AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT ON FIGHTER

AIRCRAFT (Sukhoi)

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

NAMBI RAJAN.M (1601018)

PRAVINKUMAR.M.I (1601020)

RAJA PRADEEPAN.S (1601022)

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

IN

AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

PSN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Melathediyoor, Tirunelveli - 627152

(An Autonomous Institution affiliated to Anna University, Chennai)

Approved by AICTE, Recognized by UGC under section 2(f)

An ISO 9001:2008 certified Institution

Accredited by NBA and NAAC with A grade

1
 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT ON FIGHTER

AIRCRAFT” is the bonafide work of “NAMBI RAJAN.M (1601018),

PRAVINKUMAR.M.I (1601020), and RAJA PRADEEPAN.S (1601022)” that

carried out the project work under my supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Mr.A.KASIVISWANATHAN, M.E Mr.V.SENBAGAMUTHURAMAN, M.E

Head of the department, Assistant Professor,

Dept of Aeronautical Engineering, Dept of Aeronautical Engineering,

PSNCET PSNCET

Tirunelveli-627152 Tirunelveli-627152

Submitted for the B.E project work viva –voice at The PSN college of Engineering
and Technology , Tirunelveli- 627152 , on……………………

External Examiner Internal Examiner

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to express sincere thanks to the chairman of our college,

Dr. P.SUYAMBU and the principal Dr. MANIKANDAN, for providing better
working environment and educational facilities.

We are much grateful to Mr.A.KASIVISWANATHAN, M.E of the Head of

department of Aeronautical Engineering for this encouragement discussion, valuable
comments and many innovative ideas. Without his timely help it would have been
impossible for us to complete this work.

We acknowledge in no less the qualified and excellent assistance rendered by

Mr.V.SENBAGAMUTHURAMAN, M.E Department of Aeronautical Engineering.
We own a department of gratitude for his valuable suggestion, kind inspiration and
encouragement. We most sincerely thank our staff members, for their constant
inspiration and encouragement.

3
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER
TITLE PAGE NO
NO

ABSTRACT 07

SYMBOLS AND ABBREVATIONS 08

INTRODUCTION TO AIRPLANE DESIGN 11

1.1 Conceptual Design Studies 11

1.2 Preliminary Design Studies 11

1.3 Detailed Design Studies 12

1
1.4 Views Of Fighter Aircraft 13

1.4.1 Dassault Rafael 13

1.4.2 Sukhoi SU-37 14

1.4.3 Sukhoi SU-27 14

V-n DIAGRAM 15

2.1 Introduction 15

2.2 Velocity-Load Factor (V-n) diagram 15

2
2.3 Maneuvering Loads 16

2.3.1 Symmetric Maneuver load 16

2.4 Important Velocities 17

3 GUST AND MANEUVERABILITY ENVELOPES 20

4 CRITICAL LOADING PERFORMANCE 23

STRUCTURAL DESIGN STUDY THEORY 27

APPROACH
5
5.1 Structural Layout Of Wing 27

5.1.1 Specific Role Of Wing Structure 27

4
 5.2 Basic Function Of Wing Structural Members 28

5.2.1 Spars 28

5.2.2 Skin 28

5.2.3 Stringers 28

5.2.4 Ribs 28

5.3 Fuselage Structural Layouts 29

LOAD ESTIMATION OF WINGS 32

6 6.1 Air Loads Of Wings 32

6.2 Shear Force And Bending Moment Diagram 39

LOAD ESTIMATION OF FUSELAGE 42

7
7.1 Stress Analysis 42

BALANCING AND MANEUVERING LOADS ON 46

TAIL PLANE, AILERON AND RUDDER LOADS
8
8.1 Maneuvering Loads 46

8.2 Balancing Loads 48

DESIGN OF SOME COMPONENTS OF WINGS AND

FUSELAGE
50

9.1 Design Of Components Of The Wing 50

9.1.1 Fuel Tank 50

9.1.2 Rib Location And Direction 51

9 9.1.3 Fixed Secondary Structure 51

9.1.4 Horizontal Stabilizer 51

9.1.5 Vertical Stabilizer 52

9.1.6 Auxiliary Surfaces 52

9.1.7 Hinged Control Surfaces 52

9.1.8 High Lift System 53

5
 9.1.9 Attachment Of Lifting Surfaces 53

9.2 Design Of Components Of The Fuselage 53

9.2.1 Design Of Landing Gear 53

9.2.1.1 Angles Of Pitch And Roll During Takeoff And 55

Landing

9.2.1.2 Pitch And Roll Angles During Landing 55

10 THREE VIEW DIAGRAM 56

CONCLUSION 59

REFERENCES 60

6
 ABSTRACT

Aircraft Design Project-I is a continuation of Aircraft Design Project-II. In

our Aircraft Design Project-I, we have performed a preliminary and conceptual
analysis. We have carried out a weight estimation, engine selection, weapon loading
and aerodynamic parameter selection and analysis. Apart from these, we have also
determined performance parameters such lift, drag, range, endurance, thrust and
power requirements.

The purpose of ADP-II is to enhance the knowledge continuation of the

design project given in ADP-I. Also, Aircraft Design Project-II deals with a more in-
depth study and analysis of aircraft performance and structural characteristics. In the
following pages we have carried out V-n diagram, structural analysis of fuselage and
wings and the appropriate materials have been chosen to give our aircraft adequate
structural integrity. The determination the landing gear position, retraction and other
accompanying systems and mechanisms have also been done.

