Buyers credit (Buyer's Credit)

Buyer's credit is the credit availed by an Importer (Buyer) from overseas Lenders i.e
Banks and Financial Institutions for payment of his Imports on due date. The overseas
Banks usually lend the Importer (Buyer) based on the letter of Credit (a Bank Guarantee)
issued by the Importers (Buyer's) Bank. In fact the Importers Bank brokers between the
Importer and the Overseas lender for arranging buyers credit by issuing its Letter of
Comfort for a fee.
Buyers credit helps local importers access to cheaper foreign funds close to LIBOR rates
as against local sources of funding which are costly compared to LIBOR rates.

Steps involved in buyer's credit

External Commercial Borrowing with one of the banks abroad with whom the Bank has
tie up. For this, the Bank will provide an undertaking to make payment on the new due
date. Technically, the Bank credit facility provided to the bank extending the pays the
funding Bank. With this, the transaction gets closed.ghghgh

Export International Trade Risk

 Introduction
 Transport Insurance

 Scope of Coverage

 Specialist Covers

 Seller's Buyer's Contingent Interest Insurance

 Loss of Profits/ Consequential Loss Insurance

Introduction
It is quite important to evaluate the transportation risk in international trade for better
financial stability of export business. About 80% of the world major transportation of
goods is carried out by sea, which also gives rise to a number of risk factors associated
with transportation of goods.
The major risk factors related to shipping are cargo, vessels, people and financing. So it
becomes necessary for the government to address all of these risks with broad based
security policy responses, since simply responding to threats in isolation to one another
can be both ineffective and costly.
While handling transportation in international trade following precaution should be taken
into consideration.
 In case of transportation by ship, and the product should be appropriate
for containerization. It is worth promoting standard order values
equivalent to quantities loaded into standard size containers.
 Work must be carried out in compliance with the international code
concerning the transport of dangerous goods.
 For better communication purpose people involve in the handling of
goods should be equipped with phone, fax, email, internet and radio.

1
  About the instructions given to the transport company on freight
forwarder.
 Necessary information about the cargo insurance.
 Each time goods are handled; there risk of damage. Plan for this when
packing for export, and deciding on choice of transport and route.
 The expected sailing dates for marine transport should be built into the
production programme, especially where payments is to be made by
Letter of Credit when documents will needs to be presented within a
specified time frame.
 Choice of transport has Balance Sheet implications. The exporter is likely
to received payments for goods supplied while they are in transit.
 Driver accompanied road transport provides peace of minds, but the
ability to fill the return load will affect pricing.

Transport Insurance

Export and import in international trade, requires transportation of goods over a long
distance. No matter whichever transport has been used in international trade, necessary
insurance is must forever good.
Cargo insurance also known as marine cargo insurance is a type of insurance against
physical damage or loss of goods during transportation. Cargo insurance is effective in
all the three cases whether the goods have been transported via sea, land or air.
Insurance policy is not applicable if the goods have found to be packaged or transported
by any wrong means or methods. So, it is advisable to use a broker for placing cargo
risks.

Scope of Coverage

The following can be covered for the risk of loss or damage:

 Cargo import, export cross voyage dispatched by sea, river, road, rail post,
personal courier, and including associated storage risks.
 Good in transit (inland).
 Freight service liability.
 Associated stock.

However there are still a number of general exclusion such loss by delay, war risk,
improper packaging and insolvency of carrier. Converse for some of these may be
negotiated with the insurance company. The Institute War Clauses may also be added.

Regular exporters may negotiate open cover. It is an umbrella marine insurance policy
that is activated when eligible shipments are made. Individual insurance certificates are
issued after the shipment is made. Some letters of Credit Will require an individual
insurance policy to be issued for the shipment, While others accept an insurance
certificate.

Specialist Covers

Whereas standard marine/transport cover is the answer for general cargo, some classes
of business will have special requirements. General insurer may have developed
specialty teams to cater for the needs of these businesses, and it is worth asking if this

2
cover can be extended to export risks.

Cover may be automatically available for the needs of the trade.

Example of this are:

 Project Constructional works insurers can cover the movement of goods for the
project.
 Fine art
 Precious stones Special Cover can be extended to cover sending of precious
stones.
 Stock through put cover extended beyond the time goods are in transit until when
they are used at the destination.

Seller's Buyer's Contingent Interest Insurance

An exporter selling on, for example FOB (INCOTERMS 2000) delivery terms would
according to the contract and to INCOTERMS, have not responsibility for insurance once
the goods have passed the ship's rail. However, for peace of mind, he may wish to
purchase extra cover, which will cover him for loss or will make up cover where the other
policy is too restrictive . This is known as Seller's Interest Insurance.

Similarly, cover is available to importers/buyers.

Seller's Interest and Buyer's Interest covers usually extended cover to apply if the title in
the goods reverts to the insured party until the goods are recovered resold or returned.

Loss of Profits/ Consequential Loss Insurance

Importers buying goods for a particular event may be interested in consequential loss
cover in case the goods are late (for a reason that id insured) and (expensive)
replacements have to be found to replace them. In such cases, the insurer will pay a
claim and receive may proceeds from the eventual sale of the delayed goods.

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 Chapter 1 - Payment Methods In Export Import

 Clean Payments
- Advance Payment
-Open Account
Payment Collection of Bills in International Trade
-Documents Against Payment D/P
-Documents Against Acceptance D/A
Letter of Credit L/c
-Revocable & Irrevocable Letter of Credit (L/c)
-Sight & Time Letter of Credit
-Confirmed Letter of Credit (L/c)

International Payment Methods: Clean Payments, Advance Payment, and Open Account
Payment, Collection of Bills in International in Export Trade.

There are 3 standard ways of payment methods in the export import trade international
trade market:
1. Clean Payment
2. Collection of Bills
3. Letters of Credit L/c

1. Clean Payments
In clean payment method, all shipping documents, including title documents are handled
directly between trading partners. The role of banks is limited to clearing amounts as
required. Clean payment method relatively cheap and uncomplicated method of
payment for both importers and exporters.
There are basically two type of clean payments:

Advance Payment
In advance payment method the exporter is trusted to ship the goods after receiving
payment from the
Importer.

Open Account
In open account method the importer is trusted to pay the exporter after receipt of goods.
The main drawback of open account method is that exporter assumes all the risks while
the importer get the advantage over the delay use of company's cash resources and is
also not responsible for the risk associated with goods.

2. Payment Collection of Bills in International Trade

The Payment Collection of Bills also called “Uniform Rules for Collections ” is published
by International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) under the document number 522
(URC522) and is followed by more than the world's banks.
In this method of payment in international trade the exporter entrusts the handling of
commercial and often financial documents to banks and gives the banks necessary
instructions concerning the release of documents to the Importer. It is considered to be

4
one of the cost effective methods of evidencing a transaction for buyers, where
documents are manipulated via the banking system.

There are two methods of collections of bill:

Documents Against Payment D/P

In this case documents are released to the importer only when the payment has been
done.

Documents Against Acceptance D/A

In this case documents are released to the importer only against acceptance of a draft.

3. Letter of Credit L/c

Letter of Credit also known as Documentary Credit is a written undertaking by the
importers bank known as the issuing bank on behalf of its customer, the importer
(applicant), promising to effect payment in the exporter (beneficiary) up to a stated sum
of money, within a prescribed time limit and against stipulated documents. It is published
by, the International Chamber of Commerce under the provision of Uniform and
Practices (UCP) brochure number 500. Various types of L/Cs are:

Revocable & Irrevocable Letter of Credit (L/c)

A Revocable Letter of Credit can be cancelled without the consent of the exporter. An
Irrevocable Letter of Credit cannot be cancelled or amended without the consent of all
parties including the exporter.

Sight & Time Letter of Credit

If payment is to be made at the time of presenting the document then it is referred as the
Sight Letter of Credit. In this case banks are allowed to take the necessary time required
to check the documents.
If payment is to be made after the lapse of a particular time period as stated in the draft
then it is referred as the Term Letter of Credit.

Confirmed Letter of Credit (L/c)

Under a Confirmed Letter of Credit, a bank, called the Confirming Bank, adds its
commitment to that of the issuing bank. By adding its commitment, the Confirming Bank
takes the responsibility of claim of credit, assuming all terms and conditions of the letter
of credit are met.

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 Chapter 2 - Payment Collection Against Bills

 Introduction
 Role of Various Parties

o Exporter

o Exporter's Bank

o Buyer/Importer

o Importer’s Bank

 Documents Against Payments (D/P)

 Documents Against Acceptance (D/A)

 Usance D/P Bills

Introduction

Payment Collection Against Bills also known documentary collection as is a payment

method used in international trade all over the world by the exporter for the handling of
documents to the buyer's bank and also gives the banks necessary instructions
indicating when and on what conditions these documents can be released to the
importer.
Collection Against Bills is published by International Chambers of Commerce (ICC),
Paris, France. The last updated issue of its rule was published on January 1, 1966 and
is know as the URC 522.
It is different from the letters of credit, in the sense that the bank only acts as a medium
for the transfer of documents but does not make any payment guarantee. However,
collection of documents is subjected to the Uniform Rules for Collections published by
the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC).

