INSPECTION & QUALITY CONTROL IN MANUFACTURING

Lecture 02: Need of Inspection: Types and Principles

Dr. Kaushik Pal

Associate Professor
Dept. of Mech. & Indl. Engg.
Joint faculty: Centre of Nanotechnology
Need of Inspection:
 Inspection is an indispensable tool of modern manufacturing process.
 It helps to control quality, reduces manufacturing costs, eliminate scrap losses and assignable causes of
defective work.
 It has mainly two uses: 1. Quality Control - before the component is used in service.

2. Maintenance and Health Monitoring - while the component is in service.

 Inspection is the most common method of attaining standardization, uniformity and quality of
workmanship.
 It is the art of controlling the product quality after comparison with the established standards and
specifications.
 If the said item does not fall within the zone of acceptability it will be rejected and corrective measure
will be applied to see that the items in future confirm to specified standards.

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 Defects in manufactured parts, if remain undetected may result to failure of the product.
Example:
Crash of United Flight 232 Place: Sioux City, Iowa; Date: July 19, 1989 Fatalities: 111; Injuries: 172

 The NTSB (National Transportation Safety Board) Accident Report cited the
initial problem in the manufacturing of the fan rotor by General Electric
Aircraft Engines (GEAE).
 During the purification of titanium-alloy rotor, a “hard α inclusion” (a
microstructural defect that occurs from an inadequate vacuum during melt
processing) formed within a cavity in the rotor.
 The rotor left the foundry with the defect unnoticed after its initial
certification process.
 During the rotor’s normal use, one, if not more, fatigue cracks initiated from
this defect area and grew (through sub-critical crack growth) until finally the
rotor failed.

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 Purpose of Inspection:
The purpose of inspection is:
• To distinguish good lots from bad lots.
• To distinguish good pieces from bad pieces.
• To determine if the process is changing.
• To determine if the process is approaching the specification limits.
• To rate quality of product.
• To rate accuracy of inspectors.
• To measure the precision of the measuring instrument.
• To secure products – design information.
• To measure process capability.

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Design for Inspection:
 Design for Inspection (DFI) is an engineering principle based on Design for X (DFX) methodology, where X is
variable.
 It proposes that inspection methods and measurement instruments used to certify manufacturing conformity, should be
considered early in design of products.
 DFI describes the process of designing or engineering a product in order to facilitate the measurement in order to
reduce the overall costs of manufacturing and delivering products that satisfy customers.
 If the inspection method and instruments are considered and selected at the design stage, the likelihood that a tolerance
feature cannot be inspected or requires a specialised instrument is substantially reduced.

Design Guidelines:
 Production processes should be designed in such a way that features of the products are easy to inspect with readily
available measurement instruments, and so that measurement uncertainty is considered in the tolerance that are
applied.
 Inspection can represent a significant percentage of an existing product's manufacturing cost. DFI may naturally be
called for in redesign of a product to reduce that cost component when it is high.
 The use of modules in product design simplifies inspection and testing activities as it helps run tests before the final
assembly is put together.

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Classification of Inspection:

Types of Inspection

Based on usefulness of Based on number of Based on

Based on timing Based on place Based on contact
the part after inspection samples inspected application

Off-line Destructive Contact Sampling Inspection of Raw

Floor Inspection
Inspection Inspection Inspection Inspection Products

Inspection
On-line Centralized Non-destructive Non-contact
100% Inspection Following
Inspection Inspection Inspection Inspection
Secondary
Processing

Combined In-service
Inspection Damage
Inspection

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Classification based on Timing:
 The timing of the inspection procedure in relation to the manufacturing process is an important
consideration in quality control.
 Based on the timing, inspection can be classified into two categories:
1. Off-line inspection
2. On-line inspection

I. Off-line Inspection
• Off-line inspection is performed away from the manufacturing process, and there is generally a time
delay between processing and inspection.

 Example: Parts which require

specialized testing equipment or
environment such as medical
devices, aerospace components,
etc.

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II. On-line Inspection
• Online inspection systems are integrated tightly into the production process.
• Online inspection offer great benefit in process efficiency and catching defects in near real-time.
• It is an alternative to off-line inspection, in which the procedure is performed when parts are made,
either as:
 An integral step in the processing or assembly operation, or
 Immediately afterward.
• They can be further divided into two categories: On-line/In-process
Inspection On-line/post-process
Inspection

a) On-line/In-process Inspection:
 This is achieved by performing the inspection procedure during
the manufacturing operation.
 As the parts are being made, the inspection procedure is
measuring, or gauging the parts simultaneously.

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b) On-line/Post-process Inspection
 In this type, the measurement or gauging procedure is accomplished immediately following the
production process.
 Even though it follows the process, it is still considered an on-line method because it is integrated
with the manufacturing workstation, and the results of the inspection can immediately influence
the production operation of the next part.

 Technologically, automated on-line/in-process inspection of the product is usually difficult and

expensive to implement, as an alternative on-line/post process procedures are often used.