Thus, by imposing all the performance parameters in our ADP-I, structural

analysis of our aircraft is done in this project. Albert Einstein once said "Do not worry
about your problems with mathematics; I assure you mine are far greater”. He said
this to imply on the significance of mathematics to reduce complicated things into
simpler ones. Hence, a lot of attention is given to calculations in this report.

7
 SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

A : area

AI : intake highlights area

A t h : throat area

APR : augmented power rating

AR : aspect ratio

A W : wetted area

a : speed of sound; acceleration

: Average acceleration at 0.7 V2

ac : aerodynamic centre

B : breadth, width

b : span

CR : CB root chord

CD : drag coefficient

CDi : induced drag coefficient

CDp : parasitic drag coefficient

CDpmin: minimum parasitic drag coefficient

CDw : wave drag coefficient

Cv : specific heat at constant volume

CF : overall skin friction coefficient; force coefficient

Cr : local skin friction coefficient; coefficient of friction

CL : lift coefficient

Cl : sectional lift coefficient; rolling moment coefficient

CLi : integrated design lift coefficient

CLα : lift curve slope

8
CLβ : sideslip curve slope

Cm : pitching-moment coefficient

Cn : yawing-moment coefficient

Cp : pressure coefficient; specific heat at constant pressure

Cr : thrust coefficient

CHT : horizontal tail volume coefficient

D : Drag

E : Endurance

e : Oswald efficiency

g : Acceleration due to gravity

G : Factor due to ground effect

JA,JT : Symbols

H : Height from ground

HOB : Obstacle height

Kt : Proportionality constant

Kuc : Factor depends on flap deflection

KA,Kr: Symbols

L : Lift
𝐿
( )loiter: Lift-to-drag ratio at loiter
𝐷

𝐿
( )cruise: Lift-to-drag ratio at cruise
𝐷

M : Mach number of aircraft

mff : Mission segment fuel fraction

N : Time between initiation of rotation and actual

R : Range

Re : Reynolds Number

9
R/C : Rate of climb

S : Wing Area

Sa : Approach distance

Sab : Distance required to clear an obstacle after becoming airborne

Sf : Flare distance

Sg : Ground roll

Sref. : Referance surface area

Swet. : Wetted surface area

T : Thrust

P : Power

Pcruise : Thrust of cruise

Ptake-off : Thrust at take-off

𝑃
( )loiter : Thrust-to-weight ratio at loiter
𝑊

𝑃
( )cruise : Thrust-to-weight ratio at cruise
𝑊

𝑃
( )takeoff: Thrust-to-weight ratio at take-off
𝑊

Vcruise : Velocity at cruise

Vstall : Velocity at stall

VLO : Lift off Speed

VTD : Touch down speed

Wcrew : Crew weight

Wempty : Empty weight of aircraft

Wfuel : Weight of fuel

Wpayload : Payload of aircraft

Wo : Overall weight of aircraft

10
𝑊
: Wing loading
𝑆

ρ : Density of air

µ : Dynamic viscosity

µr : Co-efficient of rolling friction

λ : Tapered ratio

θOB : Angle between flight path and take-off

β : Turning angle

ϕ : Gliding angle

R/C : Rate of climb

11
 CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION TO AIRPLANE DESIGN

The project design process is the means by which the competing factor and
constraints which affect the design are synthesized with the specialist analytical inputs
to produce the overall configuration. The process may be considered in three parts:

 Conceptual design studies

 Preliminary design studies

 Detail design studies

1.1CONCEPTUAL DESIGN STUDIES

The first activity in the project design process is the ‘conceptual design study’
in this phase conventional and novel configurations are considered to determine
layouts which are technically feasible and commercially viable at the start of the phase
all options are considered during the concept design phase the quantity of data
generated on each design in the relatively limited and the man power expended small.
The outcome of study is the knowledge of the feasibility of the various concepts and
an estimate of the rough size of the most likely configurations established by the
prospective customer or a generated guess as what the future customer need.

1.2 PRELIMINARY DESIGN STUDIES

At the end of the conceptual design phase all the design layouts will have been
analyzed. Those which are regarded as unfeasible or too commercially risky will be
eliminated. The remainder will be compared after careful consideration of a suitable
selection criterion. It is important not to carry too many options forward to the next
stage as this will dissipate the available effort and slow down the detailed definition of
the preferred design. However, care must be taken to avoid discarding design layouts
too quickly as some may lead to evolutionary configurations which could give the
aircraft a competitive advantage over aircraft from other companies.

12
1.3 DETAILED DESIGN STUDIES
The detailed design phase is started towards the end of the parametric analysis. In
this part of the design process the layout is refined to a greater level of detail. With the
external shape fixed, the structural framework will be defined. In this phase, there will
be an increasing reluctance to make radical geometric changes the overall layout of
the aircraft. Throughout this phase, the aircraft weight and performance estimates will
be continuously updated as more details of the aircraft layout becomes available.
The design
Design of any system is of successful application of fundamentals of
Physics. Thus the airplane design incorporates the fundamentals of aerodynamics,
structures, performance and stability and control and basic physics. These are based
on certain degree of judgments and experience. Design is a process of usage of
creativity with the knowledge of science where we try to get most the best things
available and to overcome the pitfalls the previous deign has. It is an iterative process
to idealism toward with everyone marching still.
Here the preliminary design has been done of cargo aircraft. The basic
requirements are the high endurance, low weight, high accuracy and long range. Here
the most possible considerations have been taken. The flight parameters and
limitations are studied.
This design project also looks at the aspects like improving the aerodynamic
characteristics as well as the payload. The design project has been classified into
different stages in our design will be as follows.
 Collection of comparative data
 Selection of aircraft parameters
 Preliminary weight estimations
 Selection of Power plant
 Airfoil selection, flaps, t/c, etc.
 Wing layout
 Layout of landing gear, loads and tyre selection
 Critical performance parameters
 3 view diagram

13
1.4 VIEWS OF FIGHTER AIRCRAFT
1.4.1 DASSAULT RAFALE

Figure 1.1

The Dassault Rafale is a French Twin-Engine,Canard delta wing,Multi role fighter

aircraft design and built by Dassaut Aviation.