Role of Various Parties

Exporter

The seller ships the goods and then hands over the document related to the goods to
their banks with the instruction on how and when the buyer would pay.

Exporter's Bank

The exporter's bank is known as the remitting bank, and they remit the bill for collection
with proper instructions. The role of the remitting bank is to:
 Check that the documents for consistency.
 Send the documents to a bank in the buyer's country with instructions on
collecting payment.
 Pay the exporter when it receives payments from the collecting bank.

6
Buyer/Importer

The buyer / importer is the Drawee of the Bill.

The role of the importer is to :
 Pay the bill as mention in the agreement (or promise to pay later).
 Take the shipping documents (unless it is a clean bill) and clear the goods.

Importer's Bank

This is a bank in the importer's country: usually a branch or correspondent bank of the
remitting bank but any other bank can also be used on the request of exporter.

The collecting bank act as the remitting bank's agent and clearly follows the instructions
on the remitting bank's covering schedule. However the collecting bank does not
guarantee payment of the bills except in very unusual circumstance for undoubted
customer, which is called availing.

Importer's bank is known as the collecting / presenting bank. The role of the collecting
banks is to:
 Act as the remitting bank's agent
 Present the bill to the buyer for payment or acceptance.
 Release the documents to the buyer when the exporter's instructions have been
followed.
 Remit the proceeds of the bill according to the Remitting Bank's schedule
instructions.

If the bill is unpaid / unaccepted, the collecting bank:

 May arrange storage and insurance for the goods as per remitting bank
instructions on the schedule.
 Protests on behalf of the remitting bank (if the Remitting Bank's schedule states
Protest)
 Requests further instruction from the remitting bank, if there is a problem that is
not covered by the instructions in the schedule.
 Once payment is received from the importer, the collecting bank remits the
proceeds promptly to the remitting bank less its charges.

Documents Against Payments (D/P)

This is sometimes also referred as Cash against Documents/Cash on Delivery. In effect

D/P means payable at sight (on demand). The collecting bank hands over the shipping
documents including the document of title (bill of lading) only when the importer has paid
the bill. The Drawee is usually expected to pay within 3 working days of presentation.
The attached instructions to the shipping documents would show "Release Documents
Against Payment"

Risks:

Under D/P terms the exporter keeps control of the goods (through the banks) until the
importer pays. If the importer refuses to pay, the exporter can:

7
  Protest the bill and take him to court (may be expensive and difficult to control
from another country).
 Find another buyer or arrange a sale by an auction.

With the last two choices, the price obtained may be lower but probably still better than
shipping the goods back, sometimes, the exporter will have a contact or agent in the
importer's country that can help with any arrangements. In such a situation, an agent is
often referred to as a Case of Need, means someone who can be contacted in case of
need by the collecting bank.

If the importers refuse to pay, the collecting bank can act on the exporter's instructions
shown in the Remitting Bank schedule. These instructions may include:
 Removal of the goods from the port to a warehouse and insure them.
 Contact the case of need who may negotiate with the importer.
 Protesting the bill through the bank's lawyer.

Documents Against Acceptance (D/A)

Under Documents Against Acceptance, the Exporter allows credit to Importer, the period
of credit is referred to as Usance, The importer/ drawee is required to accept the bill to
make a signed promise to pay the bill at a set date in the future. When he has signed the
bill in acceptance, he can take the documents and clear his goods.

The payment date is calculated from the term of the bill, which is usually a multiple of 30
days and start either from sight or form the date of shipment, whichever is stated on the
bill of exchange. The attached instruction would show "Release Documents Against
Acceptance".

Risk

Under D/A terms the importer can inspect the documents and , if he is satisfied, accept
the bill for payment o the due date, take the documents and clear the goods; the
exporter loses control of them.
The exporter runs various risk. The importer might refuse to pay on the due date
because:
 He finds that the goods are not what he ordered.
 He has not been able to sell the goods.
 He is prepared to cheat the exporter (In cases the exporter can protest the bill
and take the importer to court but this can be expensive).
 The importer might have gone bankrupt, in which case the exporter will probably
never get his money.

Usance D/P Bills

 A Usance D/P Bill is an agreement where the buyer accepts the bill payable at a
specified date in future but does not receive the documents until he has actually
paid for them. The reason is that airmailed documents may arrive much earlier
than the goods shipped by sea.

The buyer is not responsible to pay the bill before its due date, but he may want

8
 to do so, if the ship arrives before that date. This mode of payments is less usual,
but offers more settlement possibility.

These are still D/P terms so there is no extra risk to the exporter or his bank. As
an alternative the covering scheduled may simply allow acceptance or payments
to be deferred awaiting arrival of carrying vessel.

There are different types of usance D/P bills, some of which do not require
acceptance specially those drawn payable at a fix period after date or drawn
payable at a fixed date.
Bills requiring acceptance are those drawn at a fix period after sight, which is
necessary to establish the maturity date. If there are problems regarding storage
of goods under a usance D/P bill, the collecting bank should notify the remitting
bank without delay for instructions.

However, it should be noted that it is not necessary for the collecting bank to
follow each and every instructions given by the Remitting Banks.

9
 Chapter 3 - Letter Of Credit (L/c)
 Introduction
 Parties to Letters of Credit

 Types of Letter of Credit

 Standby Letter of Credit L/c

 Import Operations Under L/c

 Export Operations Under L/c

 Fees And Reimbursements

 Regulatory Requirements

 Trade Control Requirements

 Exchange Control Requirements

 UCPDC Guidelines

 ISBP 2002

 FEDAI Guidelines

 Fixing limits for Commercial Stand by Letter of Credit L/c

Introduction

Letter of Credit L/c also known as Documentary Credit is a widely used term to make
payment secure in domestic and international trade. The document is issued by a
financial organization at the buyer request. Buyer also provide the necessary instructions
in preparing the document.
The International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) in the Uniform Custom and Practice for
Documentary Credit (UCPDC) defines L/C as:
"An arrangement, however named or described, whereby a bank (the Issuing bank)
acting at the request and on the instructions of a customer (the Applicant) or on its own
behalf:
1. Is to make a payment to or to the order third party (the beneficiary) or is to accept
bills of exchange (drafts) drawn by the beneficiary.
2. Authorized another bank to effect such payments or to accept and pay such bills
of exchange (draft).
3. Authorized another bank to negotiate against stipulated documents provided that
the terms are complied with.

A key principle underlying letter of credit (L/C) is that banks deal only in documents and
not in goods. The decision to pay under a letter of credit will be based entirely on

10
whether the documents presented to the bank appear on their face to be in accordance
with the terms and conditions of the letter of credit.

Parties to Letters of Credit

 Applicant (Opener): Applicant, which is also referred to, as account party is

normally a buyer or customer of the goods, who has to make payment to
beneficiary. LC is initiated and issued at his request and on the basis of his
instructions.

 Issuing Bank (Opening Bank): The issuing bank is the one, which create a
letter of credit, and takes the responsibility to make the payments on receipt of
the documents from the beneficiary or through their banker. The payments has to
be made to the beneficiary within seven working days from the date of receipt of
documents at their end, provided the documents are in accordance with the
terms and conditions of the letter of credit. If the documents are discrepant one,
the rejection thereof to be communicated within seven working days from the
date of receipt of documents at their end.
 Beneficiary: Beneficiary is normally stands for a seller of the goods, who has to
receive payment from the applicant. A credit is issued in his favour to enable him
or his agent to obtain payment on surrender of stipulated document and comply
with the term and conditions of the L/c.
If L/c is a transferable one and he transfers the credit to another party, then he is
referred to as the first or original beneficiary.
 Advising Bank: An Advising Bank provides advice to the beneficiary and takes
the responsibility for sending the documents to the issuing bank and is normally
located in the country of the beneficiary.
 Confirming Bank: Confirming bank adds its guarantee to the credit opened by
another bank, thereby undertaking the responsibility of payment/negotiation
acceptance under the credit, in additional to that of the issuing bank. Confirming
bank play an important role where the exporter is not satisfied with the
undertaking of only the issuing bank.
 Negotiating Bank: The Negotiating Bank is the bank that negotiates the
documents submitted to them by the beneficiary under the credit either advised
through them or restricted to them for negotiation. On negotiation of the
documents they will claim the reimbursement under the credit and makes the
payment to the beneficiary provided the documents submitted are in accordance
with the terms and conditions of the letters of credit.
 Reimbursing Bank: Reimbursing Bank is the bank authorized to honor the
reimbursement claim in settlement of negotiation/acceptance/payment lodged
with it by the negotiating bank. It is normally the bank with which issuing bank
has an account from which payment has to be made.
 Second Beneficiary: Second Beneficiary is the person who represents the first
or original Beneficiary of credit in his absence. In this case, the credits belonging
to the original beneficiary is transferable. The rights of the transferee are subject
to terms of transfer.

Types of Letter of Credit

1. Revocable Letter of Credit L/c

11
A revocable letter of credit may be revoked or modified for any reason, at any time by
the issuing bank without notification. It is rarely used in international trade and not
considered satisfactory for the exporters but have an advantage over that of the
importers and the issuing bank.

