CHAPTER -7

Numerical Control of Machine tools

1. Automation and Numerical Control

The word Automation is derived from the greek word ‘automotos’ meaning of self acting
Automation can generally be defined as the process of following a predetermined set of operation
with little or no human interventions using specialized equipments and devices that perform and
control the manufacturing process. Automation is a technology concerned with the application
mechanical, electronic and computer based system to operate and control the production.

Why should we go for automation?

 Increase productivity
 Reduced cost of labour and dependence of labour shortage
 Improved quality
 Reduced manufacturing time
 Increased safety or reduced risk of humans
 Reduced dependence on operate skills

Automation can be classified into three categories:

a) Fixed Automation
b) Programmable Automation
c) Flexible Automation

A.) Fixed Automation:

It also known as hard automation, which is used to produce a standardized product, such as
gears, nut and bolts. Fixed automation is used for very large quantity production of one or few
marginally different components. Highley specialized equipment called special purpose machine
tool, are utilized to produce very efficiently at high production rates, such that costs are low
relative to the alternative method of production.

B.) Programmable Automation:

In this automation we can change the design of product or even change the product by changing
the program. It is used for low quantity of production of large number of different components.
The equipment used for production is designed to be acceptable or programmable. The
production is normally carried out in batches. Ex., Descrete parts manufacturing in numerical
control.
C.) Flexible Automation:
There is a third category possible between fixed automation and programmable automation,
that is called flexible automation. This is also called flexible manufacturing system (FMS).
Flexible automation (FA) is a type of manufacturing automation, which exhibits some form of
"flexibility." Most commonly this flexibility is the capability of making different products in a
short time frame. This "process flexibility" allows the production of different part types with
overlapping life cycles. Another type of flexibility that comes with flexible automation is the
ability to produce a part type through many generations. Clearly, there are several other
manifestations of flexibility. Flexible automation allows the production of a variety of part types
in small or unit batch sizes. Although FA consists of various combinations of technology, flexible
automation most typically takes the form of machining systems, that is, manufacturing systems
where material is removed from a workpiece. The flexibility comes from the programmability of
the computers controlling the machines. Flexible automation is also observed in assembly
systems. The most prominent form of flexible assembly is observed in the electronics industry,
where flexible machines (automated surface mount technologies) are used to populate printed
circuit boards with integrated circuits and other componentry. In this instance, manufacturers
have found the machines far superior accuracy and reliability to be sufficient to warrant the
significant investment. Overall, however, manufacturer tend to use automation for fabrication,
and leave assembly to human operators who can adapt to a greater variety of changing
circumstances more rapidly and easily than machines.

Flexible automation in machining systems:

The building block of flexible automation is the computer numerical controlled (CNC) machine
tool which is typically augmented by automated materials handling systems, centralised
controlling computers, automated storage and retrieval systems, and human operators. The
variety of installations of flexible automation is numerous. Some typical configurations are
discussed below. A CNC machine tool is a self-contained machine, where the tool cutting
movements, a part program executed by the computer controller based at the machine tool
controls spindle speeds, tool exchange, and other operations. The spindle is a spinning device
which holds the tool used to cut into the workpiece. Conventional machine tools (e.g. lathes,
drill presses, milling machines) are not computer controlled. Skilled craftsman typically does the
operation of conventional tools. There can be variations to dimensions on parts made on a
conventional tool, whereas this variation is decreased on CNC machine tools.
Numerical Control (NC) System
Numerical Control is the method of controlling the movement of machine components by directly
inserting coded instruction, in the form of numbers and letters into the system. The system
automatically interprets these data and converts them to output signals. These signal in turn control
various machine components. The data for operation may be stored on proper tape, magnetic tape,
magnetic disk etc.

A typical numerical control machine tool system contains three basic components
1. A program, that is a set of instructions
2. A machine control unit
3. The machine tool

Tool
Program

Workpiece
Machine Control
Unit

Fig. Basic Components of NC System

In NC system all the information which is required for operating a component viz, dimensional
information, speed, feed and cutting speed is stored in a coded form as a part program. The MCU is
further divided into two elements, data processing unit (DPU) and control loop unit (CLU). In the DPU
processes the coded data is read from the tape or other storage media and passes information on the
position of each axis required direction of motion, speed, fuel, auxiliary function to clu. Geometric and
kinetic data are fed from DPU to CLU. The CLU then governs the physical system based on data received
from DPU. According to the instructions received through the MCU finally the machine tool performs
the work.

The major advantages of NC over conventional methods of machine control are as follows:

 Higher precision: NC machine tool are capable of machining at very close tolerances, in
some operations as small as 0.005 mm;
 machining of complex three-dimensional shapes: with the problem of milling of
complex shapes;
  better quality: NC systems are capable of maintaining constant working conditions for
all parts in a batch thus ensuring less spread of quality characteristics;
 Higher productivity: NC machine tools reduce drastically the non machining time.
Adjusting the machine tool for a different product is as easy as changing the computer
Program and tool turret with the new set of cutting tools required for the particular part.
 multi-operational machining: some NC machine tools, for example machine centers,
are capable of accomplishing a very high number of machining operations thus reducing
Significantly the number of machine tools in the workshops.
 low operator qualification: the role of the operation of a NC machine is simply to
upload
the workpiece and to download the finished part. In some cases, industrial robots are
employed for material handling, thus eliminating the human operator.