1.4.2 SUKHOI SU-34

Figure 1.2

The Sukhoi Su-37 is a Russian twin-engine, twin sea, all-weather supersonic medium-
range fighter-bomber/strike aircraft.

14
1.4.3 SUKHOI SU-27

Figure 1.3

The Sukhoi Su-27 is a twin-jet super maneuverable fighter aircraft designed by

Sukhoi.

15
 CHAPTER 2

V-n DIAGRAM

2.1INTRODUCTION

Airplanes may be subjected to a variety of loading conditions in flight. The

structural design of the aircraft involves the estimation of the various loads on the
aircraft structure and designing the airframe to carry all these loads, providing enough
safety factors, considering the fact that the aircraft under design is a commercial
transport airplane. As it isobviously impossible to investigate every loading condition
that the aircraft may encounter, it becomes necessary to select a few conditions such
that eachone of these conditions will be critical for some structural member of the
airplane.

2.2 VELOCITY –LOAD FACTOR (V-N) DIAGRAM

The control of weight in aircraft design is of extreme importance. Increases in

weight require stronger structures to support them, which in turn lead to further
increases in weight and so on. Excesses of structural weight mean lesser amounts of
payload, thereby affecting the economic viability of the aircraft. However, to ensure
general minimum standards of strength and safety, airworthiness regulations
(Av.P.970 and BCAR) lay down several factors which the primary structure of the
aircraft must satisfy.

The basic strength and fight performance limits for a particular aircraft are selected
by the airworthiness authorities and are contained in the flight enveloper-n diagram.

Lift = n W = ½ ρ v2 SCL max

16
2.3 MANEUVERING LOADS

The greatest air loads on an aircraft usually comes from the generation of lift
during high-g maneuvers. Even the fuselage is almost always structurally sized by the
lift of the wings rather than by the pressures produced directly on the fuselage.
Aircraft load factor (n) expresses the maneuvering of an aircraft as a standard
acceleration due to gravity.

2.3.1SYMMETRIC MANEUVER LOAD

These will occur when the aircraft’s pilot (or the autopilot) operates the
longitudinal control surface (e.g. the elevator or canard to cause aircraft to pitch nose-
up or nose-down. This action may result in two distinct forms of acceleration:

 Translational, which may be either longitudinal or normal to the flight path

 Rotational
Normal Load Factor

The loads due to symmetric maneuvers are most commonly analyzed. through use of
the definition of a normal load factor(n), whereby:

n= Lift (L)/Weight (W)

The load factor is more properly defined as the component of aerodynamic force
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis divided by the aircraft weight.

2.4 IMPORTANT VELOCITIES

The main velocities that r plotted in the V-n diagram are:

•1 – g Stall Velocity

•Design Maneuvering Velocity

•Design Cruise Velocity

•Design Dive Velocity

17
Design stall speed (Vs)

CN max = 1.1 CL max

=1.1 * (1.2)

CN max = 1.32

Vs= (2w/ρ CN max)1/2

= 407.67

Design limit load factor [ƞ lim positive &negative ]

Ƞlim= 0.4 ƞ limpositive

= 0.4 * (2.822)

= 1.1288

Ƞlimpositive = 2.1+ 26000 / w+10000

= 2.1 +26000 /26000 + 10000

= 2.822

Design cruising speed (v c)

V c = k c√𝑤/𝑠

= 33 (26000 /15)

= 91.59

Design maneuvering speed (v A)

V A = v s √ƞ lim positive

= 14.852 √2.822

= 23.92

18
Design Diving speed (V D)

V D =1.4 V C

= 1.4 * (91.59)

= 128.26

Load factor (ƞ)

Ƞ=L/W

=1/2 ρ v2 S C L max / W

= ½ (0.413*3502*15*1.5)/26000

= 21.89

To find different ƞ values

(1) . If V S = 407.67, then

Ƞ = 1/2 * (0.413*(407.672)*15*1.57)/26000 = 31.08

(2) . If VC = 91.59, then

Ƞ =1/2*(0.413*(91.592)*15*1.57)/26000 =155

(3) . If VA =23.92, then

Ƞ =1/2 *(0.413*(23.922)*15*1.57)/26000 =0.107

(4). If VD = 128.26, then

= 1/2*(0.413*(128.262)*15*1.57)/26000 =3.07

19
V-n Diagram

Figure 2.1

20
 CHAPTER 3

GUST AND MANEUVERABILITY ENVELOPES

Gust envelope of an aircraft refers to the capabilities of a design in terms of

airspeed and load factor or altitude. The term is somewhat loosely applied, and can
also refer to other measurements such as maneuverability. When a plane is pushed, for
instance by diving it at high speeds, it is said to be flown "outside the envelope",
something considered rather dangerous.