There is no provision for confirming revocable credits, as per terms of UCPDC. Hence
they cannot be confirmed. It should be indicated in LC that the credit is revocable. If
there is no such indication the credit will be deemed as irrevocable.

2. Irrevocable Letter of Credit L/c

In this case it is not possible to revoke or amended a credit without the agreement of the
issuing bank, the confirming bank, and the beneficiary. Form an exporters point of view
it is believed to be more beneficial. An irrevocable letter of credit from the issuing bank
insures the beneficiary that if the required documents are presented and the terms and
conditions are complied with, payment will be made.

3. Confirmed Letter of Credit L/c

Confirmed Letter of Credit is a special type of L/c in which another bank apart from the
issuing bank has added its guarantee. Although, the cost of confirming by two banks
makes it costlier, this type of L/c is more beneficial for the beneficiary as it doubles the
guarantee.

4. Sight Credit and Usance Credit L/c

Sight credit states that the payments would be made by the issuing bank at sight, on
demand or on presentation. In case of usance credit, draft is drawn on the issuing bank
or the correspondent bank at specified usance period. The credit will indicate whether
the usance draft are to be drawn on the issuing bank or in the case of confirmed credit
on the confirming bank.

5. Back to Back Letter of Credit L/c

Back-to-Back Letter of Credit is also termed as Countervailing Credit. A credit is known

as back-to-back credit when a L/c is opened with security of another L/c.
A back-to-back credit which can also be referred as credit and counter credit is actually a
method of financing both sides of a transaction in which a middleman buys goods from
one customer and sells them to another.
The parties to a back-to-back Letter of Credit are:
1. The buyer and his bank as the issuer of the original Letter of Credit.
2. The seller/manufacturer and his bank,
3. The manufacturer, subcontractor and his bank.
The practical use of this Credit is seen when L/c is opened by the ultimate buyer in
favour of a particular beneficiary, who may not be the actual supplier/ manufacturer
offering the main credit with near identical terms in favour as security and will be able to
obtain reimbursement by presenting the documents received under back to back credit
under the main L/c.

12
The need for such credits arise mainly when:
1. The ultimate buyer not ready for a transferable credit
2. The Beneficiary do not want to disclose the source of supply to the openers.
3. The manufacturer demands on payment against documents for goods but the
beneficiary of credit is short of the funds

6. Transferable Letter of Credit L/c

A transferable documentary credit is a type of credit under which the first beneficiary,
which is usually a middleman may request the nominated bank to transfer credit in whole
or in part to the second beneficiary.

The L/c does state clearly mentions the margins of the first beneficiary and unless it is
specified the L/c cannot be treated as transferable. It can only be used when the
company is selling the product of a third party and the proper care has to be taken about
the exit policy for the money transactions that take place.

This type of L/c is used in the companies that act as a middleman during the transaction
but don’t have large limit. In the transferable L/c there is a right to substitute the invoice
and the whole value can be transferred to a second beneficiary.

The first beneficiary or middleman has rights to change the following terms and
conditions of the letter of credit:
1. Reduce the amount of the credit.
2. Reduce unit price if it is stated
3. Make shorter the expiry date of the letter of credit.
4. Make shorter the last date for presentation of documents.
5. Make shorter the period for shipment of goods.
6. Increase the amount of the cover or percentage for which insurance cover must
be effected.
7. Substitute the name of the applicant (the middleman) for that of the first
beneficiary (the buyer).

Standby Letter of Credit L/c

Initially used by the banks in the United States, the standby letter of credit is very much
similar in nature to a bank guarantee. The main objective of issuing such a credit is to
secure bank loans. Standby credits are usually issued by the applicant’s bank in the
applicant’s country and advised to the beneficiary by a bank in the beneficiary’s country.
Unlike a traditional letter of credit where the beneficiary obtains payment against
documents evidencing performance, the standby letter of credit allow a beneficiary to
obtains payment from a bank even when the applicant for the credit has failed to perform
as per bond.

A standby letter of credit is subject to "Uniform Customs and Practice for Documentary
Credit" (UCP), International Chamber of Commerce Publication No 500, 1993 Revision,
or "International Standby Practices" (ISP), International Chamber of Commerce
Publication No 590, 1998.

13
Import Operations Under L/c

The Import Letter of Credit guarantees an exporter payment for goods or services,
provided the terms of the letter of credit have been met.
A bank issue an import letter of credit on the behalf of an importer or buyer under the
following Circumstances
 When a importer is importing goods within its own country.
 When a trader is buying good from his own country and sell it to the another
country for the purpose of merchandizing trade.
 When an Indian exporter who is executing a contract outside his own country
requires importing goods from a third country to the country where he is
executing the contract.

The first category of the most common in the day-to-day banking

Fees And Reimbursements

The different charges/fees payable under import L/c is briefly as follows

1. The issuing bank charges the applicant fees for opening the letter of credit. The fee
charged depends on the credit of the applicant, and primarily comprises of :

(a) Opening Charges This would comprise commitment charges and usance charged
to be charged upfront for the period of the L/c.
The fee charged by the L/c opening bank during the commitment period is referred to as
commitment fees. Commitment period is the period from the opening of the letter of
credit until the last date of negotiation of documents under the L/c or the expiry of the
L/c, whichever is later.

Usance is the credit period agreed between the buyer and the seller under the letter of
credit. This may vary from 7 days usance (sight) to 90/180 days. The fee charged by
bank for the usance period is referred to as usance charges

(b) Retirement Charges

1. This would be payable at the time of retirement of LC’s. LC opening bank scrutinizes
the bills under the LC’s according to UCPDC guidelines, and levies charges based on
value of goods.

2. The advising bank charges an advising fee to the beneficiary unless stated otherwise
The fees could vary depending on the country of the beneficiary. The advising bank
charges may be eventually borne by the issuing bank or reimbursed from the applicant.

3. The applicant is bounded and liable to indemnify banks against all obligations and
responsibilities imposed by foreign laws and usage.

4. The confirming bank's fee depends on the credit of the issuing bank and would be
borne by the beneficiary or the issuing bank (applicant eventually) depending on the
terms of contract.

5. The reimbursing bank charges are to the account of the issuing bank.

14
Risk Associated with Opening Imports L/cs

The basic risk associated with an issuing bank while opening an import L/c are:
1. The financial standing of the importer
As the bank is responsible to pay the money on the behalf of the importer;
thereby the bank should make sure that it has the proper funds to pay.
2. The goods
Bankers need to do a detail analysis against the risks associated with
perishability of the goods, possible obsolescence, import regulations packing and
storage, etc. Price risk is the another crucial factor associated with all modes of
international trade.
3. Exporter Risk
There is always the risk of exporting inferior quality goods. Banks need to be
protective by finding out as much possible about the exporter using status report
and other confidential information.
4. Country Risk
These types of risks are mainly associated with the political and economic
scenario of a country. To solve this issue, most banks have specialized unit which
control the level of exposure that that the bank will assumes for each country.
5. Foreign exchange risk
Foreign exchange risk is another most sensitive risk associated with the banks.
As the transaction is done in foreign currency, the traders depend a lot on
exchange rate fluctuations.

Export Operations Under L/c

Export Letter of Credit is issued in for a trader for his native country for the purchase of
goods and services. Such letters of credit may be received for following purpose:
1. For physical export of goods and services from India to a Foreign Country.
2. For execution of projects outside India by Indian exporters by supply of goods
and services from Indian or partly from India and partly from outside India.
3. Towards deemed exports where there is no physical movements of goods from
outside India But the supplies are being made to a project financed in foreign
exchange by multilateral agencies, organization or project being executed in
India with the aid of external agencies.
4. For sale of goods by Indian exporters with total procurement and supply from
outside India. In all the above cases there would be earning of Foreign Exchange
or conservation of Foreign Exchange.

Banks in India associated themselves with the export letters of credit in various
capacities such as advising bank, confirming bank, transferring bank and reimbursing
bank.

In every case the bank will be rendering services not only to the Issuing Bank as its
agent correspondent bank but also to the exporter in advising and financing his export
activity.

1. Advising an Export L/c

The basic responsibility of an advising bank is to advise the credit received from
its overseas branch after checking the apparent genuineness of the credit

15
 recognized by the issuing bank.
It is also necessary for the advising bank to go through the letter of credit, try to
understand the underlying transaction, terms and conditions of the credit and
advice the beneficiary in the matter.

The main features of advising export LCs are:

1. There are no credit risks as the bank receives a onetime commission for the
advising service.
2. There are no capital adequacy needs for the advising function.

2. Advising of Amendments to L/Cs

Amendment of LCs is done for various reasons and it is necessary to fallow all
the necessary the procedures outlined for advising. In the process of advising the
amendments the Issuing bank serializes the amendment number and also
ensures that no previous amendment is missing from the list. Only on receipt of
satisfactory information/ clarification the amendment may be advised.
3. Confirmation of Export Letters of Credit
It constitutes a definite undertaking of the confirming bank, in addition to that of
the issuing bank, which undertakes the sight payment, deferred payment,
acceptance or negotiation.