2.) CNC ( Computer Numerical Control) Machine Tool Description, Technology and Practice

CNC is a system in which a control microcomputer is an integral part of machine or piece equipmet.
The machine operator, can however, easily and manually program on board computers. The operator
can modify the program directly , prepare programs for different parts and store the program.

Because of the availability of small computers having a large memory , microprocessor and
program editing cababilities , CNC system are widely used today.

A typical CNC ( Computer numerical control) machine tool system contains Six basic components

a.) Input Device

b.) Machine Control Unit

c.) Machine Tool

d.) Driving system

e.) Feedback Devices

f.) Display Unit

 Input

Device

Display Unit

Machine Control unit

Data Processing CLU

Velocity Feedback
Unit (DPU)

Miscellaneous Funcion

Position

Feedback

Driving System Feedback

Device
Machine Tool

Fig. CNC Machine System

Brief Explanation of Each Block:

Input Device:

a.) Floppy disk is a small magnetic storage device for CNC data input. However, the method has to be
proven to be quite problematic in the long run. As floppies have tendency to degrade alarmingly fast
and are sensitive to large magnetic fields as well as the dust and scratches that usually existed on the
shop floor.

b.) USB (Universal Serial Bus) Flash Drive: A USB flash drive is a removable and rewritable portable hard
drive with compact size and bigger storage size than a floppy disk.

In recent years, all computer support USB flash drives to read and write data that makes it
become more and more popular in CNC machine.
c.) Serial Communication: The data transfer between the computer and a CNC machine tool is often
accomplished through a serial communication port.

Part program can be downloaded into the memory of a machine tool or uploaded to the
computer for temporary storage by running a communication program on the computer and settting up
the machine control to interact with the communication software.

Machine Control Unit:

The machine Control unit is the unit of the CNC system. There are two sub units in the machine control
unit: Data processing Unit (DPU) and the Control Loop Unit (CLU).

a.) Data Processing unit:

On receiving a part program, the DPU firstly interprets and encodes the part program into the internal
machine codes. The interpolater of the DPU then calculate the intermediate positions of the motions in
terms of BLU( basic length unit) which is the smallest unit length that can be handled by the controller.
The calculated data are passed to CLU for the further action.

b.) Control Loop Unit:

The data from the DPU are converted into electrical signals in the CLU to control thedriving system to
perform the required motions. Other functions such as machine spindle ON/OFF, coolant ON/OFF, tool
clamp ON/OFF are also controlled by this unit according to the internal machine codes.

Machine Tool:

This can be any type of machine tool or equivalent. In order to obtain high accuracy and repeatability,
the design and make of the machine slide and the driving leadscrew of a cnc machine is of vital
importance. Other design features such as rigid and heavy machine structure, short machine table
overhang, quick charge tooling system, etc also contribute to the high accuracy and high repeatability of
CNC machines.

Driving System:

The driving system is an important component of a CNC machine as the accuracy and repeatability
depend very much on the characteristics and performance of the driving system. The requirement is
that the driving system has to response accuracy according to the programmed instructions. The driving
system usually uses electric motors although hydraulic motors are sometimes used for large machine
tools. The motor is coupled either directly or through a gear box to the machine leadscrew to moves the
machine slide or the spindle. Three types of electrical motors are commonly used, i) DC servo motor ii)
AC servo motor iii) stepping motor.
Feedback Device

In order to have CNC machine operating accurately, the positional values and speed of the axes need to
be constantly updated. Two types of feedback devices are normally used, positional feedback device and
velocity feedback device.

a.)Positional Feedback Devices

There are two types oa positional feedback devices: linear transducer for direct positional measurement
and rotary encoder for angular or indirect linear measurement.

Linear transducers- A linear transducer is a device mounted on the machine table to measure the actual
displacement of the slide in such a way that backlash of screws, motors etc would not cause any error in
the feedback data. These device is considered to be the highest accuracy and also more expensive in
comparison woth other measuring devices mounted on screws or motors.

Rotary Encoders- A rotary encoder is a device monted at the end of the motor shaft or screw to measure
the angular displacement. This device cannot measure linear displacement directly so that error may
occur due to the backlash of screw and motor etc. Generally this error can be compensated for by the
machine duilder in the machine calibration process.

b.)Velocity Feedback Device

The actual speed of the motor can be measured in terms of voltage generated from a tachometer
mounted at the end of the motor shaft. DC tachometer is essentially a small generator that produces an
output voltage proportional to the speed. The voltage generated is compared with the command
voltage corresponding to the desired speed. The difference of the voltages can is then used to actuate
the to eliminate the error.

Display Unit:

The display unit serves as an interactive device between the machine and operator. When the machine
is running, the display unit displays the present status such as the position of the machine slide, the
spindle RPM, the feed rates, the part programs etc. Much other important information about the CNC
system can also displayed for maintenance and installation work. Such as machine parameters, logic
diagram of the programs controller, error message and diagnostic data.