CALCULATION

The gust V-n diagram is given by the following formulae

a) Aircraft maximum weight at sea level

𝐾𝑔𝑉𝑔𝑉𝑐𝜌𝛼𝑆
n = 1+
2𝑊

0.88µ𝑔
where Kg =
5.3+µ𝑔

2𝑚
µg =
𝜌𝐶𝑎𝑆

𝑆 𝑏2
Ca = , where AR =
𝑏 𝑆

b =√(𝐴𝑅. 𝑆)

= √9.16 × 15 = 11.72

15
Ca = = 1.27
11.72

𝑊 26000
m= = = 2647.65
9.82 9.82

2×2647.65
µg = = 673.04
0.413×1.27×15

0.88×673.04
Kg = = 0.873
5.3+673.04

α = 20 , ρ =0.413

21
 If 𝜌 = 0.413,

𝐾𝑔𝑉𝑔𝑉𝑐𝜌𝛼𝑆
n = 1+
2𝑊

Vg = ±15m/sec for Vc= 91.59

0.833×15×91.59×0.413×20×15
n = 1+ = ±1.181
2×26000

Vg = ±7.5m/sec for VD = 70.572

0.833×7.5×128.26×0.413×20×15
n = 1+ = ±2.902
2×26000

b) Aircraft maximum weight at 10,000 ft

𝐾𝑔VgVcραS
n = 1+
2𝑊

Vg = ±15m/sec forVc = 50.408

If ρ= 0.9
0.833×15×91.59×0.9×20×15
n = 1+ = ±6.94
2×26000

Vg = ±7.5m/sec for VD = 128.26

0.833×7.5×128.26×0.9×20×15
n = 1+ = ±5.160
2×26000

Gust V-n Diagram

Figure 3.1

CHAPTER 4

22
 CRITICAL LOADING PERFORMANCE

The greatest air loads on an aircraft usually comes from the generation of lift
during high-g maneuvers. Even the fuselage is almost always structurally sized by the
lift of the wings rather than by the pressures produced directly on the fuselage.
Aircraft load factor (n) expresses the maneuvering of an aircraft as a standard
acceleration due to gravity.

At lower speeds the highest load factor of an aircraft may experience islimited by the
maximum lift available. At higher speeds the maximum loadfactor is limited to some
arbitrary value based upon the expected use of theaircraft. The maximum lift load
factor equals 1.0 at levels flight stall speed.

CALCULATION

The load factor for different maneuvers found out and load factor during critical
performance like minimum turning radius, pull up etc., to be found.

For Minimum Turning Radius,

𝑊
4𝐾
𝑆
Rmin = 2
𝑔𝑒 √1−4𝐾 𝐶𝐷𝑜 (𝑇 |𝑊 )
𝑇
𝑊

1
Where, K = , e = 0.81, AR = 9.16
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅

1
K=
𝜋×0.81×9.16

K = 0.0429

𝑊 26000
= = 650
𝑆 15

𝑇
= 0.97
𝑊

1
L = 𝜌v2SCL
2

1
1584 = × 0.413 ×6502×15×CL
2

23
 1584×2
CL = = 1.21×10-3
0.413×650×650×15

1
D = ρv2SCD
2

1
3069 = ×0.413× 6502×15×CD
2

3069×2
CD = = 2.34×10-3
0.413×650×650×15

4×0.0429×650
Rmin =
9.81×0.81×0.96√1−4×0.0429×2.34^−3×0.97^2

Rmin = 14.62

For Pull up maneuver,

Figure 4.1

Load factor can be found from,

𝑉^2
R=
𝑔(𝑛−1)

650^2
R= = 14964
9.81(3.878−1)

24
For Pull down maneuver,

Figure 4.2

Load factor can be found from,

𝑉^2
R=
𝑔(𝑛+1)

650^2
R= = 8829
9.81(3.878+1)

For Rate of Glide,

𝑅⁄ = 1𝑊 × 𝐶𝐷
𝑆 √ 𝜌𝑆 (𝐶𝐿 +𝐶𝐷 2 )1 /2
2
2

0.00234
= 91.61× = 634.83
0.0643

SL.N0 MANEUVERS LOAD FACTOR (n)

1 Minimum Turning Radius 14.62

2 Pull up 14964

3 Pull down 8829

4 Rate of Glide 634.83

Table: 4.1

25
 CHAPTER 5

STRUCTURAL DESIGN STUDY THEORY APPROACH

5.1 STRUCTURAL LAYOUT OF WING

5.1.1 Specific Roles of Wing (Mainwing) Structure:

The specified structural roles of the wing (or main plane) are:

 To transmit: wing lift to the root via the main span wise beam
1. Inertia loads from the power plants, undercarriage, etc., to the mainbeam.
2. Aerodynamic loads generated on the aerofoil, control surfaces & flapsto
the main beam.
 To react against:
1. Landing loads at attachment points
2. Loads from pylons/stores
3. Wing drag and thrust loads
 To provide
1. Fuel tank age space
2. Torsional rigidity to satisfy stiffness and aero-elastic requirements.
 To fulfill these specific roles, a wing layout will conventionally compromise:
1. Span wise members (known as spars or booms)
2. Chord wise members(ribs)
3. A covering skin
4. Stringers

5.2 Basic Functions of Wing Structural Members

The structural functions of each of these types of members may be considered

independently as:

5.2.1 SPARS

Form the main span wise beam

Transmit bending and torsion loads

26
In particular:

• Webs – resist shear and torsion loads and help to stabilize the skin.

• Flanges - resist the compressive loads caused by wing bending.