Banks in India have the facility of covering the credit confirmation risks with
ECGC under their “Transfer Guarantee” scheme and include both the
commercial and political risk involved.
4. Discounting/Negotiation of Export LCs
When the exporter requires funds before due date then he can discount or
negotiate the LCs with the negotiating bank. Once the issuing bank nominates
the negotiating bank, it can take the credit risk on the issuing bank or confirming
bank.

However, in such a situation, the negotiating bank bears the risk associated with
the document that sometimes arises when the issuing bank discover
discrepancies in the documents and refuses to honor its commitment on the due
date.
5. Reimbursement of Export LCs
Sometimes reimbursing bank, on the recommendation of issuing bank allows the
negotiating bank to collect the money from the reimbursing bank once the goods
have been shipped. It is quite similar to a cheque facility provided by a bank.

In return, the reimbursement bank earns a commission per transaction and

enjoys float income without getting involved in the checking the transaction
documents.

Reimbursement bank play an important role in payment on the due date (for
usance LCs) or the days on which the negotiating bank demands the same (for
sight LCs)

Regulatory Requirements

16
Opening of imports LCs in India involve compliance of the following main regulation:

Trade Control Requirements

The movement of good in India is guided by a predefined se of rules and regulation. So,
the banker needs to assure that make certain is whether the goods concerned can be
physically brought in to India or not as per the current EXIM policy.

Exchange Control Requirements

The main objective of a bank to open an Import LC is to effect settlement of payment

due by the Indian importer to the overseas supplier, so opening of LC automatically
comes under the policies of exchange control regulations.

UCPDC Guidelines

Uniform Customs and Practice for Documentary Credit (UCPDC) is a set

of predefined rules established by the International Chamber of
Commerce (ICC) on Letters of Credit. Bankers and commercial parties
in more than 200 countries including India to facilitate trade and
payment through LC are using the UCPDC.

UCPDC was first published in 1933 and subsequently updating it

throughout the years. In 1994, UCPDC 500 was released with only 7
chapters containing in all 49 articles.

The latest revision was approved by the Banking Commission of the

ICC at its meeting in Paris on 25 October 2006. This latest version,
called the UCPDC600, formally commenced on 1 July 2007. It contain a
total of about 39 articles covering the following areas, which can be
classified as 8 sections according to their functions and operational
procedures.

Serial No. Article Area Consisting

Application, Definition and
1. 1 to 3 General
Interpretations
Credit vs. Contracts, Documents
2. 4 to 12 Obligations
vs. Goods
Reimbursement, Examination of
Liabilities and Documents, Complying,
3. 13 to 16
responsibilities. Presentation, Handling
Discrepant Documents
Bill of Lading, Chapter Party Bill of
Lading, Air Documents, Road Rail
4. 17 to 28 Documents etc. Documents, Courier , Postal etc.
Receipt. On board, Shippers' count,
Clean Documents, Insurance documents
5. 29 to 33 Miscellaneous Extension of dates, Tolerance in

17
 Credits, Partial Shipment and
Provisions
Drawings. House of Presentation
Effectiveness of Document
Transmission and Translation
6 34 to 37 Disclaimer
Force Majeure
Acts of an Instructed Party
Transferable Credits
7 38 & 39 Others
Assignment of Proceeds

ISBP 2002

The ICCs Banking Commission selected the widely acclaimed International Standard
Banking Practice (ISBP) for the Examination of Documents under Documentary Credits
in 2007.

First introduced in 2002, the ISBP contains a list of guidelines that an examiner needs to
check the documents presented under the Letter of Credit. Its main objective is to
reduce the number of documentary credits rejected by banks.

FEDAI Guidelines

Foreign Exchange Dealer's Association of India (FEDAI) was established in 1958 under
the Section 25 of the Companies Act (1956). It is an association of banks that deals in
Indian foreign exchange and work in coordination with the Reserve Bank of India, other
organizations like FIMMDA, the Forex Association of India and various market
participants.
FEDAI has issued rules for import LCs which is one of the important area of foreign
currency exchanges. It has an advantage over that of the authorized dealers who are
now allowed by the RBI to issue stand by letter of credits towards import of goods.

As the issuance of stand by of letter of Credit including imports of goods is susceptible to

some risk in the absence of evidence of shipment, therefore the importer should be
advised that documentary credit under UCP 500/600 should be the preferred route for
importers of goods.

Below mention are some of the necessary precaution that should be taken by authorized
dealers While issuing a stands by letter of credits:
1. The facility of issuing Commercial Standby shall be extended on a selective basis
and to the following category of importers
i. Where such standby are required by applicant who are independent
power producers/importers of crude oil and petroleum products
ii. Special category of importers namely export houses, trading houses, star
trading houses, super star trading houses or 100% Export Oriented Units.
2. The issuing banks should obtain satisfactory credit report on the overseas
supplier before issuing Stands by Letter of Credit.
3. Invocation of the Commercial standby by the beneficiary is to be supported by
proper evidence. The beneficiary of the Credit should furnish a declaration to the
effect that the claim is made on account of failure of the importers to abide by his
contractual obligation along with the following documents.
i. A copy of invoice.

18
 ii. Nonnegotiable set of documents including a copy of non-negotiable bill of
lading/transport document.
iii. A copy of Lloyds /SGS inspection certificate wherever provided for as per
the underlying contract.
4. Incorporation of a suitable clauses to the effect that in the event of such
invoice /shipping documents has been paid by the authorized dealers earlier,
Provisions to dishonor the claim quoting the date / manner of earlier payments of
such documents may be considered.
5. The applicant of a commercial stand by letter of credit shall undertake to provide
evidence of imports in respect of all payments made under standby. (Bill of Entry)

Fixing limits for Commercial Stand by Letter of Credit

1. Banks must assess the credit risk in relation to stand by letter of credit and
explain to the importer about the inherent risk in stand by covering import of
goods.
2. Discretionary powers for sanctioning standby letter of credit for import of goods
should be delegated to controlling office or zonal office only.
3. A separate limit for establishing stand by letter of credit is desirable rather than
permitting it under the regular documentary limit.
4. Due diligence of the importer as well as on the beneficiary is essential.
5. Unlike documentary credit, banks do not hold original negotiable documents of
titles to gods. Hence while assessing and fixing credit limits for standby letter of
credits banks shall treat such limits as clean for the purpose of discretionary
lending powers and compliance with various Reserve Bank of India's regulations.
6. Application cum guarantee for stand by letter of credit should be obtained from
the applicant.
7. Banks can consider obtaining a suitable indemnity/undertaking from the importer
that all remittances towards their import of goods as per the underlying contracts
for which stand by letter of credit is issued will be made only through the same
branch, which has issued the credit.
8. The importer should give an undertaking that he shall not raise any dispute
regarding the payments made by the bank in standby letter of credit at any point
of time howsoever, and will be liable to the bank for all the amount paid therein.
He importer should also indemnify the bank from any loss, claim, counter claims,
damages, etc. which the bank may incur on account of making payment under
the stand by letter of credit.
9. Presently, when the documentary letter of credit is established through swift, it is
assumed that the documentary letter of credit is subject to the provisions of
UCPDC 500/600 Accordingly whenever standby letter of credit under ISP 98 is
established through SWIFT, a specific clause must appear that standby letter of
credit is subject to the provision of ISP 98.
10. It should be ensured that the issuing bank, advising bank, nominated bank. etc,
have all subscribed to SP 98 in case stand by letter of credit is issued under ISP
98.
11. When payment under a stand by letter of credit is effected, the issuing bank to
report such invocation / payment to Reserve Bank of India.

19
 Chapter 4 - Trade Documents
 Introduction
 Air Waybill

 Bill of Lading

 Certificate of Origin

 Combined Transport Document

 Draft (or Bill of Exchange)

 Insurance Policy (or Certificate)

 Packing List/Specification

 Inspection Certificate

Introduction

International market involves various types of trade documents that need to be produced
while making transactions. Each trade document is differ from other and present the
various aspects of the trade like description, quality, number, transportation medium,
indemnity, inspection and so on. So, it becomes important for the importers and
exporters to make sure that their documents support the guidelines as per international
trade transactions. A small mistake could prove costly for any of the parties.

For example, a trade document about the bill of lading is a proof that goods have been
shipped on board, while Inspection Certificate, certifies that the goods have been
inspected and meet quality standards. So, depending on these necessary documents, a
seller can assure a buyer that he has fulfilled his responsibility whilst the buyer is
assured of his request being carried out by the seller.

The following is a list of documents often used in international trade:

 Air Waybill
 Bill of Lading
 Certificate of Origin
 Combined Transport Document
 Draft (or Bill of Exchange)
 Insurance Policy (or Certificate)
 Packing List/Specification
 Inspection Certificate

Air Waybills

Air Waybills make sure that goods have been received for shipment by air. A typical air
waybill sample consists of three originals and nine copies. The first original is for the
carrier and is signed by a export agent; the second original, the consignee's copy, is

20
signed by an export agent; the third original is signed by the carrier and is handed to the
export agent as a receipt for the goods.

Air Waybills serves as:

• Proof of receipt of the goods for shipment.

• An invoice for the freight.
• A certificate of insurance.
• A guide to airline staff for the handling, dispatch and delivery of the consignment.

