.
+Two muscles work together to move a bone.
+Muscles work in pairs. When one of them contracts, the bone is pulled in that direction. The other muscle
of the pair relaxes.
+To move the bone in the opposite direction, the relaxed musle contracts to pull the bone towards its
original position, while the first relaxes.
+A muscle can only pull. It cannot push. Thus, two muscles have to work together to move a bone.
+muscles and bones are always required for movement.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
+Humans require food for growth, repair and functioning of the body.
+Human nutrition includes nutrient requirement, mode of intake of food and its utilisation in the body.
+The components of food such as carbohydrates are complex substances.
+These complex substances cannot be utilised as such. So they are broken down into simpler
substances.
+The breakdown of complex components of food into simpler substances is called digestion.
+The mode of taking food into the body varies in different organisms.
+Bees and humming-birds suck the nectar of plants,
+Infants of human and many other animals feed on mother’s milk.
+Some aquatic animals filter tiny food particles floating nearby and feed upon them.

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+Starfish feeds on animals covered by hard shells of calcium carbonate. After opening the shell, the
starfish pops out its stomach through its mouth to eat the soft animal inside the shell. The stomach then
goes back into the body and the food is slowly digested.
DIGESTION IN HUMANS :
+We take in food through the mouth, digest and utilise it.
+The unused parts of the food are defecated.
+The food passes through a continuous canal which begins at the buccal cavity and ends at the anus.
+The canal can be divided into various compartments:
(1) The buccal cavity,
(2) Foodpipe or oesophagus,
(3) Stomach,
(4) Small intestine,
(5) Large intestine ending in the rectum and
(6) The anus.
+These parts together form the alimentary canal (digestive tract).
+The food components gradually get digested as food travels through the various compartments.
+The inner walls of the stomach and the small intestine, and the various glands associated with the canal
such as salivary glands, the liver and the pancreas secrete digestive juices.
+The digestive juices convert complex substances of food into simpler ones.
+The digestive tract and the associated glands together constitute the digestive system.
The mouth and buccal cavity :
+Food is taken into the body through the mouth. The process of taking food into the body is called
ingestion.
+We chew the food with the teeth and break it down mechanically into small pieces.
+Each tooth is rooted in a separate socket in the gums.
+Our teeth vary in appearance and perform different functions.
+There are four types of teeth in human mouth.
Incisors : These are at the front of the mouth have a sharp biting surface and are used for cutting or
shearing food into small chewable pieces.
+There are eight incisors in both primary and permanent dentitions.
Canines : These are situated at the 'corners' of the dental arches.
+They have a sharp, pointed biting surface. Their function is to grip and tear food.
+There are four canine teeth in both primary and permanent dentitions.
Premolars :These have a flat biting surface. Their function is to tear and crush food. They are unique to
the permanent dentition which has eight premolars.
Molars : These are the largest of the teeth. They have a large flat biting surface.
+The function of the molars is to chew, crush and grind food.
+There are eight molars in the primary dentition and twelve in the permanent dentition.
+ Our mouth has the salivary glands which secrete saliva.
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+ The saliva breaks down the starch into sugars.
+ The tongue is a fleshy muscular organ attached at the back to the floor of the buccal cavity.
+It is free at the front and can be moved in all directions.
+ We use our tongue for talking. Besides, it mixes saliva with the food during chewing and helps in
swallowing food.
+We also taste food with our tongue.
+It has taste buds that detect different tastes of food.
++ The taste buds for "sweet" are on the tip of the tongue;
the "salt" taste buds are on either side of the front of the tongue;
"sour" taste buds are behind this; and
"bitter" taste buds are way in the back.
+ Most scientists agree that there's a fifth distinct taste, called umami, identified by a Japanese scientist
named Kikunae Ikeda in the early 1900s. This is the taste of glutamate.
+ It is common in Japanese foods, particularly kombu, a type of sea vegetable similar to kelp, and in
bacon and monosodium glutamate (MSG), which Ikeda isolated and patented.
+ If we do not clean our teeth and mouth after eating, many harmful bacteria also begin to live and grow in
it. These bacteria break down the sugars present from the leftover food and release acids. The acids
gradually damage the teeth. This is called tooth decay.
+ Dental floss (a special strong thread which is moved between two teeth to take out trapped food particles)
The foodpipe/oesophagus :
+The swallowed food passes into the foodpipe or oesophagus.
+ The foodpipe runs along the neck and the chest.
+Food is pushed down by movement of the wall of the foodpipe.
+Actually this movement takes place throughout the alimentary canal and pushes the food downwards.
+At times the food is not accepted by our stomach and is vomited out.
The stomach :
+The stomach is a thick-walled bag. Its shape is like a flattened J and it is the widest part of the
alimentary canal.
+It receives food from the food pipe at one end and opens into the small intestine at the other.
+ The inner lining of the stomach secretes mucous, hydrochloric acid and digestive juices.
+The mucous protects the lining of the stomach.
+The acid kills many bacteria that enter along with the food and makes the medium in the stomach acidic
and helps the digestive juices to act.
+The digestive juices break down the proteins into simpler substances.
+The working of the stomach was discovered by a strange accident. In 1822, a man named Alexis
St.Martin was badly hit by a shot gun.
+The bullet had seriously damaged the chest wall and made a hole in his stomach.
+He was brought to an American army doctor William Beaumont.

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+ Beaumont found that the stomach was churning food. Its wall secreted a fluid which could digest the
food.
+He also observed that the end of the stomach opens into the intestine only after the digestion of the food
inside the stomach is completed.
The small intestine :
+The small intestine is highly coiled and is about 7.5 metres long.
+It receives secretions from the liver and the pancreas. Besides, its wall also secretes juices.
+The liver is a reddish brown gland situated in the upper part of the abdomen on the right side.
+It is the largest gland in the body. It secretes bile juice that is stored in a sac called the gall bladder.
+The bile plays an important role in the digestion of fats.
+ The pancreas is a large cream coloured gland located just below the stomach.
+The pancreatic juice acts on carbohydrates, fats and proteins and changes them into simpler forms.
+ The partly digested food now reaches the lower part of the small intestine where the intestinal juice
completes the digestion of all components of the food.
+The carbohydrates get broken into simple sugars such as glucose, fats into fatty acids and glycerol, and
proteins into amino acids.
Absorption in the small intestine :
+The digested food can now pass into the blood vessels in the wall of the intestine.
This process is called absorption.
+The inner walls of the small intestine have thousands of finger-like outgrowths. These are called villi
(singular villus).
+The villi increase the surface area for absorption of the digested food.
+Each villus has a network of thin and small blood vessels close to its surface.
+The surface of the villi absorbs the digested food materials.
+The absorbed substances are transported via the blood vessels to different organs of the body where
they are used to build complex substances such as the proteins required by the body. This is called
assimilation.
+The food that remains undigested and unabsorbed enters into the large intestine.
Large intestine :
+The large intestine is wider and shorter than small intestine.
+It is about 1.5 metre in length.
+Its function is to absorb water and some salts from the undigested food material.
+The remaining waste passes into the rectum and remains there as semi-solid faeces.
+The faecal matter is removed through the anus from time-to-time. This is called egestion.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
+All organisms are made of small microscopic units called cells.
+A cell is the smallest structural and functional unit of an organism.

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+Each cell of an organism performs certain functions such as nutrition, transport, excretion and
reproduction.
+The food has stored energy, which is released during respiration.
+The air we breathe in is transported to all parts of the body and ultimately to eachcell.
+In the cells, oxygen in the air helps in the breakdown of food.
+The process of breakdown of food in the cell with the release of energy is called cellular respiration.
+Cellular respiration takes place in the cells of all organisms.
+In the cell, the food (glucose) is broken down into carbon dioxide and water using oxygen.
+ When breakdown of glucose occurs with the use of oxygen it is called aerobic respiration.
+Food can also be broken down, without using oxygen. This is called anaerobic respiration.
+Some organisms such as yeast that can survive in the absence of air. They are called anaerobes.
+They get energy through anaerobic respiration.
+In the absence of oxygen, glucose breaks down into alcohol and carbon dioxide.
+Yeasts are single-celled organisms. They respire anaerobically and during this process yield alcohol.
They are, therefore, used to make wine and beer.
+Our muscle cells can also respire anaerobically, but only for a short time.
+During heavy exercise, fast running, cycling, walking for many hours or heavy weight lifting, the demand
for energy is high. But the supply of oxygen to produce the energy is limited. Then anaerobic respiration
takes places in the muscle cells to fulfil the demand of energy.
+After heavy exercise the cramps occur when muscle cells respire anaerobically. The partial breakdown
of glucose produces lactic acid.
+The accumulation of lactic acid causes muscle cramps. We get relief from cramps after a hot water bath
or a massage.
+Hot water bath or massage improves circulation of blood. As a result, the supply of oxygen to the muscle
cells increases.
+The taking in of air rich in oxygen into the body is called Inhalation and giving out of air rich in carbon
dioxide is known as Exhalation.
+The number of times a person breathes in a minute is termed as the breathing rate.
+A breath means one inhalation plus one exhalation.
+Whenever a person needs extra energy, he/she breathes faster. As a result more oxygen is supplied to
our cells.
Mechanism of breathing
+We take in air through our nostrils. When we inhale air, it passes through our nostrils into the nasal
cavity.
+From the nasal cavity, the air reaches our lungs through the windpipe. Lungs are present in the chest
cavity.
+This cavity is surrounded by ribs on the sides.
+A large, muscular sheet called Diaphragm forms the floor of the chest cavity.
+Breathing involves the movement of the diaphragm and the rib cage.

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+During inhalation, space occurs in our chest cavity and air rushes into the lungs.
The lungs get filled with air.
+During exhalation, the size of the chest cavity will decrease and air is pushed out of the lungs.
+Sneezing expels the foreign particles from the inhaled air and a dust free, clean air enters our body.
+Regular traditional breathing exercise (pranayama) can increase the capacity of lungs to take in more
air. Thus more oxygen can be supplied to the body cells resulting in release of more energy.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
+All organisms need food, water and oxygen for survival. They need to transport all these to various parts
of their body.
+They function to transport substances and together form the circulatory system.
+Blood is the fluid which flows in blood vessels.
+It transports substances like digested food from the small intestine to the other parts of the body.
+It carries oxygen from the lungs to the cells of the body. It also transports waste for removal from the body.
+Blood is composed of a fluid, called plasma in which different types of cells are suspended.
+One type of cells are the red blood cells (RBC) which contain a red pigment called haemoglobin.
+Haemoglobin binds with oxygen and transports it to all parts of the body and ultimately to all the cells.
+It will be difficult to provide oxygen efficiently to all the cells of the body without haemoglobin.
+The presence of haemoglobin makes blood appear red.
+The blood also has white blood cells (WBC) which fight against germs that may enter our body.
+Bleeding of blood could stopped and a dark red clot had plugged.
+The clot is formed because of the presence of another type of cells in the blood, called Platelets.
+There are different types of blood vessels in the body.
+Two types of blood vessels, arteries and veins are present in the body.
+Arteries carry oxygen-rich blood from the heart to all parts of the body. Since the blood flow is rapid and
at a high pressure, the arteries have thick elastic walls.
+At the Place of the middle and index finger of our right hand on the inner side of your left wrist we feel
some throbbing This throbbing is called the pulse and it is due to the blood flowing in the arteries.
+The number of beats per minute is called the pulse rate.
+A resting person, usually has a pulse rate between 72 and 80 beats per minute.
+ Veins are the vessels which carry carbon dioxide-rich blood from all parts of the body back to the heart.
+The veins have thin walls. There are valves present in veins which allow blood to flow only towards the
heart.
+ Arteries divide into smaller vessels. On reaching the tissues, they divide further into extremely thin
tubes called capillaries. The capillaries join to form veins which empty into the heart.
+ Pulmonary artery carries blood from the heart, so it is called an artery and not a vein.
+It carries carbon dioxide-rich blood to the lungs.
+Pulmonary vein carries oxygen-rich blood from the lungs to the heart.

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HEART :
+ The heart is an organ which beats continuously to act as a pump for the transport of blood, which
carries other substances with it.
+ The heart is located in the chest cavity with its lower tip slightly tilted towards the left.
+ Everyone’s heart is roughly the size of their fist.
+The heart has four chambers. The two upper chambers are called the atria (singular: atrium) and the
two lower chambers are called the ventricles.
+The partition between the chambers helps to avoid mixing up of blood rich in oxygen with the blood rich
in carbon dioxide.
+ The walls of the chambers of the heart are made up of muscles. These muscles contract and relax
rhythmically. This rhythmic contraction followed by its relaxation constitute a heartbeat.
+ A doctor uses the stethoscope as a device to amplify the sound of the heart.
+It consists of a chest piece that carries a sensitive diaphragm, two ear pieces and a tube joining the
parts.
+Each heart beat generates one pulse in the arteries and the pulse rate per minute indicates the rate of
heart beat.
+ The rhythmic beating of the various chambers of the heart maintain circulation of blood and transport of
substances to the different parts of the body.
+ The English physician, William Harvey (A.D.1578–1657), discovered the circulation of blood.
+ Animals such as sponges and Hydra do not possess any circulatory system. The water in which they
live brings food and oxygen as it enters their bodies.
+The water carries away waste materials and carbon dioxide as it moves out. Thus, these animals do not
need a circulatory fluid like the blood.

EXCRETORY SYSTEM
+When our cells perform their functions, certain waste products are released.
+These are toxic and hence need to be removed from the body.
+The process of removal of wastes produced in the cells of the living organisms is called excretion.
+The parts involved in excretion form the excretory system.
+ A mechanism to filter the blood is required. This is done by the blood capillaries in the kidneys.
+When the blood reaches the two kidneys, it contains both useful and harmful substances.
+The useful substances are absorbed back into the blood. The wastes dissolved in water are removed as
urine. From the kidneys, the urine goes into the urinary bladder through tube-like ureters.
+It is stored in the bladder and is passed out through the urinary opening at the end of a muscular tube
called urethra.
+The kindeys, ureters, bladder and urethra form the excretory system.
+ An adult human being normally passes about 1–1.8 L of urine in 24 hours.
+The urine consists of 95% water, 2.5% urea and 2.5% other waste products.
+ The major excretory product in humans is urea.

16
+ Sometimes a person’s kidneys may stop working due to infection or injury.
+ As a result of kidney failure, waste products start accumulating in the blood. Such persons cannot
survive unless their blood is filtered periodically through an artificial kidney.This process is called dialysis.
+We have all experienced that we sweat on a hot summer day.
+ The sweat contains water and salts.
+ When we sweat, it helps to cool our body.

REPRODUCTION SYSTEM
+Reproduction is essential for the continuation of a species.
+Reproduction is very important as it ensures the continuation of similar kinds of individuals, generation
after generation.
+There are two modes by which animals reproduce. These are:
(i) Sexual reproduction, and
(ii) Asexual reproduction.
Sexual Reproduction :
In human beings, males and females have different reproductive parts or organs.
+The reproductive parts in humans also produce gametes that fuse to form a zygote.
+It is the zygote which develops into a new individual.
+This type of reproduction beginning from the fusion of male and female gametes is called sexual
reproduction.
Male Reproductive Organs :
+The male reproductive organs include a pair of testes (singular, testis), two sperm ducts and a penis.
+The testes produce the male gametes called sperms.
+Millions of sperms are produced by the testes.
+Though sperms are very small in size, each has a head, a middle piece and a tail.
+Each sperm is a single cell with all the usual cell components.
Female Reproductive Organs :
+The female reproductive organs are a pair of ovaries, oviducts (fallopian tubes) and the uterus.
+The ovary produces female gametes called ova (eggs).
+ In human beings, a single matured egg is released into the oviduct by one of the ovaries every month.
+Uterus is the part where development of the baby takes place. Like the sperm, an egg is also a single
cell.
+ Ostrich egg is the largest egg.
Fertilisation :
+The first step in the process of reproduction is the fusion of a sperm and an ovum.
+When sperms come in contact with an egg, one of the sperms may fuse with the egg. Such fusion of the
egg and the sperm is called fertilization.
+During fertilisation, the nuclei of the sperm and the egg fuse to form a single nucleus.
This results in the formation of a fertilised egg or zygote.
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+The process of fertilisation is the meeting of an egg cell from the mother and a sperm cell from the father.
+So, the new individual inherits some characteristics from the mother and some from the father.
+ Fertilisation which takes place inside the female body is called internal fertilisation. Internal fertilization
occurs in many animals including humans, cows, dogs and hens.
Test tube babies :
+In some women oviducts are blocked.
+These women are unable to bear babies because sperms cannot reach the egg for fertilisation.
+In such cases, doctors collect freshly released egg and sperms and keep them together for a few hours
for IVF or in vitrofertilisation (fertilisation outside the body).
+In case fertilisation occurs, the zygote is allowed to develop for about a week and then it is placed in the
mother’s uterus.
+Complete development takes place in the uterus and the baby is born like any other baby.
+Babies born through this technique are called test-tube babies.
+This term is actually misleading because babies cannot grow in test tubes.
Development of Embryo :
+Fertilisation results in the formation of zygote which begins to develop into an embryo . +The zygote
divides repeatedly to give rise to a ball of cells. The cells then begin to form groups that develop into
different tissues and organs of the body.
+This developing structure is termed an embryo.
+The embryo gets embedded in the wall of the uterus for further development.
+ The embryo continues to develop in the uterus. It gradually develops body parts such as hands, legs,
head, eyes, ears etc.
+The stage of the embryo in which all the body parts can be identified is called a foetus.
+ When the development of the foetus is complete, the mother gives birth to the baby.
+ The animals which give birth to young ones are called viviparous animals.
+Those animals which lay eggs are called oviparous animals.
Male Reproductive System :
+The male reproductive system consists of portions which produce the germ-cells and other portions
that deliver the germ-cells to the site of fertilisation.
+ The formation of germ-cells or sperms takes place in the testes. These are located outside the
abdominal cavity in scrotum because sperm formation requires a lower temperature than the normal body
temperature.
+ The sperms formed are delivered through the vas deferens which unites with a tube coming from the
urinary bladder.
+ The sperms are tiny bodies that consist of mainly genetic material and a long tail that helps them to
move towards the female germ-cell.
Female Reproductive System :
+ The female germ-cells or eggs are made in the ovaries. They are also responsible for the production of
some hormones.

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+ The egg is carried from the ovary to the womb through a thin oviduct or fallopian tube.
+ The two oviducts unite into an elastic bag-like structure known as the uterus. The uterus opens into the
vagina through the cervix.
+ The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of a special tissue called placenta.
+ The developing embryo will also generate waste substances which can be removed by transferring them
into the mother’s blood through the placenta.
+ The child is born as a result of rhythmic contractions of the muscles in the uterus.
AGE OF ADOLESCENCE
+ Growing up is a natural process. The period of life, when the body undergoe changes, leading to
reproductive maturity, is called adolescence.
+ Adolescence begins around the age of 11 and lasts upto 18 or 19 years of age.
+Adolescents are also called ‘teenagers’. In girls, adolescence may begin a year or two earlier than in
boys. Also, the period of adolescence varies from person to person.
+ The human body undergoes several changes during adolescence. These changes mark the onset of
puberty.
+ The most important change which marks puberty is that boys and girls
become capable of reproduction.
+Puberty ends when an adolescent reaches reproductive maturity.
Changes at Puberty :
+The most conspicuous change during puberty is the sudden increase in height. At this time the long
bones, that is, the bones of the arms and the legs elongate and make a person tall.
+ Initially, girls grow faster than boys but by about 18 years of age, both reach their maximum height.
+ In boys, the muscles of the body grow more prominently than in the girls. Thus, changes occurring in
adolescent boys and girls are different.
+ At puberty, the voice box or the larynx begins to grow. Boys develop larger voice boxes. The growing
voice box in boys can be seen as a protruding part of the throat called Adam’s apple.
+In girls, the larynx is hardly visible from the outside because of its small size. Generally, girls have a high
pitched voice, whereas boys have a deep voice.
+ During puberty the secretion of sweat glands and sebaceous glands (oil glands) increases.
+ At puberty, male sex organs like the testes and penis develop completely. The testes also begin to
produce sperms.
+In girls, the ovaries enlarge and eggs begin to mature. Also ovaries start releasing mature eggs.
+ In girls, breasts begin to develop at puberty and boys begin to grow facial hair, that is, moustaches and
beard. As these features help to distinguish the male from the female they are called Secondary sexual
characters.
+ The changes which occur at adolescence are controlled by hormones.
+Hormones are chemical substances. These are secretions from endocrine glands, or endocrine
system.
+ The male hormone or testosterone begins to be released by the testes at the onset of puberty.
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+ Once puberty is reached in girls, ovaries begin to produce the female hormone or estrogen which
makes the breasts develop.
+Milk secreting glands or mammary glands develop inside the breasts.
+The production of these hormones is under the control of another hormone secreted from an endocrine
gland called pituitary gland.
+ Endocrine glands release hormones into the bloodstream to reach a particular body part called target
site. The target site responds to the hormone. There are many endocrine glands or ductless glands in the
body.
+ The sex hormones are under the control of hormones from the pituitary gland.
+The pituitary secretes many hormones, one of which makes ova mature in the ovaries and sperms form
in the testes.
+ If fertilisation does not occur, the released egg, and the thickened lining of the uterus along with its
blood vessels are shed off. This causes bleeding in women which is called menstruation.
+ The first menstrual flow begins at puberty and is termed menarche.
+ Stoppage of menstruation is termed menopause.
+ Inside the fertilised egg or zygote is the instruction for determining the sex of the baby. This instruction is
present in the thread-like structures, called chromosomes in the fertilised egg.
+ The chromosomes in the nucleus of a cell contain information for inheritance of features from parents to
next generation in the form of DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid) molecules. The DNA in the cell nucleus is the
information source for making proteins. If the information is changed, different proteins will be made.
Different proteins will eventually lead to altered body designs.
+ Sex of the unborn child depends on whether the zygote has XX or XY chromosomes.
+ The hormones secreted by the pituitary stimulate testes and ovaries to produce their hormones.
+ Pituitary gland is an endocrine gland. It is attached to the brain.
+ ‘Goitre’, a disease of the thyroid gland occurred when thyroid gland was not producing the hormone
thyroxine.
+ ‘Diabetes’ Is disease when pancreas was not producing the hormone insulin in sufficient quantities.
+ Adrenal glands secrete hormones which maintain the correct salt balance in the blood. Adrenals also
produce the hormone adrenalin. It helps the body to adjust to stress when one is very angry,
embarrassed or worried.
+ Thyroid and adrenals secrete their hormones when they receive orders from the pituitary through its
hormones.
+Pituitary also secretes growth hormone which is necessary for the normal growth of a person.
CELL - THE FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE
+The basic structural unit of an organ, which is the cell.
+Cells are assembled to make the body of every organism.
+ Robert Hooke in 1665 observed slices of cork under a simple magnifying device. Cork is a part of the
bark of a tree.