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Classification based on Place of Inspection Procedure: Floor or Decentralized
Inspection

On the basis of place, there are Classification of Inspection

Centralized Inspection
three ways of doing inspection: (based on place)

Combined Inspection

I. Floor or Decentralized Inspection

• It suggests the checking of materials in process at the machine or in the production time by
patrolling inspectors.
• It requires the inspector to be fully equipped with all their devices or equipment.
• These inspectors moves from machine to machine and from one to the other work centres.
Inspectors have to be highly skilled.
• This method of inspection minimise the material handling, does not disrupt the line layout of
machinery and quickly locate the defect and readily offers field and correction.

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Advantages, Disadvantages & Suitability of Floor or Decentralized Inspection:

Advantages:
o Encourage co-operation of inspector and foreman.
o Random checking may be more successful than batch checking.
o Does not delay in production.
o Saves time and expense of having more batches of work for inspection.
Disadvantages:
o Possibility of biased inspection because of worker.
o High cost of inspection because of numerous sets of inspections and skilled inspectors.

Suitability:
o Heavy products are produced.
o Different work centres are integrated in continuous line layout.

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II. Centralized Inspection
• Materials in process may be inspected and checked at centralised inspection centre which are
located at one or more places in the manufacturing industry.
• The inspection staff is more experienced and skilled in this case.
• Sophisticated and reliable instruments and techniques are used to measure the quality, hence
centralised inspection is reliable and accurate.
Advantages:
 Better quality check-up.
Suitability:
 Closed supervision.  Incoming materials
inspection.
 Absence of workers pressure.
 Orderly production flow and low inspection cost.  Finished product
inspection.
Disadvantages:
 More material handling.  Departmental
inspection.
 Delays of inspection room causes wastage of time.
 Work of production control increases.  High precision parts
of delicate products.
 Due to non-detection of machining errors in time, there may more spoilage of work.

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III. Combined Inspection
o It is a combination of two methods: floor and centralized inspection methods.
o This is perhaps the best method as it encompasses all of the benefits to reduce issues.
o The main objective is to locate and prevent defect which may not repeat itself in subsequent
operation to see whether any corrective measure is required and finally to maintain quality
economically.
Classification based on the Usefulness of the Part after Inspection:

Destructive Inspection: Part

cannot be used after
 On the basis of usefulness of the inspection
part after inspection, they are
classified into two categories: Non-destructive Inspection:
Does not affect the part’s
future usefulness

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I. Destructive Inspection
 Destructive tests are carried out to the specimens’ failure, in order to understand a specimen’s
performance or material behaviour under different loads.
 These tests are generally much easier to carry out, yield more information, and are easier to
interpret than non-destructive testing.
 While destructive testing is intrinsically more revealing; it also is costly to a manufacturing
operation due to material loss and, for obvious reasons, it is not suitable for in service material
testing.
Examples:

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II. Non-destructive Inspection
 Non-destructive inspection or Non-destructive evaluation (NDE) is a method of materials testing to
assess the characteristics of a component without altering or destroying it.
 NDT is important in the materials testing industry where quick, dependable information on
finished or raw material is needed.
 This may occur during the production stage, during the service life of a material or product, or as a
diagnostic tool in the event of material failure.
 NDT is contrary to destructive testing such as stress or bend testing where critical material
properties are determined through achieving specimen failure.
Examples:

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Classification based on Contact:
 On the basis of contact between object and instrument, inspection techniques can be
divided into two broad categories:
I. Contact Inspection Examples of
contact inspection:
II. Non-contact Inspection

I. Contact Inspection
 In contact inspection, physical contact is made between the object and
the measuring and gauging instrument.
 Typically contact is achieved using a mechanical probe or other device
that touches the item, and allows the inspection procedure to occur.
 By its nature, contact inspection is concerned with some physical
dimension of the part, and so contact methods are widely used in
manufacturing and production industries to assess metal parts.

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II. Non-contact Inspection
 In non-contact inspection no physical contact is made.
 Non-contact inspection techniques use sensors instead of a mechanized probe favoured by contact
inspection methodologies.
 The sensor is located at a certain distance from the object to be inspected, to measure or gauge the
desired features of the object.
 Example: Radiography Testing, Visual Inspection, Lasers Metrology i.e. Scanning Laser Systems.

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Classification based on Number of Samples Inspected:
 On the basis of number of samples inspected, it can be classified into two parts:
1) 100% Inspection
2) Sampling Inspection
I. 100% Inspection
o This type will involve careful inspection in detail of quality at each strategic point or stage of manufacture
where the test involved is non-destructive and every piece is separately inspected.
o It requires more number of inspectors and hence it is a costly method.
o There is no sampling error. This is subjected to inspection error arising out of fatigue, negligence, difficulty of
supervision etc. Hence complete accuracy of influence is seldomly attained.
o It is suitable only when a small number of pieces are there or a very high degree of quality is required.
Examples: Jet engines, Aircraft, Medical and Scientific equipment.
Problems with 100% Inspection-
o Very expensive
o When product must be destroyed
o Inspection must be very tedious so defective items do not slip through inspection.