5.2.2 SKIN

 To form impermeable aerodynamics surface

 Transmit aerodynamic forces to ribs & stringers
 Resist shear torsion loads (with spar webs).
 React axial bending loads (with stringers).
5.2.3 STRINGERS

 Increase skin panel buckling strength by dividing into smaller length sections.
 React axial bending loads
5.2.4 RIBS

 Maintain the aerodynamic shape

 Act along with the skin to resist the distributed aerodynamic pressure loads
 Distribute concentrated loads into the structure & redistribute stress around any
discontinuities
 Increase the column buckling strength of the stringers through end restraint
 Increase the skin panel buckling strength.
Structure Of Wing

Figure 5.1

27
5.3FUSELAGE STRUCTURAL LAYOUT

The fuselage is the main structure, or body, of the aircraft. It provides space for
personnel, cargo, controls, and most of the accessories. The powerplant, wings,
stabilizers, and landing gear are attached to it.

There are two general types of fuselage construction—welded steel truss and
monocoque designs. The welded steel truss was used in smaller Navy aircraft, and it is
still being used in some helicopters.The monocoque design relies largely on the
strength of the skin, or covering, to carry various loads. The monocoque design may
be divided intothree classes- monocoque, semimonocoque and reinforced shell.

Figure 5.2

 The true mono-coque construction uses formers, frame assemblies, and

bulkheads to give shape to the fuselage. However, the skin carries the primary
stresses. Since no bracing members are present, the skin must be strong
enough to keep the fuselage rigid. The biggest problem in mono-coque
construction is maintaining enough strength while keeping the weight within
limits.
The reinforced shell has the skin reinforced by a complete framework of structural
members.

28
Different portions of the same fuselage may belong to any one of the three classes.
Most are considered to be of semi-mono-coque type construction.

The semimonocoque fuselage is constructed primarily of aluminum alloy ,although

steel and titanium are found in high-temperature areas. Primary bending loads are
taken by the longerons, which usually extend across several points of support. The
longerons are supplemented by other longitudinal members known as stringers.
Stringers are more numerous and lightweight than longerons. The vertical structural
members are referred to as bulkheads, frames, and formers.

There are a number of advantages in using the semimonocoque fuselage.

 The bulkhead, frames, stringers, and longerons aid in the design and
construction of a streamlined fuselage. They add to the strength and rigidity of
the structure.
 The main advantage of the semimonocoque construction is that it depends on
many structural members for strength and rigidity. Because of it stressed skin
construction, a semimonocoque fuselage can with stand damage and still be
strong enough to hold together.

29
 CHAPTER 6

LOAD ESTIMATION OF WINGS

6.1 AIR LOADS ON WING

With the V-n diagram complete, the actual loads and load distribution on the wing
can be determined. Before the actual structural members can be sized and analyzed,
the loads they will sustain must be determined. Aircraft loads estimation, a separate
discipline of aerospace engineering, combines aerodynamics, structures and weights.
Initially we have to calculate the lift produced by the wings. Once the lift on the wings
is known, the span-wise and chord-wise load distributions can be determined.

According to classical wing theory, the span wise lift or load distribution is
proportional to the circulation at each station. A vortex lifting –line calculation will
yield the span-wise lift distribution. For an elliptical plan form wing, the lift and load
distributions is of elliptical shape.

Air load on wing

Figure 6.1

To find the lift distribution in aircraft wing, the following procedure is followed:

1) Plan-form shape wing is plotted.

2) Elliptic distribution is drawn using the formula

30
CALCULATIONS

We know,

Πab/4 = Plan form area /2

Where ,

a = 5.5

b = (4*15)/π*2*5.5

= 1.736

To construct the ellipse,

𝑥2
Y = √(𝑏2 (1 − ))
𝑎2

Using the above equation, for various values of x, the values of y are found and the
ellipse is drawn

SPANWISE CHORDWISE
(m)
(m)

0 1.732

3 1.664

6 1.451

9 0.995

11 0

Table: 6.1

31
SCHRENK’S GRAPH

Y-Values
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1 Y-Values
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Fig: 6.2

The load intensity at each grid point on the wing plan-form is calculated as follows.

Area under the curve = (2/3)b*c

= (2/3) * 1.7 *11

= 12.46 m2

Load intensity at root = (W/2) (Y0 )/( Area under the curve )

= (3500/2)(1.732)/12.46

= 243.25 N/m

Where is the lift distribution at the root

Load at any location ‘n’ = Load Intensity at root ×

Where is the lift distribution at the corresponding grid point.

Lift on each element is calculated using the following formula and a graph is plotted
between lift on element and wing span.

Lift on element = Load intensity at grid point * Distance between two grid points
32
 𝒃/𝟐
Structural load of the wing, W WING= ∫𝟎 𝑲𝑪x 2 dx

Cx = A + Bx where is the chord at each station

At x = 0, Cx = cr = 2.34 m

At x = ,Cx =ctip = 0.58 m

Using the above conditions, we get,

A = 2.34; B = -0.16

Cx = 2.34-0.16x

To find the value of K, first the total structural weight of the wing is taken as

WING LOAD.