20
+ He noticed partitioned boxes or compartments in the cork slice.
+ Hooke coined the term ‘cell’ for each box. What Hooke observed as boxes or cells in the cork were
actually dead cells.
+ Cells of living organisms could be observed only after the discovery of improved microscopes.
+ Cells in the living organisms are complex living structures.
+ The egg of a hen represents a single cell and is big enough to be seen by the unaided eye.
+ Human body has trillions of cells which vary in shapes and sizes. Different groups of cells perform a
variety of functions.
+ Organisms made of more than one cell are called multicellular (multi : many; cellular : cell) organisms,
+ The fertilised egg (which is initially single celled) cell multiplies and the number of cells increase as
development proceeds.
+ The single-celled organisms are called unicellular organisms.
+A single-celled organism performs all the necessary functions that multicellular organisms perform.
+ Amoeba has no definite shape, the projections of varying lengths protruding out of its
body. These are called pseudopodia.
+ A white blood cell (WBC) in human blood is another example of a single cell which can change its
shape.
+ The nerve cell is in branched like structure ,It receives and transfers messages, thereby helping to
control and coordinate the working of different parts of the body.
+ Components of the cell are enclosed in a membrane. This membrane provides shape to the cells of
plants and animals.
+Cell wall is an additional covering over the cell membrane in plant cells. It gives shape and rigidity to
these cells. Bacterial cell also has a cell wall.
+ The smallest cell is 0.1 to 0.5 micrometre in bacteria.
+The largest cell measuring 170 mm ×130 mm, is the egg of an ostrich.
+ Each organ is further made up of smaller parts called tissues. A tissue is a group of similar cells
performing a specific function.
Parts of the Cell :
+The basic components of a cell are cell membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus.
+The cytoplasm and nucleus are enclosed within the cell membrane, also called the plasma membrane.
+The membrane separates cells from one another and also the cell from the surrounding medium.
+The plasma membrane is porous and allows the movement of substances or materials both inward and
outward.
+ The boundary of the onion cell is the cell membrane covered by another thick covering called the cell
wall.
+The central dense round body in the centre is called the nucleus.
+The jelly-like substance between the nucleus and the cell membrane is called cytoplasm.
+ The cytoplasm is the fluid content inside the plasma membrane.
+ Lysosomes are membrane-bound sacs filled with digestive enzymes. These enzymes are made by
Rough endoplasmicreticulum (RER). Lysosomes are akind of waste disposal system of the cell.
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+The cell membrane gives shape to the cell.
+In addition to the cell membrane, there is an outer thick layer in cells of plants called cell wall.
+This additional layer surrounding the cell membrane is required by plants for protection.
+Cytoplasm is the jelly-like substance present between the cell membrane and the nucleus.
+Mitochondria, golgi bodies, ribosomes, etc.. are present in the cytoplasm.
+ Mitochondria are known as the powerhouses of the cell. Mitochondria have two membrane
coverings. The outer membrane is porous while the inner membrane is deeply folded. These folds
increase surface area for ATP generating chemical reactions.
+ ATP is known as the energy currency of the cell. The body uses energy stored in ATP for making new
chemical compounds and for mechanical work.
+Nucleus is an important component of the living cell. It is generally spherical and located in the centre of
the cell.
+ Nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane called the nuclear membrane.
+We can see a smaller spherical body in the nucleus. It is called the nucleolus.
+In addition, nucleus contains thread-like structures called chromosomes.
+These carry genes and help in inheritance or transfer of characters from the parents to the offspring.
+ The entire content of a living cell is known as protoplasm.
+ It includes the cytoplasm and the nucleus. Protoplasm is called the living substance of the cell.
+ The cells having nuclear material without nuclear membrane are termed prokaryotic cells.
+ The cells, like onion cells and cheek cells having well-organised nucleus with a nuclear membrane are
designated as eukaryotic cells.
+ The process by which new cells are made is called cell division. There are two main types of cell
division: mitosis and meiosis.
+ In mitosis process, each cell called mother cell divides to form two identical daughter cells . The
daughter cells have the same number of chromosomes as mother cell.
+ When a cell divides by meiosis it produces four new cells instead of just two. The new cells only have
half the number of chromosomes than that of the mother cells.

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+The different parts of any plant are stem, branch, root, leaf, flower and fruit etc..
+The branches grow in some plants — close to the ground or higher up on the stem.
+Based on these characters most plants can be classified into three categories: herbs, shrubs and trees.
HERBS : Plants with green and tender stems are called herbs. They are usually short and may not have
many branches.
SHRUBS : Some plants develop branches near the base of stem. The stem is hard but not very thick.
Such plants are called shrubs.
TREES : Some plants are very tall and have hard and thick stem. The stems have branches in the upper
part, much above the ground. Such plants are called trees.
+Plants with weak stems that cannot stand upright but spread on the ground are called creepers while
those that take support and climb up are called climbers.
PARTS OF A PLANT
STEM :
+The stem helps in upward movement of water. The water and minerals go to leaves and other plant parts
attached to the stem.
+Stem develops from the plumule of the embryo of a germinating seed. The stem bears nodes and
internodes.
+The region of the stem where leaves are born are called nodes while internodes are the portions
between two nodes.
+Some stems perform the function of storage of food, support, protection and of vegetative propagation.
+Underground stems of potato, ginger, turmeric, zaminkand, Colocasia are modified to store food in
them.

LEAF :
+Leaves develops at the node and bears a bud in its axil. The axillary bud later develops into a branch.
+A typical leaf consists of three main parts: leaf base, petiole and lamina.
+The part of leaf by which it is attached to the stem is called petiole.
+The broad, green part of the leaf is called lamina
+The lines on the leaf are called veins.
+A prominent line in the middle of the leaf is called the midrib.
+The leaf is attached to the stem by the leaf base and may bear two lateral small leaf like structures called
stipules.
+In some leguminous plants the leaf base may become swollen, which is called the pulvinus.
+The petiole help hold the blade to light. Long thin flexible petioles allow leaf blades to flutter in wind,
thereby cooling the leaf and bringing fresh air to leaf surface.
+The design made by veins in a leaf is called the leaf venation.
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+If the design is net-like on both sides of midrib, the venation is reticulate.
+In the leaves of grass you might have seen that the veins are parallel to one another.
This is parallel venation.
+Water comes out of leaves in the form of vapour by a process called transpiration.
+Plants release a lot of water into the air through this process.
+Leaves prepare their food in the presence of sunlight and a green coloured substance present in them.
For this, they also use water and carbon dioxide. This process is called photosynthesis.
+Phyllotaxy is the pattern of arrangement of leaves on the stem or branch. This is usually of three types –
alternate, opposite and whorled.
+In alternate type of phyllotaxy, a single leaf arises at each node in alternate manner.
+In opposite type, a pair of leaves arise at each node and lie opposite to each other.
+If more than two leaves arise at a node and form a whorl, it is called whorled.
+Oxygen is given out in this process.
+The food prepared by leaves ultimately gets stored in different parts of plant.
+The stem supplies leaf with water.
+The leaf uses the water to make food.
+The leaves also lose water through transpiration.
ROOT :
+Root is the part of the plant is which is in the soil.
+Roots help in holding the plant firmly to the soil. They anchor the plant to the soil.
+The main root is called tap root and the smaller roots are called lateral roots.
+Plants whose do not have a main root. All roots seem similar and these are called fibrous roots.
+Roots absorb water and minerals from the soil and the stem conducts these to leaves and other parts of
the plant.
+The leaves prepare food. This food travels through the stem and is stored in different parts of plant.
+We eat some of these as roots— like carrot, radish, sweet potato, turnip and tapioca. We also eat many
other parts of a plant where food is stored.
+In majority of the dicotyledonous plants, the direct elongation of the radical leads to the formation of
primary root which grows inside the soil.
+It bears lateral roots of several orders that are referred to as secondary, tertiary, etc. roots.
+The primary roots and its branches constitute the tap root system,(in mustard plant)
+In monocotyledonous plants, the primary root is short lived and is replaced by a large number of
roots. These roots originate from the base of the stem and constitute the
fibrous root system,(in wheat plant).
+In some plants, like grass, Monstera and the banyan tree, roots arise from parts of the plant other than
the radicle and are called adventitious roots.
+The root is covered at the apex by a thimble-like structure called the root cap.
+Some of the epidermal cells form very fine and delicate, thread-like structures called root hairs. These
root hairs absorb water and minerals from the soil.

24
+Tap roots of carrot, turnip and adventitious roots of sweet potato, get swollen and store food.
+The hanging structures that support a banyan tree are called prop roots.
+The stems of maize and sugarcane have supporting roots coming out of the lower nodes of the stem.
These are called stilt roots.
+In some plants such as Rhizophora growing in swampy areas, many roots come out of the ground and
grow vertically upwards. Such roots, called pneumatophores, help to get oxygen for respiration.
FLOWER :
+The prominent parts of the open flower are the petals. Different flowers have petals of different colours.
+The most prominent part in a bud which is made of small leaf-like structures are called sepals.
+The petals are in a closed bud are covered by sepals.
+To see the inner parts of the flower clearly, you have to cut it open.
+If its petals are joined,the petals have to be cut lengthwise and spread out so that the inner parts can be seen
clearly. For example, in datura and other bell-shaped flowers.
+After removing the sepals and petals we can identify the stamens and pistil in a flower.
+Different kinds of stamens present in different flowers.
+The innermost part of flower is called the Pistil.
+Ovary is the lowermost and swollen part of the pistil.
+If we cut the ovary we can see some small bead like structures inside the Ovary. They are called ovules.
+The number of sepals, petals, stamens and pistils may also be different in different flowers.
+The arrangement of flowers on the floral axis is termed as inflorescence.
+A typical flower has four different kinds of whorls arranged successively on the swollen end of the stalk
or pedicel, called thalamus or receptacle. These are calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium.
+Calyx and corolla are accessory organs, while androecium and gynoecium are reproductive organs.
+When a flower has both androecium and gynoecium, it is bisexual.
+A flower having either only stamens or only carpels is unisexual.
+When a flower can be divided into two equal radial halves in any radial plane passing through the centre,
it is said to be actinomorphic. e.g., mustard, datura, chilli.
+When it can be divided into two similar halves only in one particular vertical plane, it is zygomorphic,
e.g., pea, gulmohur, bean, Cassia.
+ A flower is asymmetric (irregular) if it cannot be divided into two similar halves by any vertical plane
passing through the centre, as in canna.
+The calyx is the outermost whorl of the flower and the members are called sepals. The calyx may be
gamosepalous (sepals united) or polysepalous (sepals free).
+Corolla is composed of petals. Petals are usually brightly coloured to attract insects for pollination.
+The mode of arrangement of sepals or petals in floral bud with respect to the other members of the same
whorl is known as aestivation.
Androecium :
+Androecium is composed of stamens. Each stamen which represents the male reproductive organ
consists of a stalk or a filament and an anther.
+The pollen grains are produced in pollen-sacs. A sterile stamen is called staminode.

25
+When stamens are attached to the petals, they are epipetalous as in brinjal, or epiphyllous when
attached to the perianth as in the flowers of lily.
Gynoecium :
+Gynoecium is the female reproductive part of the flower and is made up of one or more carpels. A carpel
consists of three parts namely stigma, style and ovary.
+Ovary is the enlarged basal part, on which lies the elongated tube, the style.
+The style connects the ovary to the stigma.
+The stigma is usually at the tip of the style and is the receptive surface for pollen grains.
+Each ovary bears one or more ovules attached to a flattened, cushion-like placenta.
+The arrangement of ovules within the ovary is known as placentation.
FRUIT :
+The fruit is a characteristic feature of the flowering plants. It is a mature or ripened ovary, developed
after fertilisation. If a fruit is formed without fertilisation of the ovary, it is called a parthenocarpic fruit.
+ Generally, the fruit consists of a wall or pericarp and seeds. The pericarp may be dry or fleshy.
+When pericarp is thick and fleshy, it is differentiated into the outer epicarp, the middle mesocarp and
the inner endocarp.
+ In mango and coconut, the fruit is known as a drupe.
+ In mango the pericarp is well differentiated into an outer thin epicarp, a middle fleshy edible mesocarp
and an inner stony hard endocarp.
+In coconut which is also a drupe, the mesocarp is fibrous.
SEED :
+The ovules after fertilisation, develop into seeds.
+ A seed is made up of a seed coat and an embryo.
NUTRITION IN PLANTS
+The nutrients enable living organisms to build their bodies, to grow, to repair damaged parts of their
bodies and provide the energy to carry out life processes.
+Nutrition is the mode of taking food by an organism and its utilisation by the body.
+All living organisms require food. Plants can make food for themselves but animals including humans
cannot.
+The mode of nutrition in which organisms make food themselves from simple substances is called
autotrophic (auto = self; trophos = nourishment) nutrition.
+Therefore, plants are called autotrophs.
+Animals and most other organisms take in food prepared by plants. They are called
heterotrophs (heteros = other).
+Plants are the only organisms that can prepare food for themselves by using water, carbon dioxide and
minerals. The raw materials are present in their surroundings.
+Leaves are the food factories of plants. Therefore, all the raw materials must reach the leaf.
+ Water and minerals present in the soil are absorbed by the roots and transported to the leaves.

26
+Carbon dioxide from air is taken in through the tiny pores present on the surface of leaves. These pores
are surrounded by ‘guard cells’. Such pores are called stomata.
+The bodies of living organisms are made of tiny units called cells.
+Cells can be seen only under the microscope.
+Some organisms are made of only one cell.
+The cell is enclosed by a thin outer boundary,called the cell membrane.
+Most cells have a distinct, centrally located spherical structure called the nucleus.
+The nucleus is surrounded by a jelly-like substance called cytoplasm.
+Water and minerals are transported to the leaves by the vessels which run like pipes throughout the root,
the stem, the branches and the leaves.
+They form a continuous path or passage for the nutrients to reach the leaf. They are called vessels.
+The leaves have a green pigment called chlorophyll.
+It helps leaves to capture the energy of the sunlight. This energy is used to synthesise (prepare) food
from carbon dioxide and water.
+Since the synthesis of food occurs in the presence of sunlight, it is called photosynthesis (Photo: light;
synthesis : to prepare).
+Oxygen which is essential for the survival of all organisms is produced during photosynthesis.
+In the absence of photosynthesis, life would be impossible on the earth.
+During photosynthesis, chlorophyll containing cells of leaves in the presence of sunlight, use carbon
dioxide and water to synthesise carbohydrates.
+During the process oxygen is released.
+The presence of starch in leaves indicates the occurrence of photosynthesis.
+Starch is also a carbohydrate.
+Besides leaves, photosynthesis also takes place in other green parts of the Plant.
+The desert plants have scale- or spine-like leaves to reduce loss of water by transpiration.
These plants have green stems which carry out photosynthesis.
+Some slimy, green patches in ponds or stagnant water bodies are generally formed by the growth of
organisms called algae.
+They contain chlorophyll which gives them the green colour.
+Algae can also prepare their own food by photosynthesis.
+The plants synthesise carbohydrates through the process of photosynthesis. The carbohydrates are
made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
+These are used to synthesise other components of food such as proteins and fats.
+But proteins are nitrogenous substances which contain nitrogen.
+Soil has certain bacteria that convert gaseous nitrogen into a usable form and release it into the soil.
These are absorbed by the plants along with water.
+Also, by adding fertilisers rich in nitrogen to the soil.
+Plants can then synthesise proteins and vitamins.
+There are some plants which do not have chlorophyll. They cannot synthesise food.

27
+They use the heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
+A yellow wiry branched structure twining around the stem and branches of a tree.This is a plant called
Cuscuta (Amarbel).
+It does not have chlorophyll. It takes readymade food from the plant on which it is climbing.
+The plant on which it climbs is called the host.
Since it deprives the host of valuable nutrients, Cuscuta is called the parasite.
+Mosquitoes, bed bugs, lice and leeches that suck our blood are also parasites.
+There are a few plants which can trap insects and digest them. Such plants may be green or of some
other colour.
+The pitcher-like or jug-like structure is the modified part of leaf.
+The apex of the leaf forms a lid which can open and close the mouth of the pitcher.
+Inside the pitcher there are hair which entangle the trapped insect.
+The lid closes and the insect is trapped.
+The insect is killed by the juices secreted in the pitcher and its nutrients are absorbed.
+Such insect-eating plants are called insectivorous plants.
+The packets of mushrooms sold in the vegetable market.Umbrella-like patches growing in moist soils or on
rotting wood during the rainy season patches growing on bread.
These organisms are called fungi.
+They have a different mode of nutrition. They absorb the nutrients from the bread.
+This mode of nutrition in which organisms take in nutrients from dead and decaying matter is called
saprotrophic nutrition.
+Such organisms with saprotrophic mode of nutrition are called saprotrophs.
+The fungal spores are generally present in the air. When they land on wet and warm things they germinate
and grow.
+fungi like yeast and mushrooms are useful, but some fungi cause diseases in plants, animals including
humans. Some fungi are also used as medicines.
+Some organisms live together and share both shelter and nutrients. This relationship is called symbiosis.
For example, certain fungi live inside the roots of plants. The plants provide nutrients to the fungus and, in
return, the fungus provides water and certain nutrients.
In organisms called lichens, a chlorophyll-containing partner, which is an alga, and a fungus live together.
+The bacterium called Rhizobium can take atmospheric nitrogen and convert it into a usable form. But
Rhizobium cannot make its own food. So it often lives in the roots of gram, peas, moong, beans and other
legumes and provides them with nitrogen.
In return,the plants provide food and shelter to the bacteria. They, thus, have a symbiotic relationship.
Most of the pulses (dals) are obtained from leguminous plants.

TRANSPORTATION IN PLANTS
+The leaves prepare food for the plant, using water and carbon dioxide during photosynthesis.
+Food is the source of energy and every cell of an organism gets energy by the breakdown of glucose.
+The cells use this energy to carry out vital activities of life.
+Therefore food must be made available to every cell of an organism.
Transport of water and minerals :
28
+Plants absorb water and minerals by the roots. The roots have root hair.
+The root hair increase the surface area of the root for the absorption of water and mineral nutrients
dissolved in water.
+The root hair is in contact with the water present between the soil particles.
+Plants have pipe-like vessels to transport water and nutrients from the soil. The vessels are made of
special cells, forming the vascular tissue.
+A tissue is a group of cells that perform specialised function in an organism.
+The vascular tissue for the transport of water and nutrients in the plant is called the xylem.
+The xylem forms a continuous network of channels that connects roots to the leaves through the stem
and branches and thus transports water to the entire plant.
+The food has to be transported to all parts of the plant. This is done by the vascular tissue called the
phloem.
+Thus, xylem and phloem transport substances in plants.
+Stem conducts water. Just like the red ink, minerals dissolved in water also move up the stem, along
with water.
+Water and minerals go to leaves and other plant parts, through narrow tubes (xylem) inside the stem.
+Not all the water absorbed is utilised by the plant. The water evaporates through the stomata present on
the surface of the leaves by the process of transpiration.
+The evaporation of water from leaves generates a suction pull (the same that you produce when you
suck water through a straw) which can pull water to great heights in the tall trees.
+Transpiration also cools the plant.
REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
+The production of new individuals from their parents is known as reproduction.
+Most plants have roots, stems and leaves. These are called the vegetative parts of a plant.
+Most plants bear flowers. These flowers that give rise to juicy to the fruits.
+We eat the fruits and usually discard the seeds. Seeds germinate and form new plants.
+Flowers perform the function of reproduction in plants. Flowers are the reproductive parts.
There are several ways by which plants produce their offspring. These are categorised into two types:
(i) asexual, and (ii) sexual reproduction.
+In asexual reproduction plants can give rise to new plants without seeds, whereas in sexual
reproduction, new plants are obtained from seeds.
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
In asexual reproduction new plants are obtained without production of seeds.
(I)Vegetative propagation :
It is a type of asexual reproduction in which new plants are produced from vegetative parts of the plant,
roots, stems, leaves and buds.
Examples : (i) Stem-cutting of rose -This piece of branch is termed a cutting.