Application of CNC Machines

CNC machines are widely used in metal cutting industry and are best used to produce the following
types of product:

- Parts with complicated contours

- parts requiring close tolerance and/ or good repeatability

- parts requiring expensive jigs and fixtures if produced on conventional machines

- Parts that may have several engineering changes, such as during the development stage of a prototype

- In cases where human errors could be extremely costly

- parts that are needed in a hurry

- Small batch lots or short production runs

Some common types of CNC machines and instruments used in industry are as following:

 Drilling Machine

 Lathe / Turning Centre

 Milling / machining Centre

 Punching Machine

 Grinding Machine

 Water jet Cutting Machine

 Laser Cutting Machine

 Electro Discharge Machine

 Industrial Robot

Advantage of CNC over conventional NC system:

 Increased Flexibility

 Greater Flexibility

 More Verstality
3.) Computer –aided Part programming:

Computer –aided part programming uses symbolic programming language that determines the co-
ordinate points of corners edges and surfaces of the part. Several language ( compilers) having various
features and applications are commercially available.

APT( Automatically Programmed Tools) was developed in the late 1950s. This language is still most
widely used in its various expanded forms.

Before production begins, program should be verified.

Advantage of Computer-aided part programming:

Use of symbolic language

Reduced programming time

Reduced possibility of human error

Ability to view machining process on the view

Capability for simple change over

Lower cost, because less time is required for programming.

CNC Part Programming

1.) Axis of motion: In generally , all motions have 6 degrees of freedom. In other words, motion can be
resolved into 6 axes. Namely, 3 linear axes (X, Y and Z axis ) and # rotational axes (A, B, and C axis).

Z C Y

A X

Fig: Axis of motion

2.) Dimensional Systems

a) Incremental system

This type of control always uses a reference to the preceding point in a sequence of points. The
disadvantage of this system is that if an error occurs, it will be accumulated.
b.) Absolute system

In an absolute system all references are made to the origin of the coordinate system. All commands of
the motion are defined by the absolute coordinate referred to the origin.

Definition of programming

NC programming is where all the machining data are compoled and where data are translated into a
language which can be ubderstood by the control system of the machine tool. The manufacturing data is
as follows:

a.)machining sequence, classification of process, tool sart up point, cutting depth, tool path etc.

b.)Cutting conditions, spindle speed, feed rate, coolant etc

c.)selection of cutting tools.

Program Structure

program start End of program

Block Block Block Block
#1 #2 #30 #31

Sequence no word#1 Word#2

N002 G01 X12.0

G 01

X 12.0

Fig. Structure of CNC Part Program

A CNC program consists of the blocks, words, and address

a.) Block: A command given to the control unit is called block

b.) Word: A block is composed of one or more words. A word is composed of an identification of leter
and a series of numerals, e.g. the command for a feed rate of 200mm/min is F200

c.) Address: The identification letter at the beginning of each word is called address. The meaning of the
address is in accordance with EIA( Electrinic Industries Assocoation) standard RS-274-D. the most
common address are listed below:

Function Address

Sequence number N ( used to identify the block)

Preparatory Function G (G00 represents point to point position at rapid speed)

Co ordinate word X,Y,Z( X100 Y-200, represents the movement to(100,200)

Parameters for circular interpolation I, J, K ( I,J,K represents X,Y,Z components of dist.)

Feed Function F ( F200 represents a feed rate of 200mm/min)

Spindle function S ( S2000 represents a spindle speed of 2000rpm)

Tool Function T (Ex., T02 represents tool no 2)

Miscellaneous Function M (Ex., M00 Program stop)

4.) Justification of CNC Equipment

Justification for a modern CNC (computer numerical control) machine tool is found in the non-
operational areas. These include better quality, fewer setups, better customer response, less fixturing,
and so on. With the new computer numerical controls, much of the detailed computational efforts are
handled by the control itself. This means the machinist or toolmaker can program easily in a user-
friendly mode right at the machine and can check as programming takes place. Depending upon the
situation, it is often possible to program a second job while the first is running. The expanded memory
capacity of the newer controls makes this possible.

Direct justification has two concerns:

* How much money it can save.

* How much money it can make.

4.) Industrial Robots:

The word ‘Robot’ was coined in 1920 by Czech author k. capek in his play R.U.R.( rossum’s Universal
Robots). ( Robota worker). An industrial robot has been defined as a reprogrammable multifunctional
manipulator, designed to move materials parts, tools and to perform by means of variable programmed
motions and to perform a variety of other task.

More generally, an industrial robot has been described by the international organization for
standardization (ISO) as follows:

A machine formed by a mechanism including several degree of freedom, often having the appearance
of one or several arms ending in a wrist capable of holding a tool , workpiece and inspection device.

Today, robots are widely used in the manufacturing and essembly tasks such as material handelling,
welding, part Assembly spray painting, loading and unloading, operating machines, space and undersea
exploration, prosthetic limbs for disabled and working in hazardous environment.