Wwing=C1C2C3WdgC4nC5swC6AC7(t/c)C8(C9+λ)C10(C0SA)C11SfC12Qc13WfwC14

A being the aspect ratio of the wing

n being the load factor

q being the dynamic pressure

Sw being the planform area of the main wing

Sf being the planform area of flapped portion of the main wing

t/c being the max.thickness-to-chord ratio of the wing

Wdg being the design gross weight

Wfw being the weight of fuel stored in the wing

A being the sweep angle of the max.thickness

λ being the taper ratio

33
Type C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 C10 C11 C12 C13 C
14

Fighter 0.010 Kdw Kvs 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.7 -0.4 1.0 0.050 -1.0 0.0 0 0
3 2 8 4

Type C1 C C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 C10 C11 C12 C13 C14

2

Genavi 0.0 1 1 0.490 0.4 0.785 0.6 -0.3 0 0.004 - 0 0.0 0.00
ation 09 90 0.9 06 35
0

Table: 6.2

WWING = 0.0051*1*1*3500*0.557*3.88*0.557*15*0.649*7*0.5*0.0109*-0.4*

(1+0.25)*0.1*COS23*-1*0.06*0.10*97.22*1389.5

= 297.695 N

𝒃/𝟐
W WING= ∫𝟎 𝑲𝑪x 2 dx

On solving the above equation, we get K = 6.31

Using the above value of K, the wing structural loads at other locations

are calculated and tabulated.

34
 The resultant can be found as the difference between thestructuralloadintensity and lift
load intensity

Span chord Lift load Lift on Structural load Resultant load

intensity element intensity intensity

0 1.73 243.25 17.02 18.88 57.85

3 1.66 233.40 49.01 17.38 31.63

6 1.45 203.88 42.81 13.26 29.55

9 0.99 139.20 64.03 6.18 1.86

11 0 0 0 0 0

Resultant Load Intensity = Structural Load Intensity – Lift Load Inte

Table: 6.4

LIFT LOAD VS SPAN

300
Y-Values
250

200

150

100
Y-Values
50

0
0 5 10 15

Figure 6.3

35
STRUCTURAL LOAD VS SPAN

Y-Values
20

15

10
Y-Values
5

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Figure 6.4

LOAD INTENSITY VS SPAN

Y-Values
70
60
50
40
30
Y-Values
20
10
0
-10 0 5 10 15

Figure 6.5

From the above graphs, it can be inferred that all the three parameters decrease along
the span of the wing.

36
6.2 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM

To determine the shear force and bending moment diagram for the wingwe assume
that the wing is a cantilever beam with the root end fixed while thetail end is free.

For a cantilever beam the shear force is a given by,

Shear Force = Rx

Bending Moment = Rx2/2

Tabulation for the values of shear force and bending moment at various

positions along the span is as follows.

Span (m) Resultant load Shear force (N) Bending moment

intensity (N/m)
(Nm)

0 57.85 636.35 3499.9

3 31.63 253.04 1012.16

6 29.55 147.75 369.37

9 1.85 3.7 3.7

11 0 0 0

Table: 6.5

37
SHEAR FORCE VS SPAN

800 Y-Values
600
400
200
Y-Values
0
0 5 10 15
-200

Figure 6.6

BENDING MOMENT VS SPAN

Fig.13

Y-Values
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
Y-Values
1500
1000
500
0
-500 0 5 10 15

Figure 6.7

38
 CHAPTER 7

LOAD ESTIMATION OF FUSELAGE

Structural analysis of fuselage like that of wing is of prime importanc while ,

designing an aircraft. As the fuselage is the one which houses the pilot ,the power
plant and also part of the payload its structural integrity is a matter of concern. While
analyzing the fuselage structure the section must be idealized.The shear flow analysis
of the fuselage simulating flight conditions is shown below.

Figure 7.1

(a) Actual fuselage section; (b) idealized fuselage section

The stringer used is of Z type. The following are its dimensions Cross sectional area
of each stringer is 100

Cross section of Z-section

Figure 7.2

The above stringer section is uniformly used throughout the fuselage as shown above
in order to provide the fuselage the required load carrying capacity.

39
7.1 STRESS ANALYSIS

IDEALIZATION

The boom 1 is given by

Where

tD = Thickness of skin panel

b = Circumferential distance between 2 stringers

By Symmetry,

B1 = B9, B2= B8, B10= B16, B3= B7,B11= B15, B4= B6= Bl2= B14,B5= B13

The cross section of the spar chosen here is an I-section.

For each spar we are determining the following parameters:

1) Centroid

2) Moment of Inertia

3) Bending Moment

4) Bending Stress

FRONT SPAR

Figure 7.3 Cross Section of Front Spar

40
Front Spar Bending Stress

Bending Stress, _ z = (M x / I xx) y

Figure 7.4 Bending Stress diagram for I-Section

MIDDLE SPAR

Figure 7.5 Cross Section of Middle Spar

41
 CHAPTER 8

BALANCING AND MANEUVERING LOADS ON TAIL PLANE, AILERON,

AND RUDDER LOADS

8.1Maneuvering loads.

Each horizontal surface and its supporting structure, and the main wing of a canard
or tandem wing configuration, if that surface has pitch control, must be designed for
the maneuvering loads imposed by the following conditions:

 A sudden movement of the pitching control, at the speed VA, to the

maximum aft movement, and the maximum forward movement, as limited
by the control stops, or pilot effort, whichever is critical.
 A sudden aft movement of the pitching control at speeds above VA
,followed by a forward movement of the pitching control resulting in the
following combinations of normal and angular acceleration. At speeds up
to VA, the vertical surfaces must be designed to withstand the following
conditions. In computing the loads, the yawing velocity may be assumed to
be zero:
 With the airplane in un-accelerated flight at zero yaw, it is assumed that the
rudder control is suddenly displaced to the maximum deflection, as limited
by the control stops or by limit pilot forces.
 The airplane must be yawed to the largest attainable steady state side slip
angle, with the rudder at maximum deflection caused by any one of the
following:
i. Control surface stops;

ii. Maximum available booster effort;

iii. Maximum pilot rudder force as shown below:

42
The rudder must be suddenly displaced from the maximum deflection to the neutral
position.

 The yaw angles may be reduced if the yaw angle chosen for a particular speed
cannot be exceeded in--
i. Steady slip conditions;

ii. Uncoordinated rolls from steep banks; or

iii. Sudden failure of the critical engine with delayed corrective action.