29
+A bud consists of a short stem around which immature overlapping leaves are present which are in the
axil (point of attachment of the leaf at the node) of leaves which develop into shoots.
+These buds are called vegetative buds.
+Vegetative buds can also give rise to new plants.
+Scars on the potato which had buds in them are called Eyes.
+If we cut the potato into small portions, each with an eye and bury them in the soil then new potatoes will
grow.
+Likewise we can also grow ginger or turmeric.
+Bryophyllum (sprout leaf plant) has buds in the margins of leaves.
+ Buds produced in the notches along the leaf margin of Bryophyllum fall on the soil and develop into
new plants.
+If a leaf of this plant falls on a moist soil, each bud can give rise to a new plant.
+Plants produced by vegetative propagation take less time to grow and bear flowers and fruits earlier than
those produced from seeds.
+The new plants are exact copies of the parent plant, as they are produced from a single parent.
(ii) Budding :
+The tiny organisms like yeast can be seen only under a microscope.
+These grow and multiply every few hours if sufficient nutrients are made available to them.
yeast is a single-celled organism.
+The small bulb-like projection coming out from the yeast cell is called a bud.
+The bud gradually grows and gets detached from the parent cell and forms a new yeast cell.
+The new yeast cell grows, matures and produces more yeast cells.
+If this process continues, a large number of yeast cells are produced in a short time.
(iii) Fragmentation :
+Slimy green patches in ponds, or in other stagnant water bodies are the algae.
+When water and nutrients are available algae grow and multiply rapidly by fragmentation.
+An alga breaks up into two or more fragments. These fragments or pieces grow into new individuals
+ This process continues and they cover a large area in a short period of time.
+Following this general pattern, reproduction in such organisms is also the function of a specific cell type.
(iv)Spore formation
+The fungi on a bread piece grow from spores which are present in the air.
+When spores are released they keep floating in the air. As they are very light they can cover long
distances.
+Spores are asexual reproductive bodies.
+Each spore is covered by a hard protective coat to withstand unfavourable conditions such as high
temperature and low humidity.
+Under favourable conditions, a spore germinates and develops into a new individual. +Plants such as
moss and ferns also reproduce by means of spores.
(v) Fission :

30
+For unicellular organisms, cell division, or fission, leads to the creation of new individuals.
+Many different patterns of fission have been observed. Many bacteria and protozoa simply split into two
equal halves during cell division.
+However, some unicellular organisms show somewhat more organisation of their bodies,
+In such organisms, binary fission occurs in a definite orientation in relation to these structures.
+Other single-celled organisms, such as the malarial parasite, Plasmodium, divide into many daughter
cells simultaneously by multiple fission.
(vi) Regeneration :
+Simple animals like Hydra and Planaria can be cut into any number of pieces and each piece grows into
a complete organism. This is known as regeneration.
+Regeneration is carried out by specialised cells.
+These cells proliferate and make large numbers of cells. From this mass of cells, different cells undergo
changes to become various cell types and tissues.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
+The flowers are the reproductive parts of a plant. Stamens are the male reproductive part
And pistil is the female reproductive part.
+Flowers which contain either only pistil or only stamens are called unisexual flowers.
Corn, papaya and cucumber produce unisexual flowers,
+Flowers which contain both stamens and pistil are called bisexual flowers.
mustard, rose and petunia have bisexual flowers.
+Male and female unisexual flowers may be present in the same plant or in different plants.
+Anther contains pollen grains which produce male gametes.
+A pistil consists of stigma, style and ovary.
+Ovary contains one or more ovules.
+The female gamete or the egg is formed in an ovule.
+In sexual reproduction a male and a female gamete fuse to form a zygote.
Pollination :
+Generally pollen grains have a tough protective coat which prevents them from drying up.
+Since pollen grains are light, they can be carried by wind or water.
+Insects visit flowers and carry away pollen on their bodies
+The transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma of a flower is called pollination.
+If the pollen lands on the stigma of the same flower or another flower of the same plant, it is called self-
pollination.
+When the pollen of a flower lands on the stigma of a flower of a different plant of the same kind, it is
called cross-pollination.
Fertilisation :
+The cell which results after fusion of the gametes is called a zygote.
+The process of fusion of male and female gametes (to form a zygote) is called fertilisation .

31
+The zygote develops into an embryo.
FRUITS AND SEED FORMATION
+After fertilisation, the ovary grows into a fruit and other parts of the flower fall off.
+The fruit is the ripened ovary. The seeds develop from the ovules.
+The seed contains an embryo enclosed in a protective seed coat.
SEED DISPERSAL
+Seeds are dispersed to different places.
+Seeds and fruits of plants are carried away by wind, water and animals.Winged seeds such as those of
drumstick and maple light seeds of grasses or hairy seeds of aak (Madar) and hairy fruit of sunflower get
blown off with the wind to far away places.
+Some seeds are dispersed by water. These fruits or seeds usually develop floating ability in the form of
spongy or fibrous outer coat as in coconut.
+Some seeds are dispersed by animals, especially spiny seeds with hooks which get attached to the
bodies of animals and are carried to distant places.
+Some seeds are dispersed when the fruits burst with sudden jerks. The seeds are scattered far from
the parent plant. This happens in the case of castor and balsam.
PLANT KINGDOM
+The earliest systems of classification used only gross superficial morphological characters such as
habit, colour, number and shape of leaves, etc.
+They were based mainly on vegetative characters or on the androecium structure (system given by
Linnaeus). Such systems were artificial;
+Also, the artificial systems gave equal weightage to vegetative and sexual characteristics.
+As against this, natural classification systems developed, which were based on natural affinities
among the organisms and consider,
+Such a classification for flowering plants was given by George Bentham and Joseph Dalton Hooker.
+At present phylogenetic classification systems based on evolutionary relationships between the
various organisms are acceptable.
+Cytotaxonomy that is based on cytological information like chromosome number, structure, behaviour
and chemotaxonomy that uses the chemical constituents of the plant to resolve confusions, are also used
by taxonomists these days.
Plant kingdom includes algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms.

ALGAE :
+Algae are chlorophyll-bearing simple, thalloid, autotrophic and largely aquatic organisms.
+Depending on the type of pigment possesed and the type of stored food, algae are classfied into three
classes, namely Chlorophyceae, Phaeophyceae and Rhodophyceae.

32
+Algae usually reproduce vegetatively by fragmentation, asexually by formation of different types of
spores and sexually by formation of gametes which may show isogamy, anisogamy or oogamy.
BRYOPHYTES :
+Bryophytes are plants which can live in soil but are dependent on water for sexual reproduction..
+It is thallus-like and prostrate or erect and attached to the substratum by rhizoids.
+They possess root-like, leaf-like and stem-like structures.
+The bryophytes are divided into liverworts and mosses.
+The plant body of liverworts is thalloid and dorsiventral whereas mosses have upright, slender axes
bearing spirally arranged leaves.
+The main plant body of a bryophyte is gamete-producing and is called a gametophyte. It bears the male
sex organs called antheridia and female sex organs called archegonia.
+The male and female gametes produced fuse to form zygote which produces a multicellular body called
a sporophyte. It produces haploid spores. The spores germinate to form gametophytes.
PTERIDOPHYTES :
+In pteridophytes the main plant is a sporophyte which is differentiated into true root, stem and leaves.
+These organs possess well-differentiated vascular tissues.
+The sporophytes bear sporangia which produce spores.
+The spores germinate to form gametophytes which require cool, damp places to grow.
+The gametophytes bear male and female sex organs called antheridia and archegonia,respectively.
+Water is required for transfer of male gametes to archegonium where zygote is formed after fertilisation.
The zygote produces a sporophyte.
GYMNOSPERMS :
+ The gymnosperms are the plants in which ovules are not enclosed by any ovary wall.
+After fertilisation the seeds remain exposed and therefore these plants are called naked-seeded plants.
+The gymnosperms produce microspores and megaspores which are produced in microsporangia and
megasporangia borne on the sporophylls.
+The sporophylls – microsporophylls and megasporophylls – are arranged spirally on axis to form male
and female cones, respectively.
ANGIOSPERMS :
+In angiosperms, the male sex organs (stamen) and female sex organs (pistil) are borne in a flower.
+The phenomenon of two fusions called double fertilisation is accured in Angiosperms, and unique to
angiosperms.
+The angiosperms are divided into two classes – the dicotyledons and the monocotyledons.

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+ Natural vegetation and wildlife exist only in the narrow zone of contact between the lithosphere,
hydrosphere and atmosphere that we call biosphere.
+ In the biosphere living beings are inter-related and interdependent on each other for survival. This life
supporting system is known as the ecosystem.
+ The growth of vegetation depends on temperature and moisture. It also depends on factors like slope
and thickness of soil.
+ Natural vegetation is generally classified in to three broad categories.
Forests: Which grow where temperature and rainfall are plentiful to support a tree cover. Depending
upon these factors, dense and open forests are grown.
Grasslands: Which grow in the region of moderate rain.
Shrubs: Thorny shrurbs and scrubs grow in the dry region.
+ Coniferous forests are in the sub polar regions,
+ Thorny bushes are in deserts,
+ Thick tropical hardwood forests are in the humid regions.
+ The changes in natural vegetation occur mainly because of the changes of climatic condition.
+ Forests are broadly classified as evergreen and deciduous .
+ Evergreen forests do not shed their leaves in any season of the year.
+ Deciduous forests shed their leaves in a particular season to conserve loss of moisture through
transpiration. These both type of forests are further classified as tropical or temperate based on their
location in different latitudes.
FORESTS
+ Tropical Evergreen Forests: are also called tropical rainforests .These thick forests occur in the
regions near the equator and close to the tropics. They are
called evergreen. Hardwood trees like rosewood, ebony, mahogany are common here.
The tropical evergreen forest in Brazil is so enormous that it is like the lungs of the earth
Anaconda, is found in the tropical rainforest.
+ Tropical deciduous Forests: are the monsoon forests found in the large part of India,northern
Australia and in central America.These regions experience seasonal changes. The hardwood trees found
in these forests are sal, teak, neem and shisham. Tigers, lions, elephants, langoors and monkeys are the
common animals of these regions.
+ The temperate evergreen forests: are located in the mid latitudinal coastal region. They are
commonly found along the eastern margin of the continents ,In south east USA, South China and in South
East Brazil. They comprise both hard and soft wood trees like oak, pine, eucalyptus, etc.
+ Temperate Deciduous Forests: As we go towards higher latitudes, there are more temperate
deciduous forests. These are foundin the north eastern part of USA, China, New Zealand,Chile and also

34
found in the coastal regions of Western Europe. They shed their leaves in the dry season. The common
trees are oak, ash, beech, etc. Deer, foxes, wolvesare the animals commonly found. Birds like
pheasants,monals are also found here.
+ Mediterranean Vegetation: The west and south west margins of the continents have
Mediterranean vegetation. It is mostly found in the areas around the Mediterranean sea in Europe, Africa
and Asia ,the actual Mediterranean region in
California in the USA, south west Africa, south western South America and South west Australia. Citrus
fruits such as oranges, figs, olives and grapes are commonly cultivated here. There isn’t much wildlife
here. Mediterranean trees adapt themselves to dry summers with the help of their thick barks and wax
coated leaves to reduce transpiration.
+ Mediterranean regions are known as ‘Orchards of the world’ for their fruit cultivation.
+ Coniferous Forests: In the higher latitudes (50° – 70°) of Northern hemisphere the spectacular
Coniferous forests are found These are called as Taiga. We can see them in the higher altitudes also.
+ Taiga means pure or untouched in the Russian language.
+ These trees are tall, softwood evergreen trees. The woods of these trees are very useful for making
pulp, which is used for manufacturing paper and newsprint.
+ Chir, pine, cedar are the important variety oftrees in these forests. Silver fox, mink, polar bear are the
common animals found here.
GRASSLANDS
+ Tropical grasslands: These occur on either side of the equator and extend till the
Tropics. This vegetation grows in the areas of moderate to low amount of rainfall. Savannah grasslands of
Africa are of this type. Elephants, zebras, giraffes, deer, leopards are common in tropical grasslands.
In different regions- East Africa- Savanna
Brazil- Campos
Venezuela- Llanos
+ Temperate grasslands: These are found in the mid latitudinal zones and in the interior part of the
continents. Usually, grass here is short and nutritious. Wild buffaloes, bisons, antilopes are common in the
temperate region.
In different regions- Argentina- Pampas
N. America- Prairie
S. Africa- Veld
C. Asia- Steppe
Australia- Down
+ Thorny bushes: These are found in the dry desert like regions. Tropical deserts are located on the
western margins of the continents. The growth of natural vegetation is very limited here. Only mosses,
lichens and very small shrubs are found here.
+ Tundra Vegetation is found in the polar areas of Europe, Asia and North America. Seal, walruses,
musk-oxen, Arctic owl, Polar bear and snow foxes are some of the animals found here.

35
 WILD LIFE
+Plants give shelter to the animals and together they maintain the ecosystem.
+Deforestation, soil erosion, constructional activities, forest fires, tsunami and landslides are some of the
human and natural factors which accelerate the process of extinction of these resources.
+The animals are poached for collection and illegal trade of hides, skins, nails, teeth, horns as well as
feathers.
+A natural area designated to protect the ecological integrity of one or more ecosystems for the present
and the future generations is National park.
+Vulture due to its ability to feed on dead livestock is a scavenger and considered a vital cleanser of the
environment.
+Vultures in the Indian subcontinent were dying of kidney failure shortly after scavenging livestock
treated with diclofenac, a painkiller that is similar to aspirin or ibuprofen. Efforts are on to ban the drug for
livestock use and breed vultures in captivity.
+There is a balance in the environment if the relative number of species is not disturbed.
+Due to indiscriminate killings, several birds and animals have either become extinct or are on the verge of
extinction.
+Awareness programmes like social forestry and Vanamohatasava should be encouraged at the
regional and community level
+An international convention CITES has been established that lists several species of animals and birds
in which trade is prohibited.
+Conservation of plants and animals is an ethical duty of every citizen.
+CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) is an
international agreement between governments. Roughly 5,000 species of animals and 28,000 species of
plants are protected.
NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE IN INDIA
+Natural vegetation is termed as a virgin vegetation,which are purely Indian are known as endemic or
indigenous species but those which have come from outside India are termed as exotic plants.
+Our country India is one of the 12 mega bio-diversity countries of the world.
+ With about 47,000 plant species India occupies tenth place in the world and fourth in Asia in plant
diversity.
+There are about 15,000 flowering plants in India, which account for 6 per cent in the world’s total number
of flowering plants
+India also has approximately 90,000 species of animals.
+ Flora : The term is used to denote plants of a particular region or period. Similarly, the species of
animals are referred to as Fauna.
This huge diversity in flora and fauna kingdom is due to the following factors.
1.RELIEF
a)Land: Land affects the natural vegetation directly and indirectly. The nature of land influences the type

36
of vegetation. The fertile level is generally devoted to agriculture. The undulating and rough terrains are
areas where grassland and woodlands develop and give shelter to a variety of wildlife.
b)soil: +The sandy soils of the desert support cactus and thorny bushes.
+ wet, marshy, deltaic soils support mangroves and deltaic vegetation.
+ The hill slopes with some depth of soil have conical trees. 2.
CLIMATE a)
Temperature:+The character and extent of vegetation are mainly determined by temperature along with
humidity in the air, precipitation and soil. +On
the slopes of the Himalayas and the hills of the Peninsula above the height of 915 metres, the fall in the
temperature affects the types of vegetation and its growth, and changes it from tropical to subtropical
temperate and alpine vegetation.
b) Photoperiod (Sunlight ): Due to longer duration of sunlight, trees grow faster in summer.
C) Precipitation: In India, almost the entire rainfall is brought in by the advancing southwest monsoon
(June to September) and retreating northeast monsoons.
+ Areas of heavy rainfall have more dense vegetation as compared to areas of less rainfall. +The
vegetation cover of India in large parts is no more natural in the real sense. Except in some inaccessible
regions, like the Himalayas, the hilly region of central India and the marusthali, the vegetation in most of
the areas has been modified at some places, or replaced or degraded by human occupancy.
+According to India State of Forest Report 2011, the forest cover in India is 21.05 per cent.
3.ECOSYSTEM
+All plants and animals in an area are interdependent and interrelated in their physical environment, thus,
forming an ecosystem.
+ Human beings are also an integral part of the ecosystem.
+ They cut the trees and kill the animals creating ecological imbalance.
+A large ecosystem on land having distinct types of vegetation and animal life is called a biome. The
biomes are identified on the basis of plants.
TYPES OF VEGETATION IN INDIA
(i) Tropical Evergreen Forests
(ii) Tropical Deciduous Forests
(iii) Tropical Thorn Forests and Scrubs
(iv) Montane Forests
(v) Mangrove Forests
(i) Tropical Evergreen Forests : + These forests are restricted to heavy rainfall areas of the
Western Ghats and the island groups of Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar, upper parts of Assam and
Tamil Nadu coast.
+They are at their best in areas having more than 200 cm of rainfall with a short dry season. +The trees
reach great heights up to 60 metres or even above
+it has a luxuriant vegetation of all kinds
+ important trees of this forest are ebony, mahogany, rosewood, rubber and cinchona.
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+ animals in are elephant, monkey, lemur and deer. Onehorned rhinoceroses are found in the jungles of
Assam and West Bengal.
(ii) Tropical Deciduous Forests : +They are also called the monsoon forests and spread over the
region receiving rainfall between 200 cm and 70 cm.
+ These forests exist, therefore, mostly in the eastern part of the country - northeastern states, along the
foothills of the Himalayas, Jharkhand, West Odisha and Chhattisgarh, and on the eastern slopes of the
Western Ghats.
+Terak,Bamboos, sal, shisham, sandalwood, khair, kusum, arjun and mulberry are important species.
+ The common animals found are lion, tiger, pig, deer and elephant.
(iii) Tropical Thorn Forests and Scrubs: +These regions are with less than 70 cm of rainfall
+Acacias, palms, euphorbias and cacti are the main plant species.
+ common animals are rats, mice, rabbits, fox, wolf, tiger, lion, wild ass, horses and camels.
(iv) Montane Forests : There is a succession of natural vegetation belts in the same order as we
see from the tropical to the tundra region.
+ These forests cover mostly the southern slopes of the Himalayas, places having high altitude in
southern and north-east India.
+At high altitudes, generally, more than 3,600 metres above the sea level, temperate forests and
grasslands give way to the Alpine vegetation
+Silver fir, junipers, pines and birches are the common trees of these forests.
+ Through shrubs and scrubs, they merge into the Alpine grasslands.
+ These are used to extensively for grazing by nomadic tribes, like the Gujjars and the Bakarwals.
+ Kashmir stag, spotted dear, wild sheep, jack rabbit, Tibetan antelope, yak, snow leopard, squirrels,
Shaggy horn wild ibex, bear and rare red panda are common animals.
(v) Mangrove Forests: The mangrove tidal forests are found in the areas of coasts influenced by
tides.Mud and silt get accumutated on such coasts.
+The deltas of the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Krishna, the Godavari and the Kaveri are covered by such
vegetation.
+In the GangaBrahmaputra delta, sundari trees are found, which provide hard timber.
+ Palm, coconut, keora, agar, etc., also grow in some parts of the delta.
+Royal Bengal Tiger is the famous animal in these forests.
+The World Conservation Union’s Red List has named 352 medicinal plants of which 52 are critically
threatened and 49 endangered. The commonly used plants in India are:
Sarpagandha : Used to treat blood pressure; it is found only in India.
Jamun : The juice from ripe fruit is used to prepare vinegar, which is carminative and diuretic, and has
digestive properties. The powder of the seed controls diabetes.
Arjun : The fresh juice of leaves is a cure for earache. It is also used to regulate B.P
Babool : Leaves are used as a cure for eye sores. Its gum is used as a tonic.
Neem : Has high antibiotic and antibacterial properties.
Tulsi : Is used to cure cough and cold.

38
 Kachnar : It cures asthma and ulcers. The buds & roots are good for digestive problems.

WILDLIFE IN INDIA
+India has about 2,000 species of birds. They constitute 13% of the world’s total.
+There are 2,546 species of fish, which account for nearly 12% of the world’s stock.
+Elephants found in the hot wet forests of Assam, Karnataka and Kerala.
+One-horned rhinoceroses lives in swampy and marshy lands of Assam and West Bengal
+Wildlife Protection Act was implemented in 1972 in India.
+India is the only country in the world that has both tigers and lions.
+The Gir Forest is the last remaining habitat of the Asiatic lion
+103 National Parks, 535 Wildlife sanctuaries and Zoological gardens are set up to take care of natural
heritage.

39
+Plants are one source of our food.
+We eat many leafy vegetables. We eat fruits of some plants. Sometimes roots, sometimes stems and
even flowers.
+A small white structure may have grown out of the seeds. these are sprouted seeds.
+Bees collect nectar (sweet juices) from flowers, convert it into honey and store it in their hive.
+Flowers and their nectar may be available only for a part of the year. So, bees store this nectar for their
use all through the year. When we find such a beehive, we collect the food stored by the bees as honey.
+Animals which eat only plants or plant products. These are called herbivores.
+There are some animals which eat other animals.. These animals are called carnivores.
+Some animals which eat both plants and animals. These are called omnivores.
+Each dish which we eat is usually made up of one or more ingredients, which we get from plants or
animals. These ingredients contain some components that are needed by our body. These components
are called nutrients.
+The major nutrients in our food are named carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals. In
addition, food contains dietary fibres and water which are also needed by our body.
+The tests for presence of carbohydrates, proteins and fats are simpler to do as compared to the tests for
other nutrients.
+There are many types of carbohydrates. The main carbohydrates found in our food are in the form of
starch and sugars. We can easily test if a food item contains starch.
Test for Starch :
+Take a small quantity of a food item or a raw ingredient. Put 2-3 drops of dilute iodine solution on it,
+A dilute solution of iodine can be prepared by adding a few drops of tincture iodine to a test tube half filled
with water.
+A blue-black colour indicates that it contains starch.
Test for Protein :
+Take a small quantity of a food item for testing. If the food you want to test is a solid, you first need to make
a paste of it or powder it.
+Grind or mash a small quantity of the food item. Put some of this in a clean test tube, add 10 drops of water
to it and shake the test tube.
+Now, using a dropper, add two drops of solution of copper sulphate and ten drops of solution of caustic soda
to the test tube. Shake well and let the test tube stand for a few minutes.
+Copper sulphate solution can be prepared by dissolving 2 gram (g) of copper sulphate in 100 millilitre (mL) of
water.
+10 g of caustic soda dissolved in 100 mL of water makes the required solution of caustic soda.
+A violet colour indicates presence of proteins in the food item.
Test for Fats :
+Take a small quantity of a food item. Wrap it in a piece of paper and crush it.
+An oily patch on paper shows that the food item contains fat.