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II. Sampling Inspection or Acceptance Sampling
o Sampling Inspection involves inspecting a relatively small number of items from a batch or
lot and then using the results of this sample to either accept or reject the entire lot.
o The accept/reject criteria is the number of defective items found in the sample.
o This method is most useful when product testing is expensive, destructive, or time consuming.

Examples : Electrical bulbs, radio bulbs, washing machine, destructive tests conducted for the products
whose endurance or ultimate strength properties are required etc.

 Depending upon the number of samples being inspected, it can be further classified into four
types:
1) Single Sampling
2) Double Sampling
3) Multiple Sampling
4) Sequential Sampling

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1. Single Sampling:
 When a decision on acceptance or rejection of the lot is made on the basis of only one
sample, acceptance plan is known as single sampling plan.
 It is the most common and easiest plan to use.

Single sampling plan is defined by the following

parameters:
i. Lot size, N
ii. Samples size, n
iii. Decision criterion or acceptance number, c

Single Sampling Procedure

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2. Double Sampling:

When a decision on acceptance or rejection of the lot is made on

the basis of two samples, then acceptance plan is known as
double sampling plan.

Double sampling plan is defined by the

following parameters:
i. Lot size, N
ii. Sample size of first sample, n1
iii. Acceptance number for first
sample, c1
iv. Sample size of second sample, n2
v. Acceptance number for both
sample, c2
Double Sampling Procedure

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3. Multiple Sampling:
 In multiple sampling, a lot is accepted or rejected based upon the results obtained from several samples (more than 2)
drawn from the lot.
 Two limits are specified for each sample.
 Cumulative number of defects are compared to limits for each successive sample:
 If number of defects < lower limit, accept the lot.
 If number of defects > upper limit, reject the lot.
 If number of defects between limits, continue sampling.
 Continue sampling until accept or reject lot based on all sample data.
4. Sequential Sampling:
 It is an extreme case of multiple sampling, in which sampling might continues until
the lot is exhausted.
 Items are randomly selected from the lot and inspected one at a time.
 Results are compared to sequential-sampling chart.
 Chart guides decision to reject, accept, or continue sampling (select another item),
based on cumulative results.
 Average number of items inspected is generally lower with sequential sampling.

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Advantages of Sampling Inspection:
o Sampling inspection is cheaper and quicker and it requires less number of Inspectors.
o It is subjected to sampling errors but the magnitude of sampling error can be estimated.
o In the case of destructive test, random or sampling inspection is desirable.
o This type of inspection governs wide currency due to the introduction of automatic machines or
equipment which are less susceptible to change variable and hence require less inspection.
o It is suitable for inspection of products which have less precision importance and are less costly.
o Rejection of a complete batch on the basis of a sample decidedly pressurizes for improvements in
quality.

Disadvantages of Sampling Inspection:

o Risk included in chance of bad lot acceptance and good lot rejection.
o Sampling inspection provides less information than 100% inspection.

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Classification based on Application:
 On the basis of their application in manufacturing, they can be classified into three main
categories:
I. Inspection of raw products
II. Inspection following secondary processing
III. In-service damage inspection

I. Inspection of Raw Products:

 This include the raw material or subcontracted parts from the suppliers for example:
 Castings
 Forgings
 Extrusions, etc.

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II. Inspection Following Secondary Processing:
 Secondary manufacturing processes are the process, which
are used to further modify the output of the primary
manufacturing processes in order to improve the material
properties, surface quality, surface integrity, appearance
and dimensional tolerance.
 This includes the following processes: machining, welding,
grinding, heat treating, plating, etc.

III. In-service Damage Inspection:

 It is performed to asses the quality of critical engineering
structures using non-destructive inspection techniques to
avoid their failure.
 It includes power plant inspection, wire rope inspection,
aircraft inspection, bridge inspection, etc.
 In service damages, that can occur are cracking, Corrosion,
Erosion/Wear, Heat Damage, etc.

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Drawbacks of Inspection:

 Inspection merely separates good and bad items. It is no way to prevent the production
of bad items.
 Inspection adds to the cost of the product but not for its value.
 It requires more man power/operations to maintain quality control and adds more time
to the initial process.
 It is partially subjective, often the inspector has to judge whether a product passes or
not.
Example: Inspector discovering a slight burnish on a surface must decide whether it is bad
enough to justify rejection even with micrometres a tight or loose fit change measurement by say
0.0006 inches. The inspectors design is important as he enforces quality standards.
 Fatigue and Monotony may affect any inspection judgement.

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Summary:

 Inspection is an important tool to reduce the manufacturing cost by controlling the

product quality at different stages.
 As inspection adds to the cost of the product but not for its value, DFI concepts are used
at design stage so that products are easy to inspect with readily available instruments.
 Classification of inspection activities on the basis of different parameters has also been
discussed.
 In this course, all the inspection techniques will be discussed by categorizing them into
destructive and non-destructive inspection.

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