The ailerons must be designed for the loads to which they are subjected—

 In the neutral position during symmetrical flight conditions; and

 By the following deflections (except as limited by pilot effort), during
unsymmetrical flight conditions:
(a)Symmetric maneuvering conditions:

For the analysis of the maneuvering flight conditions specified in paragraphs (b)
and (c) of this section, the following provisions apply:

 Where sudden displacement of a control is specified, the assumed rate of

control surface displacement may not be less than the rate that could be applied
by the pilot through the control system.
 In determining elevator angles and chord wise load distribution in the
maneuvering conditions, the effect of corresponding pitching velocities must be taken
into account. The in-trim and out-of-trim flight conditions must be considered.

(b)Maneuvering balanced conditions:

Assuming the airplane to be in equilibrium with zero pitching acceleration, the

maneuvering conditions A through I on the maneuvering envelope must be
investigated.

43
(2)Specified control displacement:

A checked maneuver, based on a rational pitching control motion vs. time profile,
must be established in which the design limit load factor will not be exceeded. Unless
lesser values cannot be exceeded, the airplane response must result in pitching
accelerations not less than the following:

 A positive pitching acceleration (nose up) is assumed to be reached

Concurrently with the airplane load factor of 1.0. The positive acceleration
must be equal to at least where the positive load factor at the speed under
consideration is; and V is the airplane equivalent speed in knots.

 A negative pitching acceleration (nose down) is assumed to be reached

concurrently with the positive maneuvering load factor. This negative pitching
acceleration must be equal to at least
8.2Balancing loads

 A horizontal surface balancing load is a load necessary to maintain

equilibrium in any specified flight condition with no pitching acceleration.
 Horizontal balancing surfaces must be designed for the balancing loads
occurring at any point on the limit maneuvering envelope and in the flap
conditions
 It is not require to balance the rudder because it will not deflect due to gravity.
 Aileron will defect in vice versa direction so it is doesn’t require balancing
load.

44
 CHAPTER 9

DESIGN OF SOME COMPONENTS OF WINGS AND FUSELAGE

9.1 DESIGN OF COMPONENTS OF THE WING

9.1.1FUEL TANKS

Aircraft typically use three types of fuel tanks: integral, rigid removable, and bladder.

 Integral tanks are areas inside the aircraft structure that have been sealed to
allow fuel storage. An example of this type is the "wet wing" commonly used
in larger aircraft. Since these tanks are part of the aircraft structure, they cannot
be removed for service or inspection. Inspection panels must be provided to
allow internal inspection, repair, and overall servicing of the tank. Most large
transport aircraft use this system, storing fuel in the wings, belly, and
sometimes tail of the airplane.
 Bladder tanks are reinforced rubberized bags installed in a section of aircraft
structure designed to accommodate the weight of the fuel. The bladder is rolled
up and installed into the compartment through the fuel filler neck or access
panel, and is secured by means of metal buttons or snaps inside the
compartment. One major plus side is the ability to utilise as much of the
aircraft as possible to store fuel.
Integral tanks are areas inside the aircraft structure that have been sea level to allow
fuel storage. An example of this type is the "wet wing" commonly used in larger
aircraft. Since these tanks are part of the aircraft structure, they cannot be removed for
service or inspection. Inspection panels must be provided to allow internal inspection,
repair, and overall servicing of the tank. Most large transport aircraft use this system,
storing fuel in the wings, belly, and sometimes tail of the airplane.

9.1.2RIB LOCATION AND DIRECTION

The span-wise location of ribs is of some consequence. Ideally, the rib spacing
should be determined to ensure adequate overall buckling support to the distributed

45
flanges. In practice other considerations are likely to determine the actual rib locations
such as:

 Hinge positions for control surfaces and attachment/operating points for flaps,
slats, and spoilers.
 Attachment locations of power plants, stores and landing gear structure.
 A need to prevent or postpone skin local shear or compression buckling, as
opposed to overall buckling. This is especially true in a mass boom form of
construction.
9.1.3 FIXED SECONDARY STRUCTURE

A fixed leading edge is often stiffened by a large number of closely pitched ribs,
span-wise members being absent. Providing care is taken in the detail design of the
skin attachment it is possible to arrange for little span-wise end load to be diffused
into the leading edge and buckling of the relatively light structure is avoided.

9.1.4HORIZONTAL STABILISER

When the horizontal stabilizer is constructed as a single component across the

centerline of the aircraft, the basic structural requirements are very similar to those of
a wing.

9.1.5 VERTICAL STABILISER

The vertical stabilizer presents a set of issues which are different from those of the
main plane or horizontal stabilizer. Relevant matters are :It is not unusual to build the
vertical stabilizer integrally with the rear fuselage. The spars are extended to form
fuselage frames or bulkheads. A ‘root’ rib is made to coincide with the upper surface
of the fuselage and is used to transmit the fin root skin shears directly into the fuselage
skin. Fin span-wise bending results in fuselage torsion. The change in direction being
made at the fin root rib.