40
+There are also other nutrients like vitamins and minerals that are present in different food items.
+Carbohydrates mainly provide energy to our body.
+Fats also give us energy. In fact, fats give much more energy as compared to the same amount of
carbohydrates.
+Proteins are often called ‘body building foods’
+Vitamins help in protecting our body against diseases.
+Vitamins also help in keeping our eyes, bones, teeth and gums healthy.
+Vitamin A keeps our skin and eyes healthy.
+Vitamin C helps body to fight against many diseases.
+Vitamin D helps our body to use calcium for bones and teeth.
+Our body also prepares Vitamin D in the presence of sunlight.
+Minerals are needed by our body in small amounts. Each one is essential for proper growth of body and to
maintain good health.
+Rice is a “carbohydrate rich” source of food.
+Besides these nutrients, our body needs dietary fibres and water.
+Dietary fibres are also known as roughage.
+Roughage is mainly provided by plant products in our foods.
+Whole grains and pulses, potatoes, fresh fruits and vegetables are main sources of roughage.
+Roughage does not provide any nutrient to our body, but is an essential component of our food and adds to
its bulk. This helps our body get rid of undigested food.
+Water helps our body to absorb nutrients from food. It also helps in throwing out some wastes from body as
urine and sweat.
+The food we normally eat in a day is our diet.
+For growth and maintenance of good health, our diet should have all the nutrients that our body needs, in
right quantities. The diet should also contain a good amount of roughage and water. Such a diet is called a
balanced diet.
+Eating the right kind of food is not enough. It should also be cooked properly so that its nutrients are not lost.
+The skins of many vegetables and fruits contain vitamins and minerals.
+Repeated washing of rice and pulses may remove some vitamins and minerals present in them.
+Vitamin C gets easily destroyed by heat during cooking.
+It can be very harmful for us to eat too much of fat rich foods and we may end up suffering from a condition
called obesity.
+Diseases that occur due to lack of nutrients over a long period are called deficiency diseases.
+If a person does not get enough Proteins ,likely to have stunted growth, swelling of face, discolouration of
hair, skin diseases and diarrhoea.

Vitamin A Loss of vision Poor vision, loss of vision in darkness

(night), sometimes complete loss of vision
Vitamin B1 Beriberi Weak muscles and very little energy to work
Vitamin C Scurvey Bleeding gums, wounds take longer time to heal
Vitamin D Rickets Bones become soft and bent
Calcium Bone & tooth decay Weak bones, tooth decay
41
Iodine Goiter Glands in the neck appear swollen, mental disability in
children
Iron Anaemia Weakness

+The moving air is called the wind.

+The air exerts pressure. It is due to this pressure that the leaves of trees, banners, or flags flutter when
the wind is blowing.
+The increased wind speed is accompanied by a reduced air pressure
+Increased wind speed is, indeed, accompanied by a reduced air pressure.
+Wind is move from the region where the air pressure is high to the region where the pressure is low.
+The greater the difference in pressure, the faster the air moves.
+On heating the air expands and occupies more space. When the same thing occupies more space, it
becomes lighter.
+The warm air is, therefore, lighter than the cold air. That is the reason that the smoke goes up.
+In nature there are several situations, where warm air rises at a place. The air pressure at that place is
lowered. The cold air from the surrounding areas rushes in to fill its place. This sets up convection in air.
+The regions close to the equator get maximum heat from the Sun. The air in these regions gets warm.
+The warm air rises, and the cooler air from the regions in the 0–30 degrees latitude belt on either side of
the equator moves in.
+These winds blow from the north and the south towards the equator. At the poles, the air is colder than
that at latitudes about 60 degrees.
+The warm air at these latitudes rises up and the cold wind from the polar regions rushes in, to take its
place. In this way, wind circulation is set up from the poles to the warmer latitudes.
+The winds would have flown in the north-south direction from north to south, or from south to north. A
change in direction is however, caused by the rotation of the earth.
+In summer, near the equator the land warms up faster and most of the time the temperature of the land is
higher than that of water in the oceans. The air over the land gets heated and rises.
+This causes the winds to flow from the oceans towards the land. These are monsoon winds.
+The word monsoon is derived from the Arabic word ‘mausam’, which means ‘season’.
+In winter, the direction of the wind flow gets reversed; it flows from the land to the ocean.
+The winds from the oceans carry water and bring rain. It is a part of the water cycle.
+The monsoon winds carry water and it rains.
+In nature itself there are certain situations that can sometimes create disasters and pose threat to
humans,animals and plant life— Thunderstorms and cyclones.

Thunderstorms and cyclones

+Thunderstorms develop in hot, humid tropical areas like India very frequently.
+The rising temperatures produce strong upward rising winds. These winds carry water droplets upwards,
where they freeze, and fall down again.
42
+The swift movement of the falling water droplets along with the rising air create lightning and sound. It is
this event that we call a thunderstorm.
+Water requires heat when it changes from liquid to vapour state. The water give back heat when vapour
condenses into liquid.
+Before cloud formation, water takes up heat from the atmosphere to change into vapour. When water
vapour changes back to liquid form as raindrops, this heat is released to the atmosphere.
+The heat released to the atmosphere warms the air around. The air tends to rise and causes a drop in
pressure.
+More air rushes to the centre of the storm. This cycle is repeated.
+The chain of events ends with the formation of a very low-pressure system with very high-speed winds
revolving around it.
+It is this weather condition that we call a cyclone.
+Factors like wind speed, wind direction, temperature and humidity contribute to the development of
cyclones.
Structure of a cyclone :
+The centre of a cyclone is a calm area. It is called the eye of the storm.
+A large cyclone is a violently rotating mass of air in the atmosphere, 10 to 15 km high. The diameter of
the eye varies from 10 to 30 km.
+It is a region free of clouds and has light winds. Around this calm and clear eye, there is a cloud region of
about 150 km in size.
+In this region there are high-speed winds (150–250 km/h) and thick clouds with heavy rain.
+Away from this region the wind speed gradually decreases. The formation of a cyclone is a very complex
process.
DESTRUCTION CAUSED BY CYCLONES :
+Cyclones can be very destructive. Strong winds push water towards the shore even if the storm is
hundreds of kilometres away.
+These are the first indications of an approaching cyclone.
+The water waves produced by the wind are so powerful that a person cannot overcome them.
+The low pressure in the eye lifts water surface in the centre. The rising water may be as high as
3–12 metres.
+It appears like a water-wall moving towards the shore.
+As a result, the seawater enters the low-lying coastal areas, causing severe loss of life and property.
+It also reduces the fertility of the soil.
+Continuous heavy rainfall may further worsen the flood situation.
+High-speed winds accompanying a cyclone can damage houses, telephones and the communication
systems, trees, etc., causing tremendous loss of life and property.
+A cyclone is known by different names in different parts of the world. It is called a ‘hurricane’ in the
American continent. In Philippines and Japan it is called a ‘typhoon’.
+Tornadoes: In our country they are not very frequent. A tornado is a dark funnel shaped cloud that reaches
from the sky to the ground.
43
+ Most of the tornadoes are weak. A violent tornado can travel at speeds of about 300 km/h.
+Tornadoes may form within cyclones.
+The whole coastline of India is vulnerable to cyclones, particularly the east coast. The west coast of India
is less vulnerable to cyclonic storms both in terms of intensity and frequency of the cyclones.
+The diameter of a tornado can be as small as a metre and as large as a km, or even wider.
+The funnel of a tornado sucks dust, debris and everything near it at the base (due to low pressure) and
throws them out near the top.
+All storms are lowpressure systems. Wind speed plays an important role in the formation of storms. It is,
therefore, important to measure the wind speed.
+The instrument that measures the wind speed is called an anemometer.
+A Cyclone alert or Cyclone watch is issued 48 hours in advance of any expected storm and a Cyclone warning
is issued 24 hrs in advance by the satellites and radars.

Lightning
+Lightning is also an electric spark, but on a huge scale.
+In ancient times, people did not understand the cause of these sparks.
+Now, of course, we understand that lightning is caused by the accumulation of charges in the clouds.
+We have to take precautions to protect ourselves from the deadly sparks.
+The ancient Greeks knew as early as 600 B.C. that when amber (amber is a kind of resin) was rubbed
with fur, it attracted light objects such as hair.
+In 1752 Benjamin Franklin, an American scientist, showed that lightning and the spark from your
clothes are essentially the same phenomena.
+When a plastic comb is rubbed with dry hair, it acquires a small charge. These objects are called
charged objects.
+In the process of charging the plastic comb, hair also get charged.
+There are two kinds of charges. The charges of the same kind repel each other, while charges of
different kind attract each other.
+The electrical charges generated by rubbing are static. They do not move by themselves. When charges
move, they constitute an electric current.
+The current in a circuit which makes a bulb glow, or the current that makes a wire hot, is nothing but a
motion of charges.
+A device can be used to test whether an object is carrying charge or not. This device is known as
electroscope.
+Electrical charge can be transferred from a charged object to another through a metal conductor. Metals
are good conductors of electricity.
+The process of transferring of charge from a charged object to the earth is called earthing.
+Earthing is provided in buildings to protect us from electrical shocks due to any leakage of electrical
current.
+During the development of a thunderstorm, the air currents move upward while the water droplets move
downward. These vigorous movements cause separation of charges.

44
+By a process, the positive charges collect near the upper edges of the clouds and the negative charges
accumulate near the lower edges. When the magnitude of the accumulated charges becomes very large,
the air which is normally a poor conductor of electricity, is no longer able to resist their flow. Negative and
positive charges meet, producing streaks of bright light and sound. We see streaks as lightning. The
process is called an electric discharge.
+The process of electric discharge can occur between two or more clouds or between clouds and earth.
+During lightning and thunderstorm no open place is safe.
+After hearing the last thunder, wait for some time before coming out of the safe place.
+A house or a building is a safe place. If you are travelling by car or by bus, you are safe inside with
windows and doors of the vehicle shut.
+If no shelter is available and you are in an open field, stay far away from all trees.Place
your hands on your knees with your head between the hands. This position will make you the smallest
target to be struck.
+Lightning Conductor is a device used to protect buildings from the effect of lightning.
+A metallic rod, taller than the building, is installed in the walls of the building during its construction. One
end of the rod is kept out in the air and the other is buried deep in the ground. The rod provides easy route
for the transfer of electric charge to the ground.
Earthquakes
+One natural phenomenon which we are not yet able to predict accurately. It is an earthquake. It can cause
damage to human life and property on a huge scale.
+A major earthquake occurred in India on 8 October 2005 in Uri and Tangdhar. towns of North Kashmir.
Before that a major earthquake occurred on 26 January 2001 in Bhuj district of Gujarat.
+An earthquake is a sudden shaking or trembling of the earth which lasts for a very short time. It is caused by
a disturbance deep inside the earth’s crust.
+Earthquakes occur all the time, all over the earth. They are not even noticed. Major earthquakes are much
less frequent.
+They can cause immense damage to buildings, bridges, dams and people. There can be a great loss to life and
property.
+Earthquakes can cause floods, landslides and tsunamis. A major tsunami occurred in the Indian Ocean on 26
December 2004.
+The tremors are caused by the disturbance deep down inside the uppermost layer of the earth called the
crust.
+The outermost layer of the earth is not in one piece. It is fragmented. Each fragment is called a plate.
+These plates are in continual motion. When they brush past one another, or a plate goes under another due
to collision, they cause disturbance in the earth’s crust.
+It is this disturbance that shows up as an earthquake on the surface of the earth.
+Most earthquakes are caused by the movement of earth’s plates.
+Since earthquakes are caused by the movement of plates, the boundaries of the plates are the weak zones
where earthquakes are more likely to occur.
+The weak zones are also known as seismic or fault zones.

45
+In India, the areas most threatened are Kashmir, Western and Central Himalayas, the whole of North-East,
Rann of Kutch, Rajasthan and the Indo–Gangetic Plane. Some areas of South India also fall in the danger zone.
+The power of an earthquake is expressed in terms of a magnitude on a scale called the Richter scale.
+Really destructive earthquakes have magnitudes higher than 7 on the Richter scale.
+Both Bhuj and Kashmir earthquakes had magnitudes greater than 7.5.
+The tremors produce waves on the surface of the earth. These are called seismic waves.
+The waves are recorded by an instrument called the seismograph
+By studying these waves, scientists can construct a complete map of the earthquake. They can also
estimate its power to cause destruction.
+Like many other scales in science (decibel is another example), Richter scale is not linear. This means
that an earthquake of magnitude 6 does not have one and half times the destructive energy of an
earthquake of magnitude 4.
+In fact, an increase of 2 in magnitude means 1000 times more destructive energy.
+Therefore, an earthquake of magnitude 6 has thousand times more destructive energy than an
earthquake of magnitude 4.

46
+The moon is the brightest object in the night sky. The stars, the planets, the moon and many other
objects in the sky are called celestial objects.
+The study of celestial objects and associated phenomena is called astronomy.
+Passage of the Sun, stars, moon and planets in the sky helped ancestors to devise calenders and
almanacs.

+The day on which the whole disc of the moon is visible is known as the full moon day.
+Thereafter, every night the size of the bright part of the moon appears to become thinner and thinner.
+On the fifteenth day the moon is not visible. This day is known as the ‘new moon day’.
+The next day, only a small portion of the moon appears in the sky. This is known as the crescent moon.
+Then again the moon grows larger every day. On the fifteenth day once again w get a full view of the
moon.
+The various shapes of the bright part of the moon as seen during a month are called phases of the
moon.
+Almost all festivals in India are celebrated according to the phases of the moon.
For example, Diwali is celebrated on the new moon day;
Budh Poornima and Guru Nanak’s birthday are celebrated on full moon day;
Maha Shivratri is celebrated on thirteenth night of waning moon;
Eidul- Fitr is observed on the day following the sighting of crescent moon.
+The time period between one full moon to the next full moon is slightly longer than 29 days. In many
calendars this period is called a month.
+The moon does not produce its own light, whereas the Sun and other stars do.
+We see the moon because the sunlight falling on it gets reflected towards us.
+We, therefore, see only that part of the moon, from which the light of the Sun is reflected towards us.
+The moon revolves around the Earth. The Earth along with the moon, revolves around the Sun.
+The size of the illuminated part of the moon visible from the Earth increases each day after the new
moon day. After the full moon day, the sunlit part of the moon visible from the Earth decreases in size
every day.
+The moon completes one rotation on its axis as it completes one revolution around the Earth.
+When astronauts landed on the moon, they found that the moon’s surface is dusty and barren. There are
many craters of different sizes. It also has a large number of steep and high mountains. Some of these are
as high as the highest mountains on the Earth.
+On July 21, 1969 (Indian time) the American astronaut, Neil Armstrong, landed on the moon for the first
time. He was followed by Edwin Aldrin.
The Stars :
+There is a large number of stars in the sky.
47
+In fact, stars emit light of their own. The Sun is also a star.
+The stars are millions of times farther away than the Sun. Therefore, the stars appear to us like points.
+The Sun is nearly 150,000,000 kilometres (150 million km) away from the Earth.
+The next nearest star is Alpha Centauri. It is at a distance of about 40,000,000,000,000 km from the
Earth.
+Such large distances are expressed in another unit known as light year. It is the distance travelled by
light in one year.
+Remember that the speed of light is about 300,000 km per second. Thus, the distance of the Sun from
the Earth may be said to be about 8 light minutes.
+The distance of Alpha Centauri is about 4.3 light years.
+In fact, the stars are present in the sky during the day-time also. However, they are not visible then
because of the bright sunlight.
+The stars appear to move from east to west. A star which rises in the east in the evening, sets in the
west in the early morning.
+If the stars appear to move from east to west, could it mean that the Earth, rotates from west to east.
+There is actually a star, the pole star,which is situated in the direction of the earth’s axis. It does not
appear to move.
Constellations :
+The stars forming a group that has a recognisable shape is called a constellation.
+One of the most famous constellations which we can see during summer time in the early part of the
night is Ursa Major.
+It is also known as the Big Dipper, the Great Bear or the Saptarshi.
+Saptarshi has been associated with seven well known ancient Indian sages, or rishis.
+According to ancient mythology, the seven sages who form the Saptarshi, preserve the eternal
knowledge of Vedas and explain it to people in every new age.
+We can locate the Pole Star with the help of Ursa Major.
+In fact, all the stars appear to revolve around the Pole star.
+The Pole star is not visible from the southern hemisphere. Some of the northern constellations like Ursa
Major may also not be visible from some points in the southern hemisphere.
+Orion is another well-known constellation that can be seen during winter in the late evenings.
+It is one of the most magnificent constellations in the sky. It also has seven or eight bright stars.
+Orion is also called the Hunter. The three middle stars represent the belt of the hunter.
+The four bright stars appear to be arranged in the form of a quadrilateral.
+The star Sirius, which is the brightest star in the sky, is located close to Orion.
+To locate Sirius, imagine a straight line passing through the three middle stars of Orion.
+Look along this line towards the east. This line will lead you to a very bright star. It is Sirius.
+Cassiopeia is another prominent constellation in the northern sky. It is visible during winter in the early
part of the night. It looks like a distorted letter W or M.
+A constellation does not have only 5-10 stars. It has a large number of stars. However, we can see only
the bright stars in a constellation with our naked eye.
48
The Solar System :
+The Sun and the celestial bodies which revolve around it form the solar system.
+It consists of large number of bodies such as planets, comets, asteroids and meteors. The gravitational
attraction between the Sun and these objects keeps them revolving around it.
+The eight planets in their order of distance from the Sun are: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
+Till 2006 there were nine planets in the solar system. Pluto was the farthest planet from the Sun.
+In 2006, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) adopted a new definition of a planet. Pluto does not
fit this definition. It is no longer a planet of the solar system.
The Sun :
The Sun is the nearest star from us. It is continuously emitting huge amounts of heat and light. The Sun is
the source of almost all energy on the Earth. In fact, the Sun is the main source of heat and light for all the
planets.
The Planets :
+Planets merely reflect the sunlight that falls on them.
+The planets keep changing their positions with respect to the stars.
+A planet has a definite path in which it revolves around the Sun. This path is called an orbit.
+The time taken by a planet to complete one revolution is called its period of revolution.
+The period of revolution increases as the distance of the planet increases from the sun.
+Besides revolving around the Sun, a planet also rotates on its own axis like a top. The time taken by a
planet to complete one rotation is called its period of rotation.
+Any celestial body revolving around another celestial body is called its satellite.
+The Earth can be said to be a satellite of the Sun. Moon is a satellite of the Earth.
+There are many man-made satellites revolving round the Earth. These are called artificial satellites.
Mercury (Budh) :
+The planet mercury is nearest to the Sun. It is the smallest planet of our solar system.
+It can be observed just before sunrise or just after sunset, near the horizon.
+Mercury has no satellite of its own.
Venus (Shukra) :
+Venus is earth’s nearest planetary neighbour. It is the brightest planet in the night sky.
+it is often called a morning or an evening star.
+Venus has no satellite of its own. Rotation of Venus on its axis is somewhat unusual. It rotates from east
to west while the Earth rotates from west to east.
The Earth (Prithvi) :
+The Earth is the only planet in the solar system on which life is known to exist.
+It has the right temperature range, the presence of water and suitable atmosphere and a blanket of
ozone.
+The axis of rotation of the Earth is not perpendicular to the plane of its
orbit. The tilt is responsible for the change of seasons on the Earth.
49
+The Earth has only one moon(satellite).
+The plane of the equator is called the equatorial plane. The plane in which the Earth revolves round the
Sun is called the orbital plane of the Earth.
+These two planes are inclined to each other at an angle of 23.5º. This means that the axis of the Earth is
inclined to its orbital plane at an angle of 66.5º.
Mars (Mangal) :
+The first outside the orbit of the Earth is Mars. It appears slightly reddish and, therefore, it is also called the
red planet. Mars has two small natural satellites.
Jupiter (Brihaspati) :
+Jupiter is the largest planet of the solar system. It is so large that about 1300 earths can be placed inside this
giant planet.
+However, the mass of Jupiter is about 318 times that of our Earth. It rotates very rapidly on its axis.
+Jupiter has a large number of satellites. It also has faint rings around it. You can easily recognise Jupiter as it
appears quite bright in the sky.
Saturn (Shani) :
+Saturn which appears yellowish in colour. What makes it unique in the solar system is its beautiful rings.
+Saturn also has a large number of satellites.
+it is the least dense among all the planets. Its density is less than that of water.
Uranus and Neptune :
+These are the outermost planets of the solar system.
+They can be seen only with the help of large telescopes.
+Like Venus, Uranus also rotates from east to west.
+Uranus has highly tilted rotational axis. As a result, in its orbital motion it appears to roll on its side.

+Mercury,Venus, Earth and Mars are much nearer the Sun than the other four planets. They are called
the inner planets.
+Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are much farther off than the inner planets. They are called the
outer planets. The outer planets have large number of moons(satellites).
Asteroids :
There is a large gap in between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. This gap is occupied by a large number of
small objects that revolve around the Sun. These are called asteroids. Asteroids can only be seen
through large telescopes.
Comets :
+Comets are also members of our solar system. They revolve around the Sun in highly elliptical orbits.
+A Comet appears generally as a bright head with a long tail. The length of the tail grows in size as it
approaches the sun.
+Halley’s comet, which appears after nearly every 76 years. It was last seen in 1986.