The principal requirement for an air waybill are :

 The proper shipper and consignee must be mention.
 The airport of departure and destination must be mention.
 The goods description must be consistent with that shown on other documents.
 Any weight, measure or shipping marks must agree with those shown on other
documents.
 It must be signed and dated by the actual carrier or by the named agent of a
named carrier.
 It must mention whether freight has been paid or will be paid at the destination
point.

Bill of Lading (B/L)

Bill of Lading is a document given by the shipping agency for the goods shipped for
transportation form one destination to another and is signed by the representatives of
the carrying vessel.

Bill of landing is issued in the set of two, three or more. The number in the set will be
indicated on each bill of lading and all must be accounted for. This is done due to the
safety reasons which ensure that the document never comes into the hands of an
unauthorized person. Only one original is sufficient to take possession of goods at port
of discharge so, a bank which finances a trade transaction will need to control the
complete set. The bill of lading must be signed by the shipping company or its agent,
and must show how many signed originals were issued.

It will indicate whether cost of freight/ carriage has been paid or not :

"Freight Prepaid" : Paid by shipper

"Freight collect" : To be paid by the buyer at the port of discharge

The bill of lading also forms the contract of carriage.

To be acceptable to the buyer, the B/L should:

 Carry an "On Board" notation to showing the actual date of shipment,
(Sometimes however, the "on board" wording is in small print at the bottom of the
B/L, in which cases there is no need for a dated "on board" notation to be shown
separately with date and signature.)
 Be "clean" have no notation by the shipping company to the effect that goods/
packagings are damaged.

21
The main parties involve in a bill of lading are:
 Shipper
o The person who send the goods.
 Consignee
o The person who take delivery of the goods.
 Notify Party
o The person, usually the importer, to whom the shipping company or its
agent gives notice of arrival of the goods.
 Carrier
o The person or company who has concluded a contract with the shipper
for conveyance of goods

The bill of lading must meet all the requirements of the credit as well as complying with
UCP 500. These are as follows:
 The correct shipper, consignee and notifying party must be shown.
 The carrying vessel and ports of the loading and discharge must be stated.
 The place of receipt and place of delivery must be stated, if different from port of
loading or port of discharge.
 The goods description must be consistent with that shown on other documents.
 Any weight or measures must agree with those shown on other documents.
 Shipping marks and numbers and /or container number must agree with those
shown on other documents.
 It must state whether freight has been paid or is payable at destination.
 It must be dated on or before the latest date for shipment specified in the credit.
 It must state the actual name of the carrier or be signed as agent for a named
carrier.

Certificate of Origin

The Certificate of Origin is required by the custom authority of the importing country for
the purpose of imposing import duty. It is usually issued by the Chamber of Commerce
and contains information like seal of the chamber, details of the good to be transported
and so on.

The certificate must provide that the information required by the credit and be consistent
with all other document, It would normally include:
 The name of the company and address as exporter.
 The name of the importer.
 Package numbers, shipping marks and description of goods to agree with that on
other documents.
 Any weight or measurements must agree with those shown on other documents.
 It should be signed and stamped by the Chamber of Commerce.

Combined Transport Document

Combined Transport Document is also known as Multimode Transport Document, and is

used when goods are transported using more than one mode of transportation. In the
case of multimode transport document, the contract of carriage is meant for a combined
transport from the place of shipping to the place of delivery. It also evidence receipt of
goods but it does not evidence on board shipment, if it complies with ICC 500, Art. 26(a).

22
The liability of the combined transport operator starts from the place of shipment and
ends at the place of delivery. This documents need to be signed with appropriate number
of originals in the full set and proper evidence which indicates that transport charges
have been paid or will be paid at destination port.
Multimode transport document would normally show:
 That the consignee and notify parties are as the credit.
 The place goods are received, or taken in charges, and place of final destination.
 Whether freight is prepaid or to be collected.
 The date of dispatch or taking in charge, and the "On Board" notation, if any must
be dated and signed.
 Total number of originals.
 Signature of the carrier, multimode transport operator or their agents.

Commercial Invoice

Commercial Invoice document is provided by the seller to the buyer. Also known as
export invoice or import invoice, commercial invoice is finally used by the custom
authorities of the importer's country to evaluate the good for the purpose of taxation.
The invoice must:
 Be issued by the beneficiary named in the credit (the seller).
 Be address to the applicant of the credit (the buyer).
 Be signed by the beneficiary (if required).
 Include the description of the goods exactly as detailed in the credit.
 Be issued in the stated number of originals (which must be marked "Original) and
copies.
 Include the price and unit prices if appropriate.
 State the price amount payable which must not exceed that stated in the credit
 Include the shipping terms.

Bill of Exchange

A Bill of Exchange is a special type of written document under which an exporter ask
importer a certain amount of money in future and the importer also agrees to pay the
importer that amount of money on or before the future date. This document has special
importance in wholesale trade where large amount of money involved.

Following persons are involved in a bill of exchange:

Drawer: The person who writes or prepares the bill.
Drawee: The person who pays the bill.
Payee: The person to whom the payment is to be made.
Holder of the Bill: The person who is in possession of the bill.

On the basis of the due date there are two types of bill of exchange:
 Bill of Exchange after Date: In this case the due date is counted from the date
of drawing and is also called bill after date.
 Bill of Exchange after Sight: In this case the due date is counted from the date
of acceptance of the bill and is also called bill of exchange after sight.

23
Insurance Certificate

Also known as Insurance Policy, it certifies that goods transported have been insured
under an open policy and is not actionable with little details about the risk covered.
It is necessary that the date on which the insurance becomes effective is same or earlier
than the date of issuance of the transport documents.

Also, if submitted under a LC, the insured amount must be in the same currency as the
credit and usually for the bill amount plus 10 per cent.
The requirements for completion of an insurance policy are as follow :
 The name of the party in the favor which the documents has been issued.
 The name of the vessel or flight details.
 The place from where insurance is to commerce typically the sellers warehouse
or the port of loading and the place where insurance cases usually the buyer's
warehouse or the port of destination.
 Insurance value that specified in the credit.
 Marks and numbers to agree with those on other documents.
 The description of the goods, which must be consistent with that in the credit and
on the invoice.
 The name and address of the claims settling agent together with the place where
claims are payable.
 Countersigned where necessary.
 Date of issue to be no later than the date of transport documents unless cover is
shown to be effective prior to that date.

Packing List

Also known as packing specification, it contain details about the packing materials used
in the shipping of goods. It also include details like measurement and weight of goods.
The packing List must :
 Have a description of the goods ("A") consistent with the other documents.
 Have details of shipping marks ("B") and numbers consistent with other
documents

Inspection Certificate

Certificate of Inspection is a document prepared on the request of seller when he wants

the consignment to be checked by a third party at the port of shipment before the goods
are sealed for final transportation.

In this process seller submit a valid Inspection Certificate along with the other trade
documents like invoice, packing list, shipping bill, bill of lading etc to the bank for
negotiation.

On demand, inspection can be done by various world-renowned inspection agencies on

nominal charges.

Chapter 5 - Pre Shipment Trade Finance

24
  Types of Pre Shipment Finance
 Requirement for Getting Packing Credit
o Eligibility
o Quantum of Finance
 Different Stages of PreShipment Finance
o Appraisal and Sanction of Limits
 Disbursement of Packing Credit Advance
 Follow up of Packing Credit Advance
 Liquidation of Packing Credit Advance
 Overdue Packing
 Special Cases
 Packing Credit to Sub Supplier
 Running Account facility
 Preshipment Credit in Foreign Currency (PCFC)
 Packing Credit Facilities to deemed Exports
 Packing Credit facilities for Consulting Services
 Advance against Cheque / Drafts received as advance payment

Pre Shipment Finance is issued by a financial institution when the sellers want the
payment of the goods before shipment. The main objectives behind PreShipment
finance or pre export finance is to enable exporter to:
 Procure raw materials.
 Carry out manufacturing process.
 Provide a secure warehouse for goods and raw materials.
 Process and pack the goods.
 Ship the goods to the buyers.
 Meet other financial cost of the business.

Types of Pre Shipment Finance

 Packing Credit
 Advance against Cheque/Draft etc. representing Advance Payments.

Preshipment finance is extended in the following forms:

 Packing Credit in Indian Rupee
 Packing Credit in Foreign Currency (PCFC)

Requirment for Getting Packing Credit

This facility is provided to an exporter who satisfies the following criteria

 A ten-digit importer exporter code number allotted by DGFT.
 Exporter should not be in the caution list of RBI.
 If the goods to be exported are not under OGL (Open General License), the
exporter should have the required license /quota permit to export the goods.

Packing credit facility can be provided to an exporter on production of the following

evidences to the bank:
1. Formal application for release the packing credit with undertaking to the effect
that the exporter would be ship the goods within stipulated due date and submit
the relevant shipping documents to the banks within prescribed time limit.

25
 2. Firm order or irrevocable L/C or original cable / fax / telex message exchange
between the exporter and the buyer.
3. License issued by DGFT if the goods to be exported fall under the restricted or
canalized category. If the item falls under quota system, proper quota allotment
proof needs to be submitted.

The confirmed order received from the overseas buyer should reveal the information
about the full name and address of the overseas buyer, description quantity and value of
goods (FOB or CIF), destination port and the last date of payment.