46
9.1.6 AUXILIARY SURFACES

The structural layout of the auxiliary lifting surfaces is generally similar to that of
the wing but there are differences, in part due to the smaller size and in part due to the
need to provide hinges or supports. The latter implies that each auxiliary surface is a
well-defined.

9.1.7 HINGED CONTROL SURFACES

Conventional training edge control surfaces are almost invariably supported by a

number of discrete hinges, although continuous, piano type, hinges may be used for
secondary tabs. The major points to be considered are:

a) The bending distortion of the control relative to the fixed surface must be limited so
that the nose of the control does mot fouls the fixed shroud.

b) The control hinge loads and the resulting shear forces and bending moments should
be equalized as far as is possible.

9.1.8 HIGH LIFT SYSTEMS

There is a wide variety of leading and trailing edge high-lift systems. Some types
are simply hinged to the wing, but many require some degree of chord-wise extension.
Trailing edge flaps may consist of two or more separate chord-wise segments, or slats,
to give a slotted surface and these often move on tracts attached to the main wing
structure

9.1.9 ATTACHMENT OF LIFTING SURFACES

The joint of the fuselage with the wing is subjected to heavy load inputs andthere
is a potential for considerable relative distortion. This distortion is usually accepted
and the wing center box is built completely into the fuselage, the resulting constraint
stresses being allowed for. It is usual for the wing structure of large aircraft to include
a production joint at the side of the fuselage and this is virtual essential for swept
wings.

47
9.2DESIGN OF COMPONENT OF THE FUSELAGE

9.2.1DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR

We have designed the landing gear characteristics by following a step by

Step method.

1) Landing gear System

We have chosen a Retractable system landing gear which will beretracted in tothe
fuselage after the take off.

2) Landing Gear Configuration

The landing gear configuration we have adapted is the Tri-cycle typewith a nose
wheel in front. From an ease of ground maneuveringviewpoint aswell as ground
looping the nose wheel configuration is preferred.

3) Preliminary landing gear strut disposition

There are two geometric criteria which are required to be considered on deciding the
disposition of landing gear struts are:

A)Tip-over criteria

B)Ground clearance criteria

A) Tip-over Criteria:

a)Longitudinal Tip-over Criterion :

For tricycle gears the main landing gear must be behind the aft CG location. The 15
degree angles shown in the Fig. represents the usual relation between main gear and
the aft CG.

b)Lateral Tip-over Criterion :

The lateral tip-over is dictated by the angle _ in the Fig.

48
 Figure 9.1

4) Number of Wheels
Nose landing gear-1

Main landing gear-2

9.2.1.1 Angles of Pitch and Roll during Takeoff and Landing

The available pitch angle at liftoff and touchdown must be equal, or preferably
exceed, the requirements imposed by performance or flight characteristics. A
geometric limitation to the pitch angle is detrimental to the liftoff speed and hence to
the takeoff field length. Similarly, a geometric limitation to the roll angle could result
in undesirable operational limit undercross-wind landing condition.

9.2.1.2Pitch and Roll Angles during Landing

With the flaps in the fully-deflected position, the critical angle of attack of the wing
during landing is smaller than in takeoff. Consequently, the pitch angle during landing
is generally less than that during takeoff. In the absence of detailed information, the
pitch angle on touchdown (_TD) may be assumed equal to LOF. As for the roll angle
upon touchdown, an upper limit of between five and eight degrees is generally applied
to large transport aircraft.

49
 CHAPTER 10

THREE VIEW DIAGRAM

FRONT VIEW

SIDE VIEW

TOP VIEW

50
THREE VIEWS OF FIGHTER AIRCRAFT

Figure 10.1

51
 CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the series of cargo aircrafts incorporated many unique design of

future that were never seen on an operational aircraft. The design of these aircrafts
points the way for the design of future of very high Mach airplanes.

The airplane has gone through many design modifications since its early
conceptual designs expected, among these was a growth in weight. The document to
provide information on the trends in various aircraft characteristics that may influence
general long-term airport planning and design.

These are strong indications that future trends could see the co-existence of very
high capacity aircraft modules of similar capacities for the longrange very long range
operations. Cargo payloads, which include mail, express and freight, are increasing in
size and weight as larger aircraft service with the airlines,To ensure continued growth
in payload and the profitability of cargo operations, improvements in methods,
equipment and terminal facilities will be required in order to reduce cargo handling
costs and aircraft ground time and to provide improved service for the shippers.

We have enough hard work for this design project. A design never gets completed
in a flutter sense but it is one step further towards ideal system. But during the design
of this aircraft, we learnt a lot about aeronautics and its implications when applied to
an aircraft design.

52
 REFERENCES

1. Introduction to Flight by J.D.Anderson.

2. Aircraft Performance and Design by J.D. Anderson.

3. Design of Aircraft by Thomas.C.Corke.

4. Aircraft Structures by T.H.G.Megson.

5. Aircraft Structures by D.J.Peery

6. Airframe StucturalDesign by Michael Chun-Yung Niu

7.FAA Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge

WEBSITE REFERENCES

1. www.worldofkrauss.com/foils/search?contains=0003

2. www.nasa .gov

3. www.worldaircraftdierctory.com

4. www.airliners.net

5. www.globalsecurity.org

6. www.antonov AN-225 Mriya.com

7. www.passion for aviation.com

8. And other websites related to design of aircrafts.

53