50
Meteors and Meteorites :
+At night, when the sky is clear and the moon is not there, you may sometimes see bright streaks of light
in the sky. These are commonly known as shooting stars, although they are not stars. They are called
meteors.
+A meteor is usually a small object that occasionally enters the earth’s atmosphere.
+Some meteors are large and so they can reach the Earth before they evaporate completely. The body
that reaches the Earth is called a meteorite.
+Meteorites help scientists in investigating the nature of the material from which the solar system was
formed.
+When the Earth crosses the tail of a comet, swarms of meteors are seen. These are known as meteor
showers.
+The practice of astronomy in ancient India is mentioned in Rig Veda which was composed about 4000
years ago.
+Many Indian scholars have contributed to astronomy. One of the most well known astronomers is
Aryabhata.
+The work of Aryabhata on astronomy can be found in his writing ‘Aryabhatiya’. He wrote it in 499 CE at
the age of 23 years.
+The diameter of the Earth as stated by Aryabhata is close to its presently known value. Disregarding the
popular view that Earth is ‘achala’ (immovable),
+Aryabhata stated that Earth is sphere and rotates on its own axis. His estimate about the sidereal period
of Earth was 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4.1 seconds, which is very close to the presently known value
+When the shadow ofthe Earth falls on the moon, it causes lunar eclipse. When the shadow of the moon
falls on the Earth, it causes solar eclipse.
+Aryabhata also found the distance between the Earth and the moon, which is very close to the known
value today.
+Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) launched India’s first Mars orbiter mission –
Mangalyaan, on November 5, 2013. It was successfully placed into an orbit of Mars on September 24,
2014. With this India
became the first country in the world to do so in its first attempt.
+India has built and launched several artificial satellites. Aryabhata was the first Indian satellite. Some
other Indian satellites are INSAT, IRS, Kalpana-1, EDUSAT.

51
+Earth scientists have attempted to explain the formation of physical features with the help of some
theories based on certain evidences.
+One such Plausible theory is the ‘Theory of Plate Tectonics’. According to this theory, the crust (upper
part) of the earth has been formed out of seven major and some minor plates.
+The movement of the plates results in the building up of stresses within the plates and the continental
rocks above, leading to folding, faulting and volcanic activity.
+Broadly, these plate movements are classified into three types.
+While some plates come towards each other and form convergent boundary.
+Some plates move away from each other and form divergent boundary.
+In the event of two plates coming together, they may either collide and crumble, or one may slide under
the other. At times, they may also move horizontally past each other and form transform boundary.
+The movement of these plates have changed the position and size of the continents over millions of
years.
+The oldest landmass, (the Peninsula part), was a part of the Gondwana land.
+The Gondwana land included India, Australia, South Africa, South America and Antarctica as one single
land mass. The convectional currents split the crust into a number of pieces, thus leading to the drifting of
the Indo- Australian plate after being separated from the Gondwana land, towards north.
+The northward drift resulted in the collision of the plate with the much larger Eurasian Plate.
+Due to this collision, the sedimentary rocks which were accumulated in the geosyncline known as the
Tethys were folded to form the mountain system of western Asia and Himalaya.
+The Himalayan uplift out of the Tethys sea and subsidence of the northern flank of the peninsular plateau
resulted in the formation of a large basin.
+A flat land of extensive alluvial deposits led to the formation of the northern plains of India.
+The Peninsular Plateau constitutes one of the ancient landmasses on the earth’s surface.
+It was supposed to be one of the most stable land blocks.
+The Himalayas and the Northern Plains are the most recent landforms.
+Himalayan mountains form an unstable zone.
+The whole mountain system of Himalaya represents a very youthful topography with high peaks, deep
valleys and fast flowing rivers.
+The northern plains are formed of alluvial deposits. The peninsular plateau is composed of igneous and
metamorphic rocks with gently rising hills and wide valleys.

52
MAJOR PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS
The physical features of India can be grouped under the following physiographic divisions :
(1) The Himalayan Mountains
(2) The Northern Plains
(3) The Peninsular Plateau
(4) The Indian Desert
(5) The Coastal Plains
(6) The Islands

(1) The Himalayan Mountains :

+The Himalayas, geologically young and structurally fold mountains stretch over the northern borders of
India.
+These mountain ranges run in a west-east direction from the Indus to the Brahmaputra.
+The Himalayas represent the loftiest and one of the most rugged mountain barriers of the world. +They
form an arc, which covers a distance of about 2,400 Km. Their width varies from 400 Km
in Kashmir to 150 Km in Arunachal Pradesh.
+The altitudinal variations are greater in the eastern half than those in the western half.
+The Himalaya consists of three parallel ranges in its longitudinal extent. A number of valleys lie between
these ranges.
a)The northern-most range is known as the Great or Inner Himalayas or the Himadri.
+It is the most continuous range consisting of the loftiest peaks with an average height of 6,000 metres.
+It contains all prominent Himalayan peaks.
+The folds of the Great Himalayas are asymmetrical in nature.
+The core of this part of Himalayas is composed of granite.
+It is perennially snow bound, and a number of glaciers descend from this range.
b)The range lying to the south of the Himadri forms the most rugged mountain system and is known as
Himachal or lesser Himalaya.
+The ranges are mainly composed of highly compressed and altered rocks.
+The altitude varies between 3,700 and 4,500 metres and the average width is of 50 Km.
+While the Pir Panjal range forms the longest and the most important range, the Dhaula Dhar and the
Mahabharat ranges are also prominent ones.
+This range consists of the famous valley of Kashmir, the Kangra and Kullu Valley in Himachal Pradesh.
+This region is well-known for its hill stations.
c)The outer-most range of the Himalayas is called the Shiwaliks.
+They extend over a width of 10-50 Km and have an altitude varying between 900 and 1100 metres.
+These ranges are composed of unconsolidated sediments brought down by rivers from the main
Himalayan ranges located farther north.
53
+These valleys are covered with thick gravel and alluvium.
+The longitudinal valley lying between lesser Himalaya and the Shiwaliks are known as Duns.
+Dehra Dun, Kotli Dun and Patli Dun are some of the well-known Duns.
+Besides the longitudinal divisions, the Himalayas have been divided on the basis of regions from west to
east.
+These divisions have been demarcated by river valleys.
+For example, the part of Himalayas lying between Indus and Satluj has been traditionally known as
Punjab Himalaya but it is also known regionally as Kashmir and Himachal Himalaya from west to east
respectively.
+The part of the Himalayas lying between Satluj and Kali rivers is known as Kumaon Himalayas.
+The Kali and Teesta rivers demarcate the Nepal Himalayas and the part lying between Teesta and
Dihang rivers is known as Assam Himalayas.
+The Brahmaputra marks the eastern-most boundary of the Himalayas.
+Beyond the Dihang gorge, the Himalayas bend sharply to the south and spread along the eastern
boundary of India. They are known as the Purvachal or the Eastern hills and mountains.
+These hills running through the north-eastern states are mostly composed of strong sandstones, which
are sedimentary rocks.
+Covered with dense forests, they mostly run as parallel ranges and valleys. The Purvachal comprises the
Patkai hills, the Naga hills, the Manipur hills and the Mizo hills.

(2) The Northern Plains :

+The northern plain has been formed by the interplay of the three major river systems, namely — the
Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra along with their tributaries.
+This plain is formed of alluvial soil. The deposition of alluvium in a vast basin lying at the foothills of the
Himalaya over millions of years, formed this fertile plain.
+ It spreads over an area of 7 lakh sq. km. The plain being about 2400 km long and 240 to 320 km broad,
is a densely populated physiographic division. With a rich soil cover combined with adequate water
supply and favourable climate it is agriculturally a productive part of India.
+The rivers in their lower course split into numerous channels due to the deposition of silt.These channels
are known as distributaries.
+The Northern Plain is broadly divided into three sections. The Western part of the Northern Plain is
referred to as the Punjab Plains. Formed by the Indus and its tributaries, the larger part of this plain lies in
Pakistan. The Indus and its tributaries — the Jhelum, the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas and the Satluj
originate in the Himalaya. This section of the plain is dominated by the doabs.
+The Ganga plain extends between Ghaggar and Teesta rivers. It is spread over the states of North
India, Haryana, Delhi, U.P., Bihar, partly Jharkhand and West Bengal to its East, particularly in Assam lies
the Brahmaputra plain.
+According to the variations in relief features, the Northern plains can be divided into four regions. The
rivers, after descending from the mountains deposit pebbles in a narrow belt of about 8 to 16 km in width
lying parallel to the slopes of the Shiwaliks. It is known as bhabar.

54
+All the streams disappear in this bhabar belt. South of this belt, the streams and rivers re-emerge and
create a wet, swampy and marshy region known as terai.
+This was a thickly forested region full of wildlife. The forests have been cleared to create agricultural land
and to settle migrants from Pakistan after partition.
+The largest part of the northern plain is formed of older alluvium. It lies above the floodplains of the rivers
and presents a terrace like feature. This part is known as bhangar.
+The soil in this region contains calcareous deposits, locally known as kankar.
+The newer, younger deposits of the floodplains are called khadar. They are renewed almost every year
and so are fertile, thus, ideal for intensive agriculture.

(3) The Peninsular Plateau :

The Peninsular plateau is a tableland composed of the old crystalline, igneous and metamorphic rocks.
+It was formed due to the breaking and drifting of the Gondwana land and thus, making it a part of the
oldest landmass.
+This plateau consists of two broad divisions, namely, the Central Highlands and the Deccan Plateau.
+The part of the Peninsular plateau lying to the north of the Narmada river, covering a major area of the
Malwa plateau, is known as the Central Highlands.
+The Central Highlands are wider in the west but narrower in the east. The eastward extensions of this
plateau are locally known as the Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand.
+The Chotanagpur plateau marks the further eastward extension, drained by the Damodar river.
+The Deccan Plateau is a triangular landmass that lies to the south of the river Narmada.
+The Deccan Plateau is higher in the west and slopes gently eastwards.
+ An extension of the Plateau is also visible in the northeast, locally known as the Meghalaya, Karbi-
Anglong Plateau and North Cachar Hills.
+It is separated by a fault from the Chotanagpur Plateau.
+Three prominent hill ranges from the west to the east are the Garo, the Khasi and the Jaintia Hills.
+The Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats mark the western and the eastern edges of the Deccan
Plateau respectively.
+The Western Ghats are higher than the Eastern Ghats. Their average elevation is 900– 1600 metres as
against 600 metres of the Eastern Ghats.
+The height of the Western Ghats progressively increases from north to south. The highest peaks include
the Anai Mudi (2,695 metres) and the Doda Betta (2,637 metres). Mahendragiri (1,501 metres) is the
highest peak in the Eastern Ghats.
+One of the distinct features of the Peninsular plateau is the black soil area known as Decean Trap.
+The Aravali Hills lie on the western and northwestern margins of the Peninsular plateau. These are
highly eroded hills and are found as broken hills.
(4) The Indian Desert :
+The Indian desert lies towards the western margins of the Aravali Hills. It is an undulating sandy plain
covered with sand dunes. This region receives very low rainfall below 150 mm per year.
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+Luni is the only large river in this region.
+Barchans (crescent-shaped dunes) cover larger areas but longitudinal dunes become more
prominent near the Indo-Pakistan boundary.

(5) The Coastal Plains :

+The western coast, sandwiched between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea, is a narrow plain. It
consists of three sections.
+The northern part of the coast is called the Konkan (Mumbai – Goa), the central stretch is called the
Kannad Plain, while the southern stretch is referred to as the Malabar coast.
+The plains along the Bay of Bengal are wide and level. In the northern part, it is referred to as the
Northern Circar, while the southern part is known as the Coromandel Coast.
+Large rivers, such as the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri have formed extensive
delta on this coast.
+Lake Chilika is an important feature along the eastern coast.
(6) The Islands :
+Lakshadweep Islands group lying close to the Malabar coast of Kerala.
+It covers small area of 32 sq km. Kavaratti island is the administrative headquarters of Lakshadweep.
+The Pitti island, which is uninhabited, has a bird sanctuary.
+Andaman and Nicobar islands are in bay of Bengal .
+The entire group of islands is divided into two broad categories – The Andaman in the north and the
Nicobar in the south.

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 LAND RESOURCES
+Land is a natural resource of utmost importance.
+It supports natural vegetation, wild life, human life, economic activities, transport and communication
systems.
+ However, land is an asset of a finite magnitude, therefore, it is important to use the available land for
various purposes with careful planning.
+In india, 43 per cent of the land area is plain, which provides facilities for agriculture and industry.
+Mountains account for 30 per cent of the total surface area of the country and ensure perennial flow of
some rivers, provide facilities for tourism and ecological aspects.
+About 27 per cent of the area of the country is the plateau region. It possesses rich reserves of minerals,
fossil fuels and forests.
+The use of land is determined both by physical factors such as topography, climate, soil types
as well as human factors such as population density, technological capability and culture and traditions.
+The pattern of net sown area(NSA) varies greatly from one state to another. It is over 80 per cent
of the total area in Punjab and Haryana and less than 10 per cent in Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram,
Manipur and Andaman Nicobar Islands.
SOIL RESOURCES
+Soil is the most important renewable natural resource. It is the medium of plant growth and supports
different types of living organisms on the earth.
Classification of Soils
+India has varied relief features, landforms, climatic realms and vegetation types. These have contributed
in the development of various types of soils.
Alluvial Soils :
+This is the most widely spread and important soil. In fact, the entire northern plains are made
of alluvial soil.
+These have been deposited by three important Himalayan river systems– the
Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra.
+These soils also extend in Rajasthan and Gujarat through a narrow corridor.
+Alluvial soil is also found in the eastern coastal plains particularly in the deltas of the Mahanadi, the
Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri rivers.
+According to their age alluvial soils can be classified as old alluvial (Bangar) and new alluvial (Khadar).
+The bangar soil has higher concentration of kanker nodules than the Khadar. Khadar has more fine
particles and is more fertile than the bangar.
+Mostly these soils contain adequate proportion of potash, phosphoric acid and lime which are
ideal for the growth of sugarcane, paddy, wheat and other cereal and pulse crops.

57
Black Soil :
+These soils are black in colour and are also known as regur soils.
+Black soil is ideal for growing cotton and is also known as black cotton soil.
+It is believed that climatic condition along with the parent rock material are the important factors for the
formation of black soil.
+This type of soil is typical of the Deccan trap (Basalt) region spread over northwest Deccan plateau and
is made up of lava flows. They cover the plateaus of Maharashtra, Saurashtra,
+The black soils are made up of extremely fine i.e. clayey material. They are well-known for their capacity
to hold moisture.
+In addition, they are rich in soil nutrients, such as calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash and lime.
These soils are generally poor in phosphoric contents.
Red and Yellow Soils :
+Red soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks in areas of low rainfall in the eastern and southern parts
of the Deccan plateau.
+Yelllow and red soils are also found in parts of Odisha, Chhattisgarh, southern parts of the middle
Ganga plain and along the piedmont zone of the Western Ghats.
+These soils develop a reddish colour due to diffusion of iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks. +It
looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form.
Laterite Soil :
+Laterite has been derived from the Latin word ‘later’ which means brick.
+The laterite soil develops under tropical and subtropical climate with alternate wet and dry season. +This
soil is the result of intense leaching due to heavy rain. Lateritic soils are mostly deep to very deep, acidic
(pH<6.0), generally deficient in plant nutrients and occur mostly in southern states, Western Ghats region
of Maharashtra, Odisha, some parts of West Bengal and North-east regions.
Forest Soils :
+These soils are found in the hilly and mountainous areas where sufficient rain forests are available. +The
soils texture varies according to the mountain environment where they are formed.
+They are loamy and silty in valley sides and coarse grained in the upper slopes.
+In the snow covered areas of Himalayas, these soils experience denudation and are acidic with low
humus content.
+The denudation of the soil cover and subsequent washing down is described as soil erosion.
+The running water cuts through the clayey soils and makes deep channels as gullies.
+The land becomes unfit for cultivation and is known as bad land.
+In the Chambal basin such lands are called ravines.
+Sometimes water flows as a sheet over large areas down a slope. In such cases the top soil is washed
away. This is known as sheet erosion.
+Wind blows loose soil off flat or sloping land known as wind erosion.

58
+Ploughing along the contour lines can decelerate the flow of water down the slopes. This is called
contour ploughing.
+Western and central Himalayas have well developed terrace farming.
+Large fields can be divided into strips. Strips of grass are left to grow between the crops. This breaks up
the force of the wind. This method is known as strip cropping.

FOREST AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES

+Forests play a key role in the ecological system as these are also the primary producers on which all
other living beings depend.
+Biodiversity or Biological Diversity is immensely rich in wildlife and cultivated species, diverse in form and
function but closely integrated in a system through multiple network of interdependencies.
+In india nearly 8 per cent of the total number of species in the world (estimated to be 1.6 million). This is
possibly twice or thrice the number yet to be discovered.
+Over 81,000 species of fauna and 47,000 species of flora are found in this country so far.Of the
estimated 47,000 plant species, about 15,000 flowering species are endemic (indigenous) to India.
+At least 10 per cent of India’s recorded wild flora and 20 per cent of its mammals are on the
threatened list. Many of these would now be categorised as ‘critical’, that is on the verge of extinction like
the cheetah, pink-headed duck, mountain quail, forest spotted owlet, and plants like madhuca insignis (a
wild variety of mahua) and hubbardia heptaneuron,(a species of grass).
+Among the larger animals in India, 79 species of mammals, 44 of birds, 15 of reptiles, and 3 of
amphibians are threatened. Nearly 1,500 plant species are considered endangered.
+The forest and tree cover in the country is estimated at 79.42 million hectare,which is 24.16 per cent of
the totalgeographical area
+Based on the International Unionfor Conservation of Nature and NaturalResources (IUCN), we can
classify differentcategories of existing plants and animalspecies as follows –
Normal Species: Species whose population levels are considered to be normal for their survival, such as
cattle, sal, pine, rodents, etc.
Endangered Species: These are species which are in danger of extinction. The survival of such species
is difficult if the negative factors that have led to a decline in their population continue to operate. The
examples of such species are black buck, crocodile, Indian wild ass, Indian rhino, lion
tailed macaque, sangai (brow anter deer in Manipur), etc.
Normal Species: Species whose population levels are considered to be normal for their survival, such as
cattle, sal, pine, rodents, etc.
Endangered Species: These are species which are in danger of extinction. The survival of such species
is difficult if the negative factors that have led to a decline in their population continue to operate. The
examples of such species are black buck, crocodile, Indian wild ass, Indian rhino, lion
tailed macaque, sangai (brow anter deer in Manipur), etc.

59
Endemic Species: These are species which are only found in some particular areas usually isolated by
natural or geographical barriers. Examples of such species are the Andaman teal, Nicobar pigeon,
Andaman wild pig, mithun in Arunachal Pradesh.
Extinct Species: These are species which are not found after searches of known or likely areas where
they may occur. A species may be extinct from a local area, region, country, continent or the entire earth.
Examples of such species are the Asiatic cheetah, pink head duck.
+The world’s fastest land mammal, the cheetah (Acinonyx jubantus), is a unique and specialised member
of the cat family and can move at the speed of 112 km./hr.
+Today, the Asian cheetah is nearly extinct due to a decline of available habitat and prey. The species
was declared extinct in India long back in 1952.
+Between 1951 and 1980, according to the Forest Survey of India, over 26,200 sq. km. of forest area was
converted into agricultural land all over India.
+“Enrichment plantation” Is an activity, in which a single commercially valuable species was extensively
planted and other species eliminated.
+The Himalayan Yew (Taxus wallachiana) is a medicinal plant found in various parts of
Himachal Pradesh and Arunachal Pradesh.
+A chemical compound called ‘taxol’ is extracted from the bark, needles, twigs and roots of this tree, and it
has been successfully used to treat some cancers – the drug is now the biggest selling anti-cancer drug in
the world.
+In the 1960s and 1970s, conservationists demanded a national wildlife protection programme.
+The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act was implemented in 1972, with various provisions for protecting
habitats.
+“Project Tiger”, one of the wellpublicised wildlife campaigns in the world, was launched in 1973. Initially,
it showed success as the tiger population went up to 4,002 in 1985 and 4,334 in 1989. But in1993, the
population of the tiger had dropped to 3,600. There were 39 tiger reserves in India covering an area of
32137.14 sq km*.
+Corbett National Park in Uttarakhand,
Sunderbans National Park in West Bengal,
Bandhavgarh National Park in Madhya Pradesh,
Sariska Wildlife Sanctuary in Rajasthan,
Manas Tiger Reserve in Assam and
Periyar Tiger Reserve in Kerala are some of the tiger reserves of India.
+In the notification under Wildlife Act of 1980 and 1986, several hundred butterflies, moths, beetles, and
one dragonfly have been added to the list of protected species.
+In India, much of its forest and wildlife resources are either owned or managed by the government
through the Forest Department or other government departments. These are classified under the following
categories.
(i) Reserved Forests: More than half of the total forest land has been declared reserved forests.
Reserved forests are regarded as the most valuable as far as the conservation of forest and wildlife
resources are concerned.
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(ii) Protected Forests: Almost one-third of the total forest area is protected forest, as declared by the
Forest Department. This forest land are protected from any further depletion.
(iii) Unclassed Forests: These are other forests and wastelands belonging to both government and
private individuals and communities.
+The inhabitants of five villages in the Alwar district of Rajasthan have declared 1,200 hectares of forest
as the Bhairodev Dakav ‘Sonchuri’, declaring their own set of rules and regulations which do not allow
hunting, and are protecting the wildlife against any outside encroachments.
+The Mundas and the Santhal of Chota Nagpur region worship mahua (Bassia latifolia) and kadamba
(Anthocaphalus cadamba) trees, and the tribals of Odisha and Bihar worship the tamarind (Tamarindus
indica) and mango (Mangifera indica) trees during weddings. To many of us, peepal and banyan trees are
considered sacred.
+The famous Chipko movement in the Himalayas has not only successfully resisted deforestation in
several areas but has also shown that community afforestation with indigenous species can be
enormously successful.
+Farmers and citizen’s groups like the Beej Bachao Andolan in Tehri and Navdanya have shown that
adequate levels of diversified crop production without the use of synthetic chemicals are possible and
economically viable.
+In India joint forest management (JFM) programme furnishes a good example for involving local
communities in the management and restoration of degraded forests. The programme has been in formal
existence since 1988 when the state of Odisha passed the first resolution for joint forest management.