Eligibility

Pre shipment credit is only issued to that exporter who has the export order in his own
name. However, as an exception, financial institution can also grant credit to a third party
manufacturer or supplier of goods who does not have export orders in their own name.

In this case some of the responsibilities of meeting the export requirements have been
out sourced to them by the main exporter. In other cases where the export order is
divided between two more than two exporters, pre shipment credit can be shared
between them

Quantum of Finance

The Quantum of Finance is granted to an exporter against the LC or an expected order.

The only guideline principle is the concept of Need Based Finance. Banks determine the
percentage of margin, depending on factors such as:
 The nature of Order.
 The nature of the commodity.
 The capability of exporter to bring in the requisite contribution.

Different Stages of Pre Shipment Finance

Appraisal and Sanction of Limits

1. Before making any an allowance for Credit facilities banks need to check the different
aspects like product profile, political and economic details about country. Apart from
these things, the bank also looks in to the status report of the prospective buyer, with
whom the exporter proposes to do the business. To check all these information, banks
can seek the help of institution like ECGC or International consulting agencies like Dun
and Brad street etc.

The Bank extended the packing credit facilities after ensuring the following"
a. The exporter is a regular customer, a bona fide exporter and has a goods
standing in the market.
b. Whether the exporter has the necessary license and quota permit (as mentioned
earlier) or not.
c. Whether the country with which the exporter wants to deal is under the list of
Restricted Cover Countries (RCC) or not.

26
Disbursement of Packing Credit Advance

2. Once the proper sanctioning of the documents is done, bank ensures whether
exporter has executed the list of documents mentioned earlier or not. Disbursement is
normally allowed when all the documents are properly executed.

Sometimes an exporter is not able to produce the export order at time of availing
packing credit. So, in these cases, the bank provide a special packing credit facility and
is known as Running Account Packing.

Before disbursing the bank specifically check for the following particulars in the
submitted documents"
a. Name of buyer
b. Commodity to be exported
c. Quantity
d. Value (either CIF or FOB)
e. Last date of shipment / negotiation.
f. Any other terms to be complied with

The quantum of finance is fixed depending on the FOB value of contract /LC or the
domestic values of goods, whichever is found to be lower. Normally insurance and
freight charged are considered at a later stage, when the goods are ready to be shipped.

In this case disbursals are made only in stages and if possible not in cash. The
payments are made directly to the supplier by drafts/bankers/cheques.

The bank decides the duration of packing credit depending upon the time required by the
exporter for processing of goods.

The maximum duration of packing credit period is 180 days, however bank may provide
a further 90 days extension on its own discretion, without referring to RBI.

Follow up of Packing Credit Advance

3. Exporter needs to submit stock statement giving all the necessary information about
the stocks. It is then used by the banks as a guarantee for securing the packing credit in
advance. Bank also decides the rate of submission of these stocks.
Apart from this, authorized dealers (banks) also physically inspect the stock at regular
intervals.

Liquidation of Packing Credit Advance

4. Packing Credit Advance needs be liquidated out of as the export proceeds of the
relevant shipment, thereby converting PreShipment credit into post shipment credit.

This liquidation can also be done by the payment receivable from the Government of
India and includes the duty drawback, payment from the Market Development Fund

27
(MDF) of the Central Government or from any other relevant source.

In case if the export does not take place then the entire advance can also be recovered
at a certain interest rate. RBI has allowed some flexibility in to this regulation under
which substitution of commodity or buyer can be allowed by a bank without any
reference to RBI. Hence in effect the packing credit advance may be repaid by proceeds
from export of the same or another commodity to the same or another buyer. However,
bank need to ensure that the substitution is commercially necessary and unavoidable.

Overdue Packing

5. Bank considers a packing credit as an overdue, if the borrower fails to liquidate the
packing credit on the due date. And, if the condition persists then the bank takes the
necessary step to recover its dues as per normal recovery procedure.

Special Cases

Packing Credit to Sub Supplier

1. Packing Credit can only be shared on the basis of disclaimer between the Export
Order Holder (EOH) and the manufacturer of the goods. This disclaimer is normally
issued by the EOH in order to indicate that he is not availing any credit facility against
the portion of the order transferred in the name of the manufacturer.

This disclaimer is also signed by the bankers of EOH after which they have an option to
open an inland L/C specifying the goods to be supplied to the EOH as a part of the
export transaction. On basis of such an L/C, the subsupplier bank may grant a packing
credit to the subsupplier to manufacture the components required for exports.
On supply of goods, the L/C opening bank will pay to the sub supplier's bank against the
inland documents received on the basis of the inland L/C opened by them.

The final responsibility of EOH is to export the goods as per guidelines. Any delay in
export order can bring EOH to penal provisions that can be issued anytime.

The main objective of this method is to cover only the first stage of production cycles,
and is not to be extended to cover supplies of raw material etc. Running account facility
is not granted to sub suppliers.

In case the EOH is a trading house, the facility is available commencing from the
manufacturer to whom the order has been passed by the trading house.

Banks however, ensure that there is no double financing and the total period of packing
credit does not exceed the actual cycle of production of the commodity.

Running Account facility

2. It is a special facility under which a bank has right to grant PreShipment advance for
export to the exporter of any origin. Sometimes banks also extent these facilities
depending upon the good track record of the exporter.

28
In return the exporter needs to produce the letter of credit / firms export order within a
given period of time.

Preshipment Credit in Foreign Currency (PCFC)

3. Authorized dealers are permitted to extend Preshipment Credit in Foreign Currency

(PCFC) with an objective of making the credit available to the exporters at internationally
competitive price. This is considered as an added advantage under which credit is
provided in foreign currency in order to facilitate the purchase of raw material after
fulfilling the basic export orders.

The rate of interest on PCFC is linked to London Interbank Offered Rate (LIBOR).
According to guidelines, the final cost of exporter must not exceed 0.75% over 6 month
LIBOR, excluding the tax.

The exporter has freedom to avail PCFC in convertible currencies like USD, Pound,
Sterling, Euro, Yen etc. However, the risk associated with the cross currency truncation
is that of the exporter.

The sources of funds for the banks for extending PCFC facility include the Foreign
Currency balances available with the Bank in Exchange, Earner Foreign Currency
Account (EEFC), Resident Foreign Currency Accounts RFC (D) and Foreign
Currency(Nonresident) Accounts.

Banks are also permitted to utilize the foreign currency balances available under Escrow
account and Exporters Foreign Currency accounts. It ensures that the requirement of
funds by the account holders for permissible transactions is met. But the limit prescribed
for maintaining maximum balance in the account is not exceeded. In addition, Banks
may arrange for borrowings from abroad. Banks may negotiate terms of credit with
overseas bank for the purpose of grant of PCFC to exporters, without the prior approval
of RBI, provided the rate of interest on borrowing does not exceed 0.75% over 6 month
LIBOR.

Packing Credit Facilities to Deemed Exports

4. Deemed exports made to multilateral funds aided projects and programmes, under
orders secured through global tenders for which payments will be made in free foreign
exchange, are eligible for concessional rate of interest facility both at pre and post
supply stages.

Packing Credit facilities for Consulting Services

4. In case of consultancy services, exports do not involve physical movement of

goods out of Indian Customs Territory. In such cases, Preshipment finance can
be provided by the bank to allow the exporter to mobilize resources like technical
personnel and training them.

Advance against Cheque/Drafts received as advance payment

29
 5. Where exporters receive direct payments from abroad by means of cheque/drafts
etc. the bank may grant export credit at concessional rate to the exporters of
goods track record, till the time of realization of the proceeds of the cheque or
draft etc. The Banks however, must satisfy themselves that the proceeds are
against an export order.

Chapter 6 - Post Shipment Finance

 Introduction
 Basic Features

30
  Financing For Various Types of Export Buyer's Credit

 Supplier's Credit

 Types of Post Shipment Finance

 Crystallization of Overdue Export Bills

Introduction

Post Shipment Finance is a kind of loan provided by a financial institution to an exporter

or seller against a shipment that has already been made. This type of export finance is
granted from the date of extending the credit after shipment of the goods to the
realization date of the exporter proceeds. Exporters don’t wait for the importer to deposit
the funds.

Basic Features

The features of post shipment finance are:

 Purpose of Finance
Post shipment finance is meant to finance export sales receivable after the date
of shipment of goods to the date of realization of exports proceeds. In cases of
deemed exports, it is extended to finance receivable against supplies made to
designated agencies.
 Basis of Finance
Post shipment finances is provided against evidence of shipment of goods or
supplies made to the importer or seller or any other designated agency.
 Types of Finance

Post shipment finance can be secured or unsecured. Since the finance is

extended against evidence of export shipment and bank obtains the documents
of title of goods, the finance is normally self-liquidating. In that case it involves
advance against undrawn balance, and is usually unsecured in nature.
Further, the finance is mostly a funded advance. In few cases, such as financing
of project exports, the issue of guarantee (retention money guarantees) is
involved and the financing is not funded in nature.