WATER RESOURCES
Today, in India hydroeclectric power contributes approximately 22 per cent of the total electricity
produced.
• In the first century B.C., Sringaverapura near Allahabad had sophisticated water harvesting system
channelling the flood water of the river Ganga.
• During the time of Chandragupta Maurya, dams, lakes and irrigation systems were extensively built.
• Evidences of sophisticated irrigation works have also been found in Kalinga, (Odisha), Nagarjunakonda
(Andhra Pradesh), Bennur (Karnataka), Kolhapur (Maharashtra), etc.
• In the 11th Century, Bhopal Lake, one of the largest artificial lakes of its time was built.
• In the 14th Century, the tank in Hauz Khas, Delhi was constructed by Iltutmish for supplying water to Siri
Fort area.
+In the Sutluj-Beas river basin, the Bhakra – Nangal project water is being used both for hydel power
production and irrigation.
+Similarly, the Hirakud project in the Mahanadi basin integrates conservation of water with flood control.
+A dam is a barrier across flowing water that obstructs, directs or retards the flow, often creating a
reservoir, lake or impoundment.
+Based on structure and the materials used, dams are classified as timber dams, embankment dams or
masonry dams, with several subtypes.

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+ According to the height, dams can be categorised as large dams and major dams or alternatively as low
GFdams, medium height dams and high dams.
+Jawaharlal Nehru proudly proclaimed the dams as the ‘temples of modern India’;
+Narmada Bachao Andolan or Save Narmada Movement is a Non Governmental Organisation (NGO) that
mobilised tribal people, farmers, environmentalists and human rights activists against the Sardar Sarovar
Dam being built across the Narmada river in Gujarat.
+The Krishna-Godavari dispute is due to the objections raised by Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh
Governments.It is regarding the diversion of more water at Koyna by the Maharashtra government for a
multipurpose project.
+Water harvesting system was a viable alternative, both socio-economically and environmentally. In
ancient India, along with the sophisticated hydraulic structures, there existed an extraordinary tradition of
water-harvesting system.
+In hill and mountainous regions, people built diversion channels like the ‘guls’ or ‘kuls’ of the Western
Himalayas for agriculture. ‘Rooftop rainwater harvesting’ was commonly practised to store drinking water,
particularly in Rajasthan.
+In arid and semi-arid regions, agricultural fields were converted into rain fed storage structures that
allowed the water to stand and moisten the soil like the ‘khadins’ in Jaisalmer and ‘Johads’ in other parts
of Rajasthan.
+In Meghalaya, a 200-year-old system of tapping stream and spring water by using bamboo pipes, is
prevalent. About 18-20 litres of water enters the bamboo pipe system, gets transported over hundreds of
metres, and finally reduces to 20-80 drops per minute at the site of the plant.
+Tamil Nadu is the first state in India which has made rooftop rainwater harvesting structure compulsory to
all the houses across the state. There are legal provisions to punish the defaulters.

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+India is an agriculturally important country. Two-thirds of its population is engaged in agricultural
activities.
+Agriculture is an age-old economic activity in our country.
Primitive Subsistence Farming:
+This type of farming is still practised in few pockets of India.
+Primitive subsistence agriculture is practised on small patches of land with the help of primitive tools like
hoe, dao and digging sticks, and family/community labour.
+This type of farming depends upon monsoon, natural fertility of the soil and suitability of other
environmental conditions to the crops grown.
+It is a ‘slash and burn’ agriculture.Farmers clear a patch of land and produce cereals and other food
crops to sustain their family.
+When the soil fertility decreases, the farmers shift and clear a fresh patch of land for cultivation.
+It is also called as jhumming in north-eastern states like Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland;
Pamlou in Manipur, Dipa in Bastar district of Chhattishgarh, and in Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Jhumming: +In India, this primitive form of cultivation is called ‘Bewar’ or ‘Dahiya’ in Madhya Pradesh,
‘Podu’ or ‘Penda’ in Andhra Pradesh, ‘Pama Dabi’ or ‘Koman’ or Bringa’ in Odisha, ‘Kumari’ in Western
Ghats, ‘Valre’ or ‘Waltre’ in South-eastern Rajasthan, ‘Khil’ in the Himalayan belt, ‘Kuruwa’ in
Jharkhand, and ‘Jhumming’ in the North-eastern region.
Intensive Subsistence Farming :
+This type of farming is practised in areas of high population pressure on land.
+It is labourintensive farming, where high doses of biochemical inputs and irrigation are used for
obtaining higher production.
+Though the ‘right of inheritance’ leading to the division of land among successive generations.
Commercial Farming :
+The main characteristic of this type of farming is the use of higher doses of modern inputs,
e.g. high yielding variety (HYV) seeds, chemical fertilisers, in order to obtain higher productivity.
+The degree of commercialisation of agriculture varies from one region to another.
+Plantation is also a type of commercial farming. In this type of farming, a single crop is grown on a large
area.
+Tea in Assam and North Bengal coffee in Karnataka are some of the important plantation crops grown in
these states.
India has three cropping seasons — rabi, kharif and zaid.
+Rabi crops are sown in winter from October to December and harvested in summer from April to June.
+Some of the important rabi crops are wheat, barley, peas, gram and mustard.
+Availability of precipitation during winter months due to the western temperate cyclones helps in the
success of these crops.
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+Kharif crops are grown with the onset of monsoon in different parts of the country and these are
harvested in September-October.
+Important crops grown during this season are paddy, maize, jowar, bajra, tur (arhar), moong, urad,
cotton, jute, groundnut and soyabean.
+In states like Assam, West Bengal and Odisha, three crops of paddy are grown in a year. These
are Aus, Aman and Boro.
+In between the rabi and the kharif seasons, there is a short season during the summer months known as
the Zaid season.
+Some of the crops produced during ‘zaid’ are watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber, vegetables and
fodder crops. Sugarcane takes almost a year to grow.
+Major crops grown in India are rice, wheat, millets, pulses, tea, coffee, sugarcane, oil seeds, cotton and
jute, etc.
Rice: It is the staple food crop of a majority of the people in India. Our country is the second largest
producer of rice in the world after China.
+It is a kharif crop which requires high temperature, (above 25°C)
+Rice is grown in the plains of north and north-eastern India, coastal areas and the deltaic regions.
Wheat: This is the second most important cereal crop. It is the main food crop, in north and north-western
part of the country.
+There are two important wheat-growing zones in the country – the Ganga-Satluj plains in the northwest
and black soil region of the Deccan.
+The major wheat-producing states are Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan and parts of
Madhya Pradesh.
Millets: Jowar, bajra and ragi are the important millets grown in India. Though, these are known as coarse
grains, they have very high nutritional value.
+Jowar is the third most important food crop with respect to area and production.
+Major Jowar producing States are Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.
Maize: It is a crop which is used both as food and fodder.
Pulses: India is the largest producer as well as the consumer of pulses in the world. These
are the major source of protein in a vegetarian diet. Major pulses that are grown in India aretur (arhar),
urad, moong, masur, peas.
+India is the second largest producer of sugarcane only after Brazil. It is the main source of sugar, gur
(jaggary), khandsari and molasses.
+In 2014 India was the second largest producer of groundnut in the world after china. In rapeseed
production India was third largest producer in the world after Canada and China in 2014.
+In 2014 India was the second largest producer of tea after China.
+In 2014 India produced 3.5 per cent of the world coffee production. Indian coffee is known in the world
for its good quality.
+The Arabica variety initially brought from Yemen is produced in the country. This variety is in great
demand all over the world.
+In 2014 India was the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world after China.
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+India produces about 13 per cent of the world’s vegetables. It is an important producer of pea,
cauliflower, onion, cabbage, tomato, brinjal and potato.
+In 2012–13 India ranked fourth among the world’s natural rubber producers.
+Rearing of silk worms for the production of silk fibre is known as sericulture.
+India is believed to be the original home of the cotton plant. Cotton is one of the main raw materials for
cotton textile industry.
+In 2014 India was second largest producer of cotton after China.
+JUTE is known as the golden fibre.

65
66
+Every day we come across many changes in your surroundings.
+These changes may involve one or more substances.
+ Broadly, these changes are of two kinds, physical and chemical.
PHISICAL CHANGE :
+ Properties such as shape, size, colour and state of a substance are called its physical properties.
+A change in which a substance undergoes a change in its physical properties is called a physical
change.
+A physical change is generally reversible. In such a change no new substance is formed.
Example : (i)boiling of water. (ii) freezing of water
CHEMICAL CHANGE :
+ A change in which one or more new substances are formed is called a chemical change.
+ A chemical change is also called a chemical reaction.
+ All new substances are formed as a result of chemical changes.
+ In addition to new products, the following may accompany a chemical change:
Heat, light or any other radiation (ultraviolet, for example) may be absorbed.
Sound may be produced.
A change in smell may take place or a new smell may be given off.
A colour change may take place.
A gas may be formed.
+ Burning of coal, wood or leaves is also a chemical change.
+In fact, burning of any substance is a chemical change.
+Burning is always accompanied by production of heat.
+Example :(i) A change with which you are quite familiar is the rusting of iron. If you leave a piece of iron
in the open for some time, it acquires a film of brownish substance. This substance is called rust and the
process is called rusting.
(ii) On burning the magnesium the change can be represented by the following equation:
Magnesium (Mg) + Oxygen (O2) -->Magnesium oxide (MgO)
(iii) On dissolving the ash in water it forms a new substance. This change can be written in the form of the
following equation:
Magnesium oxide (MgO) + Water(H2O)--->Magnesium hydroxide [Mg(OH)2]
(iv) when a copper sulphate solution(blue) is react with iron the following changes occurred.
Copper sulphate solution(blue)+Iron---> Iron sulphate solution (green)+ Copper (brown deposit)
+ Ozone protects us from the harmful ultraviolet radiation which come from the sun.
+ Ozone absorbs this radiation and breaks down to oxygen.
+ Oxygen is different from ozone .
+ Breaking down of ozone is also a chemical change.

67
+ If ultraviolet radiation were not absorbed by ozone, it would reach the earth’s surface and cause harm to
us and other life forms.
+Ozone acts as a natural shield against this radiation.
+ Photosynthesis is a chemical change even digestion is also a chemical change.
+ The process of rusting can be represented by the following equation:
Iron (Fe) + Oxygen (O2, from the air) + water (H2O) --> rust (iron oxide Fe2O3)
+ For rusting, the presence of both oxygen and water (or water vapour) is essential.
+ If the content of moisture in air is high, which means if it is more humid, rusting becomes faster.
+ Deposit a layer of a metal like chromium or zinc on iron to avoid rusting.
+ The process of depositing a layer of zinc on iron is called galvanization.
+ Stainless steel is made by mixing iron with carbon and metals like chromium, nickel and manganese. It
does not rust.
+ Salt can be obtained by the evaporation of sea water. The salt obtained in this manner
is not pure and the shape of its crystals cannot be seen clearly.
+ Large crystals of pure substances can be formed from their solutions. The process is called
crystallisation. It is an example of a physical change.
+ When carbon dioxide is passed through lime water, it turns milky due to the formation of calcium
carbonate.
+ The chemical name of baking soda is sodium hydrogen carbonate.
+ Two methods by which rusting of iron can be prevented are painting (or) greasing and galvanization.
+setting of curd is also a chemical change.

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+Everything in this universe is made up of material which scientists have named “matter”.
+The air we breathe, the food we eat, stones, clouds, stars, plants and animals or a particle of sand –
everything is matter.
+all the matters occupy space and have mass. In other words, they have mass& volume
+Early Indian philosophers classified matter in the form of five basic elements – the “Panch Tatva”– air,
earth, fire, sky and water. everything, living or nonliving, was made up of these five basic elements.
+Modern day scientists have evolved two types of classification of matter based on their physical
properties and chemical nature.
Physical Nature of Matter
+Matter was made up of small particles.
+The particles of matter are very small – they are small beyond our imagination.
+Particles of one type of matter get into the spaces between particles of the other. This shows that there is
enough space between particles of matter.
+Particles of matter are continuously moving, that is, they possess what we call the kinetic energy.
+As the temperature rises, particles move faster. So, the kinetic energy of the particles also increases.
+The intermixing of particles of two different types of matter on their own is called diffusion.
+On heating, diffusion becomes faster.
+The particles of matter have force acting between them. This force keeps the particles together.
+The strength of this force of attraction varies from one kind of matter to another.
+The smell of hot sizzling food reaches severed metres away, as the particles of hot food have more
kinetic energy and hence the rate of diffusion is more than the particles of cold food.
+ A diver is able to cut through water in a swimming pool. This shows that the particles of water have
intermolecular space and has less force of attraction.
+Particles have intermolecular space. *Particles have intermolecular force. *Particles of matter are moving
continuously.
+Matter around us exists in three different states– solid, liquid and gas.
+These states of matter arise due to the variation in the characteristics of the particles of matter.

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 SOLIDS
+All the solids have a definite shape, distinct boundaries and fixed volumes, that is, have negligible
compressibility.
+ Solids have a tendency to maintain their shape when subjected to outside force.
+Solids may break under force but it is difficult to change their shape, so they are rigid.
• A rubber band changes shape under force and regains the same shape when the force is removed. If
excessive force is applied, it breaks.
• The shape of each individual sugar or salt crystal remains fixed, whether we take it in our hand, put it in
a plate or in a jar.
• A sponge has minute holes, in which air is trapped, when we press it, the air is expelled out and we are
able to compress it.
LIQUIDS
+Liquids have no fixed shape but have a fixed volume.
+They take up the shape of the container in which they are kept. Liquids flow and change shape, so they
are not rigid but can be called fluid.
+Solids and liquids can diffuse into liquids.
+The gases from the atmosphere diffuse and dissolve in water. These gases, especially oxygen and
carbon dioxide, are essential for the survival of aquatic animals and plants.
+ The aquatic animals can breathe under water due to the presence of dissolved oxygen in water.
+Solids, liquids and gases can diffuse into liquids.
+The rate of diffusion of liquids is higher than that of solids. This is due to the fact that in the liquid state,
particles move freely and have greater space between each other as compared to particles in the solid
state.
GASES
+Gases are highly compressible as compared to solids and liquids.
+The liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) cylinder that we get in our home for cooking or the oxygen supplied to
hospitals in cylinders is compressed gas.
+ Compressed natural gas (CNG) is used as fuel these days in vehicles due to its high compressibility,
large volumes of a gas can be compressed into a small cylinder and transported easily.
+ The smell of hot cooked food reaches us in seconds; compare this with the rate of diffusion of solids and
liquids.
+Due to high speed of particles and large space between them, gases show the property of diffusing very
fast into other gases.
+In the gaseous state, the particles move about randomly at high speed.
+Due to this random movement, the particles hit each other and also the walls of the container.

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+ The pressure exerted by the gas is because of this force exerted by gas particles per unit area on the
walls of the container.

+The mass per unit volume of a substance is called density.(density = mass/volume).

+ In Increasing density:
air < exhaust from chimneys < cotton < water < honey < chalk < iron..
(i) Rigidity: The tendency of a substance to retain/maintain their shape when subjected to outside force.
(ii) Compressibility: The matter has intermolecular space. The external force applied on the matter can
bring these particles closer. This property is called compressibility. Gases and liquids are compressible.
(iii) Fluidity: The tendency of particles to flow is called fluidity. Liquids and gases flow.
(iv) Filling of a gas container: Gases have particles which vibrate randomly in all the directions. The gas
can fill the container.
(v) Shape: Solids have maximum intermolecular force and definite shape.
Whereas liquids and gases takes the shape of container. (vi)
Kinetic energy: The energy possessed by particles due to their motion is called kinetic energy.
Molecules of gases vibrate randomly as they have maximum kinetic energy.
(vii) Density: It is defined as mass per unit volume, the solids have highest density.
+The molecules of gas have high kinetic energy due to which they keep moving in all directions and hence
fill the vessel completely in which they are kept.
+ A gas exerts pressure on the walls of the container because the molecules of the gas are in constant
random motion due to high kinetic energy. These molecules constantly vibrate, move and hit the walls of
the container thereby exerting pressure on it.
+We can easily move our hand in air but to do the same through a solid block of wood we need a karate
expert. It is because the molecules of air has less force of attraction between them and a very small
external force can separate them and pass through it. But in case of solids, the molecules have maximum
force of attraction, the particles are tightly bound due to this force. Hence large amount of external force is
required to pass through solid.
+Ice is a solid but its density is lower than water due to its structure. The molecules in ice make a cage
like structure with lot of vacant spaces, this makes ice float on water.
Water can exist in three states of matter–
• Solid, as ice,• Liquid, as the familiar water, and• Gas, as water vapour.

+On increasing the temperature of solids, the kinetic energy of the particles increases.
+Due to the increase in kinetic energy, the particles start vibrating with greater speed.
+The minimum temperature at which a solid melts to become a liquid at the atmospheric pressure is called
its melting point.
+The melting point of a solid is an indication of the strength of the force of attraction between its
particles.
+The melting point of ice is 273.15 K*.
+The process of melting, that is, change of solid state into liquid state is also known as fusion.
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+In the process of melting heat energy is babsorbed by ice without showing any rise in temperature,
remaining heat gets hidden into the contents of the beaker and is known as the latent heat.
+Latent heat, energy absorbed or released by a substance during a change in its physical state (phase)
that occurs without changing its temperature.
+The amount of heat energy that is required to change 1 kg of a solid into liquid at atmospheric pressure
at its melting point is known as the latent heat of fusion.
+Particles in water at 00 C (273 K) have more energy as compared to particles in ice at the same
temperature.
+The temperature at which a liquid starts boiling at the atmospheric pressure is known as its boiling
point.
+ Boiling is a bulk phenomenon. Particles from the bulk of the liquid gain enough energy to change into
the vapour state.
+For water this boiling point is 373 K (100 0C = 273 + 100 = 373 K).
+Water vapour at 373 K (1000 C) have more energy than water at the same temperature. This is because
particles in steam have absorbed extra energy in the form of latent heat of vaporisation.
+The state of matter can be changed into another state by changing the temperature.
+A change of state directly from solid to gas without changing into liquid state is called Sublimation.
+The direct change of gas to solid without changing into liquid is called Deposition.
+Applying pressure and reducing temperature we can liquefy gases.
+Solid CO2 gets converted directly to gaseous state on decrease of pressure to 1 atmosphere without
coming into liquid state. This is the reason that solid carbon dioxide is also known as dry ice.
+The pressure and temperature determine the state of a substance, whether it will be solid, liquid or gas.
+if we Convert the following temperature to Celsius scale: (a) 300 K (b) 573 K
Answer. (a) 300 – 273 = 27°C (b) 573 – 273 = 300°C
+ The physical state of water at (a) 250°C = gas (b) 100°C liquid as well as gas.
+During the change of state of any matter heat is supplied to the substance. The molecules of this matter
use heat to overcome the force of attraction between the particles, at this period of time, temperature
remains constant. This extra heat is acquired by the molecules in the form of hidden heat called latent
heat to change from one state of matter to the other state.
+ By cooling and applying pressure on them, the gases can be liquefied.
+These are some examples from everyday life where change of state from liquid to vapour takes place
without the liquid reaching the boiling point
1.Water, when left uncovered, slowly changes into vapour. 2. Wet clothes dry up.
+The phenomenon of change of a liquid into vapours at any temperature below its boiling point is called
evaporation.
+If the surface area is increased, the rate of evaporation increases. For example, while putting clothes
for drying up we spread them out.
+With the increase of temperature, more number of particles get enough kinetic energy to go into the
vapour state.
+Humidity is the amount of water vapour present in air.
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+If the amount of water in air is already high, the rate of evaporation decreases.
+With the increase in wind speed, the particles of water vapour move away with the wind, decreasing the
amount of water vapour in the surrounding.
Example : clothes dry faster on a windy day.
+Evaporation causes cooling.
+Evaporation is a surface phenomenon. Particles from the surface gain enough energy to overcome the
forces of attraction present in the liquid and change into the vapour state.
+After a hot sunny day, people sprinkle water on the roof or open ground because the large latent heat of
vaporisation of water helps to cool the hot surface.
+The water vapour present in air, on coming in contact with the cold glass of water, loses energy and gets
converted to liquid state, which we see as water droplets.
+The earthen pot is porous with lot of pores on it, the water oozes out through these pores and the water
gets evaporated at the surface of the pot thereby causing cooling effect. This makes the pot cold and the
water inside the pot cools by this process.
+Acetone, petrol or perfume evaporate when they come into contact with air. The evaporation causes
cooling sensation in our hands.
+Tea in a saucer has larger surface area than in a cup. The rate of evaporation is faster with increased
surface area. The cooling of tea in saucer takes place sooner than in a cup. Hence we are able to sip hot
tea or milk faster from a saucer rather than a cup.
+Naphthalene balls disappear with time without leaving any solid, because naphthalene balls sublime
and directly changes into vapour state without leaving any solid.
+ We can get the smell of perfume sitting several meters away because perfume contain volatile solvent
and diffuse faster and can reach people sitting several meters away.
+Ice at 273 K will absorb heat energy or latent heat from the medium to overcome the fusion to become
water. Hence the cooling effect of ice is more than the water at same temperature because water does
not absorb this extra heat from the medium.
+Another state of matter is PLASMA--The state consists of super energetic and super excited particles.
These particles are in the form of ionised gases.
+The Sun and the stars glow because of the presence of plasma in them.
+The plasma is created in stars because of very high temperature.
+Another state of matter is Bose-Einstein Condensate--In 1920, Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose had
done some calculations for a fifth state of matter.
+Albert Einstein predicted a new state of matter – the Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC).
+The BEC is formed by cooling a gas of extremely low density, about one-hundred-thousandth the density
of normal air, to super low temperatures.
MIXTURE
+Mixtures are constituted by more than one kind of pure form of matter.
+A pure substance consists of a single type of particles.
+A mixture contains more than one pure substance.

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+ Mixture which has a uniform composition throughout. Such mixtures are called homogeneous
mixtures.
Examples : (i)salt dissolved in water and (ii) sugar dissolved in water.
+Mixtures which contain physically distinct parts and have non-uniform compositions. Such mixtures are
called heterogeneous mixtures.
Examples : Mixtures of sodium chloride and iron filings, salt and sulphur, and oil and water.
SOLUTIONS : A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.
+ A solution has a solvent and a solute as its components.
(i) The component of the solution that dissolves the other component in it is called the solvent.
(ii)The component of the solution that is dissolved in the solvent is called the solute.
Example : A solution of sugar in water is a solid in liquid solution. In this solution, sugar is the solute and
water is the solvent.
+ The path of light is not visible in a solution.
+ At any particular temperature, a solution that has dissolved as much solute as it is capable of dissolving,
is said to be a Saturated solution.
+ The amount of the solute present in the saturated solution at this temperature is called its Solubility.
+ The amount of solute contained in a solution is less than the saturation level, it is called an Unsaturated
solution.
+ There are various ways of expressing the concentration of a solution.
(i) Mass by mass percentage of a solution=
Mass of solute/ Mass of solution×100
(ii) Mass by volume percentage of a solution=
Mass of solute/Volume of solution x 100
(iii) Volume by volume percentage of a solution=
Volume of solute/Volume of solution x 100
Suspension : A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which the solute particles do not dissolve
but remain suspended throughout the bulk of the medium.
+The mixture in which the particles are uniformly spread throughout the solution is called a colloid or a
colloidal solution.
• Materials that are insoluble in a solvent and have particles that are visible to naked eyes, form a
suspension. A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture.
• Colloids are heterogeneous mixtures in which the particle size is too small to be seen with the naked
eye, but is big enough to scatter light. Colloids are useful in industry and daily life. The particles are called
the dispersed phase and the medium in which they are distributed is called the dispersion medium.
• Pure substances can be elements or compounds. An element is a form of matter that cannot be broken
down by chemical reactions into simpler substances. A compound is a substance composed of two or
more different types of elements, chemically combined in a fixed proportion.
• Properties of a compound are different from its constituent elements, whereas a mixture shows the
properties of its constituting elements or compounds.

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 + Around 500 BC ,an Indian philosopher Maharishi Kanad, postulated that if we go on dividing matter
(padarth), we shall get smaller and smaller particles which further division will not be possible. He named
these particles Parmanu.
+Another Indian philosopher, Pakudha Katyayama, elaborated this doctrine and said that these particles
normally exist in a combined form which gives us various forms of matter.
+Democritus called these indivisible particles Atoms
+L. Lavoisier laid the foundation of chemical sciences by establishing two important laws of chemical
combination.
(I) LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS : it states that mass can neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical
reaction.
(II) LAW OF CONSTANT PROPORTIONS : it is also known as the law of definite proportions. This law was stated
by Proust as “In a chemical substance the elements are always present in definite proportions by mass”.
+British chemist John Dalton provided the basic theory about the nature of matter.
+According to Dalton’s atomic theory, all matter, whether an element, a compound or a mixture is
composed of small particles called atoms
Key points in this theory :
(i) All matter is made of very tiny particles called atoms,which participate in chemical reactions.
(ii) Atoms are indivisible particles,which cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction.
(iii) Atoms of a given element are identical in mass and chemical properties.
(iv) Atoms of different elements have different masses and chemical properties.
(v) Atoms combine in the ratio of small whole numbers to form compounds.
(vi) The relative number and kinds of atoms are constant in a given compound.

+Atoms are very small, they are smaller than anything that we can imagine or compare with. Atomic
radius is measured in nanometres.
1/10 9 m = 1 nm
1 m = 109 nm
+Dalton was the first scientist to use the symbols for elements in a very specific sense.
+Berzilius suggested that the symbols of elements be made from one or two letters of the name of the
element.
+IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) is an international scientific organisation
which approves names of elements, symbols and units.
+Some names of elements were derived from the name of the place where they were found for the first
time. For example, the name copper was taken from Cyprus.
+Some names were taken from specific colours. For example, gold was taken from the English word
meaning yellow

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+Dalton’s atomic theory proposed was that of the atomic mass. According to him, each element had a
characteristic atomic mass. The theory could explain the law of constant proportions.
+The unit of atomic mass (earlier abbreviated as ‘amu’, but according to the latest IUPAC
recommendations, it is now written as ‘u’ – unified mass)
+ carbon an atomic mass of 1.0 u and oxygen an atomic mass of 1.33 u.
+ Atomic mass of the atom of an element is defined as the average mass of the atom, as compared to
1/12th the mass of one carbon-12 atom.

Element Atomic Mass (u)

Hydrogen 1
Carbon 12
Nitrogen 14
Oxygen 16
Sodium 23
Magnesium 24
Sulphur 32
Chlorine 35.5
Calcium 40

+ Atoms form molecules and ions. These molecules or ions aggregate in large numbers to form the
matter that we can see, feel or touch.
Molecule
+A molecule can be defined as the smallest particle of an element or a compound that is capable of an
independent existence and shows all the properties of that substance.
+ Atoms of the same element or of different elements can join together to form molecules.
Argon Mono atomic
Helium Mono atomic
Oxygen Diatomic
Hydrogen Diatomic
Nitrogen Diatomic
Chlorine Diatomic
Phosphorus Tetra-atomic
Sulphur Poly-atomic
+ Atoms of different elements join together in definite proportions to form molecules of compounds.
Compound Combining Elements Ratio by Mass
Water Hydrogen, Oxygen 1:8

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 Ammonia Nitrogen, Hydrogen 14:3
Carbon dioxide Carbon, Oxygen 3:8
+The ratio by number of atoms for water is H:O = 2:1.
+Compounds composed of metals and nonmetals contain charged species. The charged species are
known as ions.
+A negatively charged ion is called an ‘anion’ and the positively charged ion, a ‘cation’.
+The chemical formula of a compound is a symbolic representation of its composition.
+The combining power (or capacity) of an element is known as its valency.
+ Valency can be used to find out how the atoms of an element will combine with the atom(s) of another
element to form a chemical compound.
+The simplest compounds, which are made up of two different elements are called binary compounds.
+The molecular mass of a substance is the sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms in a molecule of
the substance.
• The chemical formula of a molecular compound is determined by the valency of each element.
• In ionic compounds, the charge on each ion is used to determine the chemical formula of the compound.
• Scientists use the relative atomic mass scale to compare the masses of different atoms of elements.
Atoms of carbon-12 isotopes are assigned a relative atomic mass of 12 and the relative masses of all
other atoms are obtained by comparison with the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
• The Avogadro constant 6.022 × 1023 is defined as the number of atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-12.
• The mole is the amount of substance that contains the same number of particles (atoms/ ions/
molecules/ formula units etc.) as there are atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-12.
• Mass of 1 mole of a substance is called its molar mass.
+(a) Calculate the relative molecular mass of water (H2O).
Atomic mass of hydrogen = 1u,
oxygen = 16 u
So the molecular mass of water, which contains 2atoms of hydrogen and 1atom of oxygen is=2.1+1.16
=18 u
+Calculate the formula unit mass of CaCl2.
Solution: Atomic mass of Ca + (2 × atomic mass of Cl)
= 40 + 2 × 35.5 = 40 + 71 = 111

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+E. Goldstein in 1886 discovered the presence of new radiations in a gas discharge and called them
canal rays.
+ These rays were positively charged radiations which ultimately led to the discovery of another sub-
atomic particle.
+This sub-atomic particle had a charge, equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to that of the electron.
THOMSON’S MODEL OF AN ATOM :
+ J.J. Thomson was the first one to propose a model for the structure of an atom.
+He was awarded the Nobel prize in Physics in 1906 for his work on the discovery of electrons.
+he discovered two fundamental particles (electrons and protons) inside the atom.
+he explained how electrons and protons are arranged within an atom.
+Thomson proposed the model of an atom to be similar to that of a watermelon, the positive charge in the
atom is spread all over like the red edible part of the watermelon, while the electrons are studded in the
positively charged sphere, like the seeds in the watermelon.
+Thomson proposed that:
(i) An atom consists of a positively charged sphere and the electrons are embedded in it.
(ii) The negative and positive charges are equal in magnitude. So, the atom as a whole is electrically
neutral.
RUTHERFORD’S MODEL OF AN ATOM :
+He was known as the ‘Father’ of nuclear physics.
+He is famous for his work on radioactivity and the discovery of the nucleus of an atom with the gold foil
experiment.
+He got the Nobel prize in chemistry in 1908.
+ Rutherford designed an experiment for knowing how the electrons are arranged within an atom.
+In this experiment, fast moving alpha (a)-particles were made to fall on a thin gold foil.
Following observations were made in Rutherford experiment :
(i) Most of the fast moving a-particles passed straight through the gold foil.
(ii) Some of the a-particles were deflected by the foil by small angles.
(iii) Surprisingly one out of every 12000 particles appeared to rebound.
Rutherford concluded from the a-particle scattering experiment that–
(i) Most of the space inside the atom is empty because most of the a-particles passed through the gold foil
without getting deflected.
(ii) Very few particles were deflected from their path, indicating that the positive charge of the atom
occupies very little space.
(iii) A very small fraction of a-particles were deflected by 1800, indicating that all the positive charge and
mass of the gold atom were concentrated in a very small volume within the atom.
(iv)The radius of the nucleus is about 105 times less than the radius of the atom.
Rutherford experiment which had the following features:
(i) There is a positively charged centre in an atom called the nucleus. Nearly all the mass of an atom
resides in the nucleus.
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(ii) The electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular paths.
(iii) The size of the nucleus is very small as compared to the size of the atom.
Drawbacks of Rutherford’s model of the atom :
(i) During acceleration, charged particles would radiate energy. Thus, the revolving electron would lose
energy and finally fall into the nucleus.
+In order to overcome the objections raised against Rutherford’s model of the atom,
Neils Bohr put forward the some postulates about the model of an atom.
Neils Bohr got the Nobel prize for his work on the structure of atom in 1922.
He wrote three books (i) The Theory of Spectra and Atomic Constitution, (ii) Atomic Theory and,
(iii) The Description of Nature.
BOHR’S MODEL OF ATOM :
(i) Only certain special orbits known as discrete orbits of electrons, are allowed inside the atom.
(ii) While revolving in discrete orbits the electrons do not radiate energy.
(iii) These orbits or shells are called energy levels.
(iv) These orbits or shells are represented by the letters K,L,M,N,… or the numbers, n=1,2,3,4,….
(v) The maximum number of electrons present in a shell is given by the formula 2n2, where ‘n’ is the orbit
number or energy level index, 1,2,3,….
first orbit or K-shell will be = 2 × 12 = 2,
second orbit or L-shell will be = 2 × 22 = 8,
third orbit or M-shell will be = 2 × 32 = 18, and so on.
(vi) The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in the outermost orbit is 8.
(vii) Electrons are not accommodated in a given shell, unless the inner shells are filled. That is, the shells
are filled in a step-wise manner.

+ The electrons present in the outermost shell of an atom are known as the valence electrons.
+ The outermost shell of an atom can accommodate a maximum of 8 electrons.
+ An atom of each element has a definite combining capacity, called its valency.
NEUTRONS :
+In 1932, J. Chadwick discovered another subatomic particle which had no charge and a mass nearly
equal to that of a proton.
+It was eventually named as neutron.
+Neutrons are present in the nucleus of all atoms, except hydrogen.
ATOMIC NUMBER : The total number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom is its atomic number. It is
denoted by ‘Z’.
ATOMIC MASS NUMBER :The sum of the masses of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus.
+Protons and neutrons are also called nucleons. Therefore, the mass of an atom resides in its nucleus.
+ AZX A-Mass Number X-Symbol of element Z-Atomic Number
+ nitrogen is written as 14 7 N .

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+Atoms of the same element, having the same atomic number but different mass numbers is called ---
ISOTOPES
+ There are three isotopes of hydrogen atom, namely protium, deuterium and tritium.
+Cl occurs in nature in two isotopic forms, with masses 35 u and 37 u in the ratio of 3:1.
+if an element occurs in isotopic forms, then we have to know the percentage of each isotopic form and
then the average mass is calculated.
Some isotopes have special properties :
(i) An isotope of uranium is used as a fuel in nuclear reactors.
(ii) An isotope of cobalt is used in the treatment of cancer.
(iii) An isotope of iodine is used in the treatment of goitre.
+Atoms of different elements with different atomic numbers, which have the same mass number, are
known as –ISOBARS

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+Matter around us is present in the form of elements, compounds and mixtures.
+The elements contain atoms of only one type.
+At present, 118 elements are known to us. All these have different properties. Out of these 118, only 94
are naturally occurring.
+Scientists made several attempts to classify elements according to their properties and obtain an orderly
arrangement out of chaos.
+The earliest attempt to classify the elements resulted in grouping the then known elements as metals
and non-metals.
+Later Elements are classified on the basis of similarities in their properties.
+Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner, a German chemist, tried to arrange the elements with similar properties
into groups.
+He identified some groups having three elements each. So he called these
groups ‘triads’.
+Döbereiner showed that when the three elements in a triad were written in the order of increasing
atomic masses; the atomic mass of the middle element was roughly the average of the atomic masses of
the other two elements.
+Döbereiner made the first observations on platinum as a catalyst and discovered similar triads of
elements which led to the development of the Periodic Table of elements.
+John Newlands, an English scientist, arranged the then known elements in the order of increasing
atomic masses.
+He found that every eighth element had properties similar to that of the first. He compared this to the
octaves found in music.Therefore, his law is known as ‘Newlands’ Law of Octaves’.
+Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeléev, a Russian chemist was the most important contributor to the early
development of a Periodic Table of elements wherein the elements were arranged on the basis of their
fundamental property, the atomic mass, and also on the similarity of chemical properties.
+He observed that most of the elements got a place in a Periodic Table and were arranged in the order of
their increasing atomic masses.
+ It was also observed that there occurs a periodic recurrence of elements with similar physical and
chemical properties.
+ On this basis, Mendeléev formulated a Periodic Law, which states that ‘the properties of elements are
the periodic function of their atomic masses’.
+Mendeléev’s Periodic Table contains vertical columns called ‘groups’ and horizontal rows called
‘periods’
+Henry Moseley showed that the atomic number (symbolised as Z) of an element is a more
fundamental property than its atomic mass.
+Modern Periodic Law : ‘Properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic number.’
+ In modern periodic table elements were arranged on the basis of increasing atomic number.
+The Modern Periodic Table has 18 vertical columns known as ‘groups’ and 7 horizontal rows known as
‘periods’.

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+The elements present in any one group have the same number of valence electrons.
+The elements of second period do not have the same number of valence electrons, but they contain the
same number of shells.
+The number of elements in these periods based on how electrons are filled into various shells.
+The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in a shell depends on the formula 2n2.. K
Shell – 2 × (1)2 = 2, hence the first period has 2 elements.
L Shell – 2 × (2)2 = 8, hence the second period has 8 elements. so on…
Valency : the number of valence electrons present in the outermost shell of its atom.
Atomic size:The distance between the centre of the nucleus and the outermost shell of an isolated
atom(radius of an atom).
+ The atomic radius decreases in moving from left to right along a period. This is due to an increase in
nuclear charge which tends to pull the electrons closer to the nucleus and reduces the size of the atom.
+ The atomic size increases down the group. This is because new shells are being added as we go
down the group.
+ The atomic size increases in spite of the increase in nuclear charge.
+ The metals like Na and Mg are towards the left-hand side of the Periodic Table.
+The non-metals like sulphur and chlorine are found on the right-hand side.
+ In the Modern Periodic Table, a zig-zag line separates metals from non-metals.
+ The borderline elements – boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, tellurium and polonium – are
intermediate in properties and are called metalloids or semi-metals.
+ Metallic character decreases across a period and increases down a group.

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+Hydrocarbon’ means compounds of carbon and hydrogen only.
+LPG (liquified petroleum gas) , CNG (compressed natural gas) , ‘LNG’ (liquified natural gas) , Petrol,
diesel , kerosene and Coal gas All these fuels contain mixture of hydrocarbons, which are sources of
energy.
+ ‘LNG’ also a fuel and is obtained by liquifaction of natural gas.
+ Petrol, diesel and kerosene oil are obtained by the fractional distillation of petroleum found under the
earth’s crust.
+ Coal gas is obtained by the destructive distillation of coal.
+ Natural gas is found in upper strata during drilling of oilwells.
+The gas after compression is known as compressed natural gas.
+LPG is used as a domestic fuel with the least pollution.
+Kerosene oil is also used as a domestic fuel but it causes some pollution.
+ Automobiles need fuels like petrol, diesel and CNG.
+Petrol and CNG operated automobiles cause less pollution. All these fuels contain mixture of
Hydrocarbons.
+ Hydrocarbons are also used for the manufacture of polymers like polythene, polypropene,
polystyrene etc.
+Higher hydrocarbons are used as solvents for paints. They are also used as the starting materials for
manufacture of many dyes and drugs.
+ Hydrocarbons are of different types.
+ Hydrocarbons are classified as open chain saturated (alkanes) and unsaturated (alkenes and alkynes),
cyclic (alicyclic) and aromatic, according to their structure.
+Depending upon the types of carbon-carbon bonds present, they can be classified into three main
categories : (i) saturated hydrocarbons - Alkanes
(ii) unsaturated hydrocarbons –Alkenes , Alkynes
(iii) aromatic hydrocarbons - Arenes
+ Saturated hydrocarbons contain carbon-carbon and carbon-hydrogen single bonds.
+ If different carbon atoms are joined together to form open chain of carbon atoms with single bonds,
they are termed as alkanes.
+ If carbon atoms form a closed chain or a ring, they are termed as cycloalkanes.
+ Unsaturated hydrocarbons contain carbon-carbon multiple bonds – double bonds, triple bonds or
both.
+Aromatic hydrocarbons are a special type of cyclic compounds.
ALKANES :- methane , ethane , propane…..
+Alkanes are saturated open chain hydrocarbons containing carbon - carbon single bonds.
+ Methane (CH4) is the first member of this family.
+Methane is a gas found in coal mines and marshy places.
+If you replace one hydrogen atom of methane by carbon and join the required number of hydrogens to
satisfy the tetravalence of the other carbon atom, You get C2H6 is known as ethane.

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+ These hydrocarbons are inert under normal conditions as they do not react with acids, bases and other
reagents.
+ These hydrocarbons were earlier known as paraffins(latin :parum,little;affinis,affinity).
+ Alkane family is known as homologous series.
+ General formula for alkanes is CnH2n+2. It represents any particular homologue when n is given
appropriate value.
+ All H-C-H bond angles are of 109.5°.
+ Petroleum and natural gas are the main sources of alkanes.
+ Dihydrogen gas adds to alkenes and alkynes in the presence of finely divided catalysts like platinum,
palladium or nickel to form alkanes. This process is called hydrogenation.
+ Alkyl halides on treatment with sodium metal in dry ethereal (free from moisture) solution give higher
alkanes.
+This reaction is known as Wurtz reaction and is used for the preparation of higher alkanes containing
even number of carbon atoms.
+The process of elimination of carbon dioxide from a carboxylic acid is known as decarboxylation.
+Alkyl groups as they are derived from alkanes by removal of one hydrogen atom.
+General formula for alkyl groups is CnH2n+1.
ALKENES :-
+ Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons containing at least one double bond.
+ General formula for alkenes is CnH2n.
+ Alkenes are also known as olefins (oil forming) since the first member, ethylene or ethene (C2H4) was
found to form an oily liquid on reaction with chlorine.
+ Alkenes are easily attacked by reagents or compounds which are in search of electrons. Such reagents
are called electrophilic reagents.
+ Alkenes show both structural isomerism and geometrical isomerism.
+ Ozonolysis of alkenes involves the addition of ozone molecule to alkene to form ozonide, and then
cleavage of the ozonide by Zn-H2O to smaller molecules. This reaction is highly useful in detecting the
position of the double bond in alkenes or other unsaturated compounds.
+ Polythene is obtained by the combination of large number of ethene molecules at high temperature, high
pressure and in the presence of a catalyst. The large molecules thus obtained are called polymers. This
reaction is known as polymerisation.
ALKYNES :- Ethyne , propyne , butyne….
+Like alkenes, alkynes are also unsaturated hydrocarbons.
+They contain at least one triple bond between two carbon atoms.
+ Their general formula is CnH2n–2.
+ The first stable member of alkyne series is ethyne which is popularly known as acetylene.
+ Acetylene is used for arc welding purposes in the form of oxyacetylene flame obtained by mixing
acetylene with oxygen gas.
ARENES :- Benzene
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+ARENES are AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS (Greek; aroma meaning pleasant smelling).
+Most of aromatic compounds were found to contain benzene ring.
+Aromatic compounds containing benzene ring are known as benzenoids and those not containing a
benzene ring are known as non-benzenoids.