 Quantum of Finance
As a quantum of finance, post shipment finance can be extended up to 100% of
the invoice value of goods. In special cases, where the domestic value of the
goods increases the value of the exporter order, finance for a price difference can
also be extended and the government covers the price difference. This type of
finance is not extended in case of preshipment stage.
Banks can also finance undrawn balance. In such cases banks are free to
stipulate margin requirements as per their usual lending norm.
 Period of Finance
Post shipment finance can be off short terms or long term, depending on the
payment terms offered by the exporter to the overseas importer. In case of cash
exports, the maximum period allowed for realization of exports proceeds is six
months from the date of shipment. Concessive rate of interest is available for a

31
 highest period of 180 days, opening from the date of surrender of documents.
Usually, the documents need to be submitted within 21days from the date of
shipment.

Financing For Various Types of Export Buyer's Credit

Post shipment finance can be provided for three types of export:

 Physical exports: Finance is provided to the actual exporter or to the exporter in
whose name the trade documents are transferred.
 Deemed export: Finance is provided to the supplier of the goods which are
supplied to the designated agencies.
 Capital goods and project exports: Finance is sometimes extended in the
name of overseas buyer. The disbursal of money is directly made to the domestic
exporter.

Supplier's Credit

Buyer's Credit is a special type of loan that a bank offers to the buyers for large scale
purchasing under a contract. Once the bank approved loans to the buyer, the seller
shoulders all or part of the interests incurred.

Types of Post Shipment Finance

The post shipment finance can be classified as:

1. Export Bills purchased/discounted.
2. Export Bills negotiated
3. Advance against export bills sent on collection basis.
4. Advance against export on consignment basis
5. Advance against undrawn balance on exports
6. Advance against claims of Duty Drawback.

1. Export Bills Purchased/ Discounted. (DP & DA Bills)

Export bills (Non L/C Bills) is used in terms of sale contract/ order may be discounted or
purchased by the banks. It is used in indisputable international trade transactions and
the proper limit has to be sanctioned to the exporter for purchase of export bill facility.

2. Export Bills Negotiated (Bill under L/C)

The risk of payment is less under the LC, as the issuing bank makes sure the payment.
The risk is further reduced, if a bank guarantees the payments by confirming the LC.
Because of the inborn security available in this method, banks often become ready to
extend the finance against bills under LC.
However, this arises two major risk factors for the banks:
1. The risk of nonperformance by the exporter, when he is unable to meet his terms
and conditions. In this case, the issuing banks do not honor the letter of credit.
2. The bank also faces the documentary risk where the issuing bank refuses to
honour its commitment. So, it is important for the for the negotiating bank, and

32
 the lending bank to properly check all the necessary documents before
submission.

3. Advance Against Export Bills Sent on Collection Basis

Bills can only be sent on collection basis, if the bills drawn under LC have some
discrepancies. Sometimes exporter requests the bill to be sent on the collection basis,
anticipating the strengthening of foreign currency.
Banks may allow advance against these collection bills to an exporter with a
concessional rates of interest depending upon the transit period in case of DP Bills and
transit period plus usance period in case of usance bill.
The transit period is from the date of acceptance of the export documents at the banks
branch for collection and not from the date of advance.

4. Advance Against Export on Consignments Basis

Bank may choose to finance when the goods are exported on consignment basis at the
risk of the exporter for sale and eventual payment of sale proceeds to him by the
consignee.
However, in this case bank instructs the overseas bank to deliver the document only
against trust receipt /undertaking to deliver the sale proceeds by specified date, which
should be within the prescribed date even if according to the practice in certain trades a
bill for part of the estimated value is drawn in advance against the exports.
In case of export through approved Indian owned warehouses abroad the times limit for
realization is 15 months.

5. Advance against Undrawn Balance

It is a very common practice in export to leave small part undrawn for payment after
adjustment due to difference in rates, weight, quality etc. Banks do finance against the
undrawn balance, if undrawn balance is in conformity with the normal level of balance
left undrawn in the particular line of export, subject to a maximum of 10 percent of the
export value. An undertaking is also obtained from the exporter that he will, within 6
months from due date of payment or the date of shipment of the goods, whichever is
earlier surrender balance proceeds of the shipment.

6. Advance Against Claims of Duty Drawback

Duty Drawback is a type of discount given to the exporter in his own country. This
discount is given only, if the in-house cost of production is higher in relation to
international price. This type of financial support helps the exporter to fight successfully
in the international markets.

In such a situation, banks grants advances to exporters at lower rate of interest for a
maximum period of 90 days. These are granted only if other types of export finance are
also extended to the exporter by the same bank.

After the shipment, the exporters lodge their claims, supported by the relevant
documents to the relevant government authorities. These claims are processed and

33
eligible amount is disbursed after making sure that the bank is authorized to receive the
claim amount directly from the concerned government authorities.

Crystallization of Overdue Export Bills

Exporter foreign exchange is converted into Rupee liability, if the export bill purchase /
negotiated /discounted is not realize on due date. This conversion occurs on the 30th
day after expiry of the NTP in case of unpaid DP bills and on 30th day after national due
date in case of DA bills, at prevailing TT selling rate ruling on the day of crystallization, or
the original bill buying rate, whichever is higher.

Chapter 7 - Forfeiting Factoring

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  Introduction
 Definition of Forfeiting

 How forfeiting Works in International Trade

 Documentary Requirements

 Forfeiting

 Benefits to Exporter

 Benefits to Banks

 Definition of Factoring

 Characteristics of Factoring

 Different Types of Factoring

Introduction

Forfeiting and factoring are services in international market given to an exporter or seller.
Its main objective is to provide smooth cash flow to the sellers. The basic difference
between the forfeiting and factoring is that forfeiting is a long term receivables (over 90
days up to 5 years) while factoring is a short termed receivables (within 90 days) and is
more related to receivables against commodity sales.

Definition of Forfeiting

The terms forfeiting is originated from a old French word ‘forfeit’, which means to
surrender ones right on something to someone else. In international trade, forfeiting may
be defined as the purchasing of an exporter’s receivables at a discount price by paying
cash. By buying these receivables, the forfeiter frees the exporter from credit and the
risk of not receiving the payment from the importer.

How forfeiting Works in International Trade

The exporter and importer negotiate according to the proposed export sales contract.
Then the exporter approaches the forfeiter to ascertain the terms of forfeiting. After
collecting the details about the importer, and other necessary documents, forfeiter
estimates risk involved in it and then quotes the discount rate.
The exporter then quotes a contract price to the overseas buyer by loading the discount
rate and commitment fee on the sales price of the goods to be exported and sign a
contract with the forfeiter. Export takes place against documents guaranteed by the
importer’s bank and discounts the bill with the forfeiter and presents the same to the
importer for payment on due date.

Documentary Requirements

35
In case of Indian exporters availing forfeiting facility, the forfeiting transaction is to be
reflected in the following documents associated with an export transaction in the manner
suggested below:
 Invoice: Forfeiting discount, commitment fees, etc. needs not be shown
separately instead, these could be built into the FOB price, stated on the invoice.
 Shipping Bill and GR form: Details of the forfeiting costs are to be included
along with the other details, such FOB price, commission insurance, normally
included in the "Analysis of Export Value "on the shipping bill. The claim for duty
drawback, if any is to be certified only with reference to the FOB value of the
exports stated on the shipping bill.

Forfeiting

The forfeiting typically involves the following cost elements:

1. Commitment fee, payable by the exporter to the forfeiter ‘for latter’s’ commitment to
execute a specific forfeiting transaction at a firm discount rate with in a specified time.
2. Discount fee, interest payable by the exporter for the entire period of credit involved
and deducted by the forfeiter from the amount paid to the exporter against the availised
promissory notes or bills of exchange.

Benefits to Exporter

 100 per cent financing: Without recourse and not occupying exporter's credit
line That is to say once the exporter obtains the financed fund, he will be
exempted from the responsibility to repay the debt.
 Improved cash flow: Receivables become current cash in flow and its is
beneficial to the exporters to improve financial status and liquidation ability so as
to heighten further the funds raising capability.
 Reduced administration cost: By using forfeiting , the exporter will spare from
the management of the receivables. The relative costs, as a result, are reduced
greatly.
 Advance tax refund: Through forfeiting the exporter can make the verification of
export and get tax refund in advance just after financing.
 Risk reduction: forfeiting business enables the exporter to transfer various risk
resulted from deferred payments, such as interest rate risk, currency risk, credit
risk, and political risk to the forfeiting bank.
 Increased trade opportunity: With forfeiting, the export is able to grant credit to
his buyers freely, and thus, be more competitive in the market.

Benefits to Banks

Forfeiting provides the banks following benefits:

 Banks can offer a novel product range to clients, which enable the client to gain
100% finance, as against 8085% in case of other discounting products.
 Bank gain fee based income.
 Lower credit administration and credit follow up.