Structure of Benzene :
+Benzene was isolated by Michael Faraday in 1825.
+The molecular formula of benzene, C6H6, indicates a high degree of unsaturation.
+Due to its unique properties and unusual stability, it took several years to assign its structure.
+Benzene was found to be a stable molecule and found to form a triozonide which indicates the presence
of three double bonds.
+ Benzene was considered as parent ‘aromatic’ compound.
+ Aromatic hydrocarbons are non- polar molecules and are usually colourless liquids or solids with a
characteristic aroma.
CARCINOGENICITY AND TOXICITY :
+ Benzene and polynuclear hydrocarbons containing more than two benzene rings fused together are toxic
and said to possess cancer producing (carcinogenic) property.
+Such polynuclear hydrocarbons are formed on incomplete combustion of organic materials like tobacco,
coal and petroleum.
+They enter into human body and undergo various biochemical reactions and finally damage DNA and
cause cancer.

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+ A. H. Becquerel discovered radioactivity in 1896 purely by accident.
+While studying the fluorescence and phosphorescence of compounds irradiated with visible light,
Becquerel observed an interesting phenomenon.
+After illuminating some pieces of uranium-potassium sulphate with visible light, he wrapped them in black
paper and separated the package from a photographic plate by a piece of silver.
+When, after several hours of exposure, the photographic plate was developed, it showed blackening due
to something that must have been emitted by the compound and was able to penetrate both black paper
and the silver.
+Radioactivity was a nuclear phenomenon in which an unstable nucleus undergoes a decay.
+This is referred to as radioactive decay.
+Three types of radioactive decay occur in nature :
(i) -decay in which a helium nucleus 4 2He is emitted;
(ii) -decay in which electrons or positrons (particles with the same mass as electrons, but a charge
exactly opposite to that of electron) are emitted;
(iii) -decay in which high energy (hundreds of keV or more) photons are emitted.
+Law of radioactive decay : In any radioactive sample, which undergoes a, b or g-decay, it is found that
the number of nuclei undergoing the decay per unit time is proportional to the total number of nuclei in the
sample.
+If N is the number of nuclei in the sample and DN undergo decay in time Dt then
DN / Dt  N
or, DN/Dt = N,
where  is called the radioactive decay constant or disintegration constant.
+ The SI unit for radioactivity is becquerel,
+ Marie and her husband Pierre Curie in their researches and analyses which led to the isolation of
radium and polonium elements.
+ Radioactive elements (e.g., tritium, plutonium) which are short-lived i.e., have half-lives much less than
the age of the universe ( _ 15 billion years) have obviously decayed long ago and are not found in nature.
They can, however, be produced artificially in nuclear reactions.

Alpha decay :
A well-known example of alpha decay is the decay of uranium 238 92 Uto thorium 234 90 Th with the emission
of a helium nucleus 4 2He
238 92U--→ 234 90 Th + 4 2He (a-decay)

Beta decay :

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In beta decay, a nucleus spontaneously emits an electron (b − decay) or a positron (b+ decay). A common
example of b − decay is
32 32
15 P -→ 16 S + -e + -n
Gamma decay :
+ Like an atom, a nucleus also has discrete energy levels - the ground state and excited states.
+The scale of energy is, however, very different.
+Atomic energy level spacings are of the order of eV, while the difference in nuclear energy levels is of the
order of MeV.
+ When a nucleus in an excited state spontaneously decays to its ground state (or to a lower energy
state), a photon is emitted with energy equal to the difference in the two energy levels of the nucleus. This
is the so-called gamma decay.

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+About 75 % of the solar energy reaching the earth is absorbed by the earth’s surface, which increases its
temperature.
+ The rest of the heat radiates back to the atmosphere.
+Some of the heat is trapped by gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, chlorofluorocarbon
compounds (CFCs) and water vapour in the atmosphere.
+Thus, they add to the heating of the atmosphere. This causes global warming.
+ we are surrounded by a blanket of air called the atmosphere, which has kept the temperature on earth
constant for centuries.
+ But it is now undergoing change, though slowly, atmosphere traps the sun’s heat near the earth’s
surface and keeps it warm.
+This is called Natural greenhouse effect because it maintains the temperature and makes the earth
perfect for life.
+But carbon dioxide molecules trap heat as they are transparent to sunlight but not to the heat radiation.
+ If the amount of carbon dioxide crosses the delicate proportion of 0.03 per cent, the natural greenhouse
balance may get disturbed. Carbon dioxide is the major contributor to global warming.
+ Besides carbon dioxide, other greenhouse gases are methane, water vapour, nitrous
oxide, CFCs and ozone.
+Methane is produced naturally when vegetation is burnt, digested or rotted in the absence of oxygen.
+ Large amounts of methane are released in paddy fields, coal mines, from rotting garbage dumps and by
fossil fuels.
+Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are man-made industrial chemicals used in air conditioning etc. CFCs are
also damaging the ozone layer .
+Nitrous oxide occurs naturally in the environment.
+ In recent years, their quantities have increased significantly due to the use of chemical fertilizers and the
burning of fossil fuels.
+If these trends continue, the average global temperature will increase to a level which may lead to
melting of polar ice caps and flooding of low lying areas all over the earth.
+Increase in the global temperature increases the incidence of infectious diseases like dengue, malaria,
yellow fever, sleeping sickness etc.

+Leaves are the food factories of plants.

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+Therefore, all the raw materials must reach the leaf.
+Water and minerals present in the soil are absorbed by the roots and transported to the leaves.
+Carbon dioxide from air is taken in through the tiny pores present on the surface of leaves.
+These pores are surrounded by ‘guard cells’. Such pores are called stomata
+Water and minerals are transported to the leaves by the vessels which run like pipes throughout the root,
the stem, the branches and the leaves.
+They form a continuous path or passage for the nutrients to reach the leaf. They are called vessels.
+The leaves have a green pigment called chlorophyll.
+It helps leaves to capture the energy of the sunlight.
+This energy is used to synthesise (prepare) food from carbon dioxide and water.
+Since the synthesis of food occurs in the presence of sunlight, it is called photosynthesis (Photo: light;
synthesis : to prepare).
+Chlorophyll, sunlight, carbon dioxide and water are necessary to carry out the process of photosynthesis.
+It is a unique process on the earth.
+The solar energy is captured by the leaves and stored in the plant in the form of food.
+Thus, sun is the ultimate source of energy for all living organisms.
+In the absence of photosynthesis there would not be any food.
+In the absence of photosynthesis, life would be impossible on the earth.
+During photosynthesis, chlorophyll containing cells of leaves, in the presence of sunlight, use carbon
dioxide and water to synthesise carbohydrates.
+During the process oxygen is released.
+The presence of starch in leaves indicates the occurrence of photosynthesis.
+Starch is also a carbohydrate.
+The leaves other than green also have chlorophyll. The large amount of red, brown and other pigments
mask the green colour. Photosynthesis takes place in these leaves also.
+Slimy, green patches in ponds or stagnant water bodies. These are generally formed by the growth of
organisms called algae.
+They contain chlorophyll which gives them the green colour. Algae can also prepare their own food by
photosynthesis.
+The carbohydrates are made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. These are used to synthesise other
components of food such as proteins and fats.
+But proteins are nitrogenous substances which contain nitrogen. nitrogen is present in abundance in
gaseous form in the air.
+However, plants cannot absorb nitrogen in this form. Soil has certain bacteria that convert gaseous
nitrogen into a usable form and release it into the soil. These are absorbed by the plants along with water.

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90
Motion : some kind of a change in the position of an object with time.
TYPES OF MOTION :
Periodic motion :
+Where an object or a part of it repeats its motion after a fixed interval of time is called periodic motion.
+In this motion an object repeats its motion after some time.
Example : (i)A branch of a tree moving to and fro,
(ii)motion of a child on a swing,
(iii)strings of a guitar
(iv)The membrane of drums (tabla) being played
(v) Motion of the needle of a sewing machine.
Rectilinear motion : Motion in a straight line is called rectilinear motion.
Example : The motion of a ball along the ground – rotating as well as moving forward along the
ground.
Thus, the ball undergoes a rectilinear motion as well as rotational motion.
Circular motion : In circular motion an object moves such that its distance from a fixed point remains the
same.
Example : (i) Wheel of a sewing machine
(ii)The motion of a point marked on the blade of an electric fan
(iii)the hands of a clock.
+The distance moved by objects in a given interval of time can help us to decide which one is faster or
slower.
SPEED
+We call the distance covered by an object in a unit time as the Speed of the object.
Speed is the total distance covered divided by the total time taken.
+Speed = Total distance covered / Total time taken.
+An object moving along a straight line with a constant speed is said to be in uniform motion.
+If the speed of an object moving along a straight line keeps changing, its motion is said to be non-
uniform motion.
+Our ancestors noticed that many events in nature repeat themselves after definite intervals of time. For
example, (i) sun rises everyday in the morning.
(ii)The time between one sunrise and the next was called a day.
(iii)A month was measured from one new moon to the next.
(iv) A year was fixed as the time taken by the earth to complete one revolution of the sun.

+Clocks or watches are perhaps the most common time measuring devices.
+The working of clocks is rather complex. But they make use of some periodic motion.
+ One of the most well-known periodic motions is that of a simple pendulum.
+A simple pendulum consists of a small metallic ball or a piece of stone suspended from a rigid
stand by a thread.
+The metallic ball is called the bob of the pendulum.
+The to and fro motion of a simple pendulum is an example of a periodic or an oscillatory motion.
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+The pendulum also completes one oscillation when its bob moves from one extreme position A to the
other extreme position B and comes back to A.
+The time taken by the pendulum to complete one oscillation is called its time period.
+Nowadays most clocks or watches have an electric circuit with one or more cells. These clocks are
called quartz clocks.
+The time measured by quartz clocks is much more accurate than that by the clocks available earlier.
+The basic unit of time is a second(s).Larger units of time are minutes (min) & hours (h).
+One microsecond is one millionth of a second. A nanosecond is one billionth of a second.
+ Since the speed is distance/time, the basic unit of speed is m/s.
+The symbols of all units are written in singular. For example, we write 50 km and not 50 kms, or 8 cm
and not 8 cms.
+Speeds of some living organisms are given in in km/h.
+Distance covered = Speed × Time
+Time taken = Distance/Speed
+The instruments that measures the distance moved by the vehicle are speedometer , odometer.
+Motion of objects can be presented in pictorial form by their distance-time graphs.
+The distance-time graph for the motion of an object moving with a constant speed is a straight line.
+To describe the position of an object we need to specify a reference point called the origin.

FORCE AND MOTION

+Actions like picking, opening, shutting, kicking, hitting, lifting, flicking, pushing, pulling are usually results
in some kind of change in the state of motion of an object.
FORCE
+In science, a push or a pull on an object is called a force.
+The motion imparted to objects was due to the action of a force.
+At least two objects must interact for a force to come into play. Thus, an
interaction of one object with another object results in a force between the two objects.
+Forces applied on an object in the same direction add to one another.
+If the two forces act in the opposite directions on an object, the net force acting on it is the difference
between the two forces.
+The strength of a force is usually expressed by its magnitude.
+We have also to specify the direction in which a force acts.
+If the direction or the magnitude of the applied force changes, its effect also changes.
+In general, more than one force may be acting on an object. However, the effect on the object is due to
the net force acting on it.
+A force applied on an object may change its speed. If the force applied on the object is in the direction of
its motion, the speed of the object increases. If the force is applied in the direction opposite to the direction
of motion, then it results in a decrease in the speed of the object.
+A change in either the speed of an object, or its direction of motion, or both, is described as a
change in its state of motion. Thus, a force may bring a change in the state of motion of an object.

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State of Motion : The state of motion of an object is described by its speed and the direction of motion.
The state of rest is considered to be the state of zero speed. An object may be at rest or in motion; both
are its states of motion.
Force on an object may change its shape.
Muscular Force : The force resulting due to the action of muscles is known as the muscular force.
Ex: push an object like a school bag or lift a bucket of water.
Since muscular force can be applied only when it is in contact with an object, it is also called a contact
force.
Friction : The force responsible for changing the state of motion of objects is the force of friction. +The
force of friction always acts on all the moving objects and its direction is always opposite to the direction of
motion.
Since the force of friction arises due to contact between surfaces, it is also an example of a contact force.
+A magnet can exert a force on another magnet without being in contact with it.
+The force exerted by a magnet is an example of a non-contact force.
+Similarly, the force exerted by a magnet on a piece of iron is also a noncontact force.
Electrostatic force :
The force exerted by a charged body on another charged or uncharged body is known as electrostatic
force.
This force comes into play even when the bodies are not in contact.
The electrostatic force, therefore, is another example of a non-contact force.
Gravitational Force :
Objects or things fall towards the earth because it pulls them. This force is called the force of gravity, or
just gravity. This is an attractive force. The force of gravity acts on all objects. +The force acting on a unit
area of a surface is called Pressure.
+Pressure = force / area on which it acts
+At this stage we consider only those forces which act perpendicular to the surface on which the pressure
is to be computed.
+Usually porters place a round piece of cloth on their heads, when they have to carry heavy loads. By
doing this they increase the area of contact of the load with their head. So, the pressure on their head is
reduced and they find it easier to carry the load.
+Liquids exert pressure on the walls of the container.
+Gases, too, exert pressure on the walls of their container.
+There is air all around us. This envelop of air is known as the atmosphere.
+The pressure exerted by this air is known as atmospheric pressure.
+The pressure inside our bodies is also equal to the atmospheric pressure and balances the pressure
from outside.
MOTION ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE :
+The simplest type of motion is the motion along a straight line.
+If the motion of an object moving along a straight path then The object starts from its reference
point(origin) then it moves through different instants and reaches final point.

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+The total path length covered by the object Is the distance covered by that object.
MAGNITUDE
+To describe distance we need to specify only the numerical value and not the direction of motion.
+The numerical value of a physical quantity is its magnitude.
DISPLACEMENT
+The shortest distance measured from the initial to the final position of an object is known as the
displacement.
+The magnitude of the displacement be not equal to the distance travelled by an object.
Example : if a man travelled 50km reached a point A again while he is coming back he travelled 35km
Now the to total distance covered by a man is 50+35=85
While the magnitude of the displacement is 35 only.
+The magnitude of the displacement for a course of motion may be zero but the corresponding distance
covered is not zero.
Example :
if a man started from a point A and travelled 50km reached a point B again he came back to point A by
travelling 50km
Thus displacement is zero. However, the distance covered in this journey is AB + BA = 50 km + 50 km =
100 km
+Two different physical quantities —The distance and the displacement, are used to describe the overall
motion of an object and to locate its final position with reference to its initial position at a given time.
+Different objects may take different amounts of time to cover a given distance.
+The rate at which objects move can be different. Also, different objects can move at the same rate.
SPEED : One of the ways of measuring the rate of motion of an object is to find out the distance travelled
by the object in unit time. This quantity is referred to as Speed.
+The SI unit of speed is metre per second.
+This is represented by the symbol m s–1 or m/s. The other units of speed include centimetre per second
(cm s–1) and kilometer per hour (km h–1).
+To specify the speed of an object, we require only its magnitude. +The speed of an object need not be
constant.
+Average speed =Total distance travelled / Total time taken
If an object travels a distance s in time t then its speed v is, v =s / t
Example : An object travels 16 m in 4 s and then another 16 m in 2 s. What is the average speed of the
object?

travelled by the object = 16 m + 16 m = 32 m

Total time take = 4 s + 2 s = 6 s
speed =Total distance travelled /Total time taken
=32 m/6 s = 5.33 m s–1

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Therefore, the average speed of the object is 5.33 m s–1
Velocity : Velocity is the speed of an object moving in a definite direction.
The velocity of an object can be uniform or variable.
It can be changed by changing the object’s speed, direction of motion or both.
In case the velocity of the object is changing at a uniform rate, then average velocity is given by the
arithmetic mean of initial velocity and final velocity for a given period of time.
Average velocity = initial velocity + final velocity / 2
Mathematically, vav = u + v / 2
where vav is the average velocity,
u is the initial velocity and
v is the final velocity of the object.
Speed and velocity have the same units, that is, m s–1 or m/s.
The magnitude of average velocity of an object equal to its average speed , only when an object is moving
in straight line.
The odometer of an automobile measure the distance covered by an automobile.
During an experiment, a signal from a spaceship reached the ground station in five minutes. What was the
distance of the spaceship from the ground station? The signal travels at the speed of light,that is,
3 × 108 m s–1.
Solution: speed of light = 3 × 108 m s–1.
Time = 5 min=5X60 =300 sec
Distance = speed x time
=3 × 108 m s–1 x 300 sec = 9 x 910m
Example : Usha swims in a 90 m long pool. She covers 180 m in one minute by swimming from one end
to the other and back along the same straight path. Find the average speed and average velocity of Usha.
180 / 1 min = 180 m / 1 min × 1min / 60s
=3 m s-1
0m / 60 s = 0 m s–1
The average speed of Usha is 3 m s–1 and her average velocity is 0 m s–1.
+During uniform motion of an object the velocity remains constant with time. The change in velocity of the
object for any time interval is zero.
+In non-uniform motion, velocity varies with time. The change in velocity of the object during any time
interval is not zero.

Acceleration : The change in the velocity of an object per unit time. acceleration = change in
velocity / time taken
+If the velocity of an object changes from an initial value u to the final value v in time t, the acceleration a
is,a = v – u / t
+This kind of motion is known as accelerated motion.

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+The acceleration is taken to be positive if it is in the direction of velocity and negative when it is opposite
to the direction of velocity.
The SI unit of acceleration is m s–2.
+The motion of a freely falling body is an example of uniformly accelerated motion.
An object can travel with non-uniform acceleration if its velocity changes at a non-uniform rate.
EXAMPLE :
+If a car travelling along a straight road increases its speed by unequal amounts in equal intervals of time,
then the car is said to be moving with non-uniform acceleration.
+To describe the motion of an object, we can use line graphs. In this case, line graphs show dependence
of one physical quantity, such as distance or velocity, on another quantity, such as time.
DISTANCE–TIME GRAPHS :
The change in the position of an object with time can be represented on the distance-time graph adopting
a convenient scale of choice.
For uniform speed, a graph of distance travelled against time is a straight line.
We can use the distance-time graph to determine the speed of an object.
When an object moves along a straight line with uniform acceleration, it is possible to relate its velocity,
acceleration during motion and the distance covered by it in a certain time interval by a set of equations
known as the equations of motion. For convenience, a set of three such equations are given below:
v = u + at
2
s = ut + ½ at
2 2
2as=v –u
where u is the initial velocity of the object which moves with uniform acceleration a for time t, v is the final
velocity, and
s is the distance travelled by the object in time t.
EQUATION FOR VELOCITY-TIME RELATION- v = u + at
EQUATION FOR POSITION-TIME RELATION- s = ut + ½ at2
EQUATION FOR POSITION–VELOCITY RELATION-2 a s = v2 – u2

Uniform Circular Motion :

+When an object moves in a circular path with uniform speed, its motion is called uniform circular
motion.

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+Take a piece of thread and tie a small piece of stone at one of its ends. Move the stone to describe a
circular path with constant speed by holding the thread at the other end, If you carefully note, on being
released the stone moves along a straight line tangential to the circular path. This is because once the
stone is released, it continues to move along the direction it has been moving at that instant. This shows
that the direction of motion changed at every point when the stone was moving along the circular path.
+There are many more familiar examples of objects moving under uniform circular motion, such as the
motion of the moon and the earth, a satellite in a circular orbit around the earth, a cyclist on a circular track
at constant speed and so on.

LAWS OF MOTION :
+Newton studied Galileo’s ideas on force and motion and presented three fundamental laws that govern
the motion of objects.
+These three laws are known as Newton’s laws of motion.
+The first law of motion is stated as:
An object remains in a state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless compelled to change that
state by an applied force.
+In a qualitative way, the tendency of undisturbed objects to stay at rest or to keep moving with the same
velocity is called inertia.
+This is why, the first law of motion is also known as the law of inertia.
+If the resistance offered by an object to change its state of motion is at rest it tends to remain at rest; if it
is moving it tends to keep moving. This property of an object is called its inertia.
+Heavier or more massive objects offer larger inertia. Quantitatively, the inertia of an object is measured
by its mass.
+We may thus relate inertia and mass as follows:
+Inertia is the natural tendency of an object to resist a change in its state of motion or of rest.
+The mass of an object is a measure of its inertia.
MOMENTUM :
+if an object is to be accelerated, we know that a greater force is required to give a greater velocity.
+In other words, there appears to exist some quantity of importance that combines the object’s mass and
its velocity.
+One such property called momentum was introduced by Newton.
+The momentum, p of an object is defined as the product of its mass, m and velocity, v.
+That is, p = mv
+Momentum has both direction and magnitude. Its direction is the same as that of velocity, v.
+The SI unit of momentum is kilogram-metre per second (kg m s-1).
+A force also produces a change of momentum.
+The force necessary to change the momentum of an object depends on the time rate at which the
momentum is changed.

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+The second law of motion states that the rate of change of momentum of an object is proportional to
the applied unbalanced force in the direction of force.
+The third law of motion states that when one object exerts a force on another object, the second object
instantaneously exerts a force back on the first.
+These two forces are always equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
+These forces act on different objects and never on the same object.
Ex : A forward force on the bullet and recoil of the gun.
The third law of motion can also be illustrated when a sailor jumps out of a rowing boat. As the sailor
jumps forward, the force on the boat moves it.
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM :
+The sum of momenta (plural of momentum) of the two objects before collision is equal to the sum of
momenta after the collision provided there is no external unbalanced force acting on them. This is known
as the law of conservation of momentum.
+This statement can alternatively be given as the total momentum of the two objects is unchanged or
conserved by the collision.
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY :
The total energy of an isolated system does not change, as long as one accounts for all forms of energy.
Energy may be transformed from one form to another but the total energy of an isolated system remains
constant. Energy can neither be created, nor destroyed.

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