Definition of Factoring

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Definition of factoring is very simple and can be defined as the conversion of credit sales
into cash. Here, a financial institution, which is usually a bank, buys the accounts
receivable of a company usually a client and then pays up to 80% of the amount
immediately on agreement. The remaining amount is paid to the client when the
customer pays the debt. Examples include factoring against goods purchased, factoring
against medical insurance, factoring for construction services etc.
Characteristics of Factoring
1. The normal period of factoring is 90150 days and rarely exceeds more than 150 days.
2. It is costly.
3. Factoring is not possible in case of bad debts.
4. Credit rating is not mandatory.
5. It is a method of off balance sheet financing.
6. Cost of factoring is always equal to finance cost plus operating cost.
Different Types of Factoring
1. Disclosed
2. Undisclosed
1. Disclosed Factoring
In disclosed factoring, client’s customers are aware of the factoring agreement.
Disclosed factoring is of two types:
Recourse factoring: The client collects the money from the customer but in case
customer don’t pay the amount on maturity then the client is responsible to pay the
amount to the factor. It is offered at a low rate of interest and is in very common use.
Nonrecourse factoring: In nonrecourse factoring, factor undertakes to collect the debts
from the customer. Balance amount is paid to client at the end of the credit period or
when the customer pays the factor whichever comes first. The advantage of
nonrecourse factoring is that continuous factoring will eliminate the need for credit and
collection departments in the organization.
2. Undisclosed
In undisclosed factoring, client's customers are not notified of the factoring arrangement.
In this case, Client has to pay the amount to the factor irrespective of whether customer
has paid or not.

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 Chapter 8 - Bank Guarantees

 Introduction
 Benefits of Bank Guarantees

 Types of Bank Guarantees

 How to Apply for Bank Guarantee

 Bank Guarantees vs. Letters of Credit

Introduction
A bank guarantee is a written contract given by a bank on the behalf of a customer. By
issuing this guarantee, a bank takes responsibility for payment of a sum of money in
case, if it is not paid by the customer on whose behalf the guarantee has been issued. In
return, a bank gets some commission for issuing the guarantee.

Any one can apply for a bank guarantee, if his or her company has obligations towards a
third party for which funds need to be blocked in order to guarantee that his or her
company fulfils its obligations (for example carrying out certain works, payment of a
debt, etc.).

In case of any changes or cancellation during the transaction process, a bank guarantee
remains valid until the customer dully releases the bank from its liability.

In the situations, where a customer fails to pay the money, the bank must pay the
amount within three working days. This payment can also be refused by the bank, if the
claim is found to be unlawful.

Benefits of Bank Guarantees

For Governments
1. Increases the rate of private financing for key sectors such as infrastructure.
2. Provides access to capital markets as well as commercial banks.
3. Reduces cost of private financing to affordable levels.
4. Facilitates privatizations and public private partnerships.
5. Reduces government risk exposure by passing commercial risk to the private sector.

For Private Sector

1. Reduces risk of private transactions in emerging countries.
2. Mitigates risks that the private sector does not control.
3. Opens new markets.
4. Improves project sustainability.

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Legal Requirements
Bank guarantee is issued by the authorised dealers under their obligated authorities
notified vide FEMA 8/ 2000 dt 3rd May 2000. Only in case of revocation of guarantee
involving US $ 5000 or more need to be reported to Reserve Bank of India (RBI).

Types of Bank Guarantees

1. Direct or Indirect Bank Guarantee: A bank guarantee can be either direct or indirect.

Direct Bank Guarantee It is issued by the applicant's bank (issuing bank) directly to the
guarantee's beneficiary without concerning a correspondent bank. This type of
guarantee is less expensive and is also subject to the law of the country in which the
guarantee is issued unless otherwise it is mentioned in the guarantee documents.

Indirect Bank Guarantee With an indirect guarantee, a second bank is involved, which
is basically a representative of the issuing bank in the country to which beneficiary
belongs. This involvement of a second bank is done on the demand of the beneficiary.
This type of bank guarantee is more time consuming and expensive too.
2. Confirmed Guarantee
It is cross between direct and indirect types of bank guarantee. This type of bank
guarantee is issued directly by a bank after which it is send to a foreign bank for
confirmations. The foreign banks confirm the original documents and thereby assume
the responsibility.
3. Tender Bond
This is also called bid bonds and is normally issued in support of a tender in international
trade. It provides the beneficiary with a financial remedy, if the applicant fails to fulfill any
of the tender conditions.

4. Performance Bonds
This is one of the most common types of bank guarantee, which is used to secure the
completion of the contractual responsibilities of delivery of goods and act as security of
penalty payment by the Supplier in case of nondelivery of goods.

5. Advance Payment Guarantees

This mode of guarantee is used where the applicant calls for the provision of a sum of
money at an early stage of the contract and can recover the amount paid in advance, or
a part thereof, if the applicant fails to fulfill the agreement.

6. Payment Guarantees
This type of bank guarantee is used to secure the responsibilities to pay goods and
services. If the beneficiary has fulfilled his contractual obligations after delivering the
goods or services but the debtor fails to make the payment, then after written declaration
the beneficiary can easily obtain his money form the guaranteeing bank.

7. Loan Repayment Guarantees

This type of guarantee is given by a bank to the creditor to pay the amount of loan body
and interests in case of nonfulfillment by the borrower.

39
8. B/L Letter of Indemnity
This is also called a letter of indemnity and is a type of guarantee from the bank making
sure that any kind of loss of goods will not be suffered by the carrier.

9. Rental Guarantee
This type of bank guarantee is given under a rental contract. Rental guarantee is either
limited to rental payments only or includes all payments due under the rental contract
including cost of repair on termination of the rental contract.

10. Credit Card Guarantee

Credit card guarantee is issued by the credit card companies to its customer as a
guarantee that the merchant will be paid on transactions regardless of whether the
consumer pays their credit.
How to Apply for Bank Guarantee
Procedure for Bank Guarantees is very simple and is not governed by any particular
legal regulations. However, to obtain the bank guarantee one need to have a current
account in the bank. Guarantees can be issued by a bank through its authorised dealers
as per notifications mentioned in the FEMA 8/2000 date 3rd May 2000. Only in case of
revocation of guarantee involving US $ 5000/ or more to be reported to Reserve Bank of
India along with the details of the claim received.

Bank Guarantee vs. Letter of Credit

A bank guarantee is frequently confused with letter of credit (LC), which is similar in
many ways but not the same thing. The basic difference between the two is that of the
parties involved. In a bank guarantee, three parties are involved; the bank, the person to
whom the guarantee is given and the person on whose behalf the bank is giving
guarantee. In case of a letter of credit, there are normally four parties involved; issuing
bank, advising bank, the applicant (importer) and the beneficiary (exporter).

Also, as a bank guarantee only becomes active when the customer fails to pay the
necessary amount where as in case of letters of credit, the issuing bank does not wait
for the buyer to default, and for the seller to invoke the undertaking.

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 Chapter 9 - Transport Risk
 Introduction
 Transport Insurance

 Scope of Coverage

 Specialist Covers

 Seller's Buyer's Contingent Interest Insurance

 Loss of Profits/ Consequential Loss Insurance

Introduction
It is quite important to evaluate the transportation risk in international trade for better
financial stability of export business. About 80% of the world major transportation of
goods is carried out by sea, which also gives rise to a number of risk factors associated
with transportation of goods.
The major risk factors related to shipping are cargo, vessels, people and financing. So it
becomes necessary for the government to address all of these risks with broadbased
security policy responses, since simply responding to threats in isolation to one another
can be both ineffective and costly.
While handling transportation in international trade following precaution should be taken
into consideration.
 In case of transportation by ship, and the product should be appropriate
for containerization. It is worth promoting standard order values
equivalent to quantities loaded into standard size containers.
 Work must be carried out in compliance with the international code
concerning the transport of dangerous goods.
 For better communication purpose people involve in the handling of
goods should be equipped with phone, fax, email, Internet and radio.
 About the instructions given to the transport company on freight
forwarder.
 Necessary information about the cargo insurance.
 Each time goods are handled; there risk of damage. Plan for this when
packing for export, and deciding on choice of transport and route.
 The expected sailing dates for marine transport should be built into the
production programme, especially where payments is to be made by
Letter of Credit when documents will needs to be presented within a
specified time frame.

41
  Choice of transport has Balance Sheet implications. The exporter is likely
to received payments for goods supplied while they are in transit.
 Driver accompanied road transport provides peace of minds, but the
ability to fill the return load will affect pricing.

Transport Insurance

Export and import in international trade, requires transportation of goods over a long
distance. No matter whichever transport has been used in international trade, necessary
insurance is must forever good.
Cargo insurance also known as marine cargo insurance is a type of insurance against
physical damage or loss of goods during transportation. Cargo insurance is effective in
all the three cases whether the goods have been transported via sea, land or air.
Insurance policy is not applicable if the goods have been found to be packaged or
transported by any wrong means or methods. So, it is advisable to use a broker for
placing cargo risks.

Scope of Coverage

The following can be covered for the risk of loss or damage:

 Cargo import, export cross voyage dispatched by sea, river, road, rail post,
personal courier, and including associated storage risks.
 Good in transit (inland).
 Freight service liability.
 Associated stock.

However there are still a number of general exclusion such loss by delay, war risk,
improper packaging and insolvency of carrier. Converse for some of these may be
negotiated with the insurance company. The Institute War Clauses may also be added.

Regular exporters may negotiate open cover. It is an umbrella marine insurance policy
that is activated when eligible shipments are made. Individual insurance certificates are
issued after the shipment is made. Some letters of Credit Will require an individual
insurance policy to be issued for the shipment, While others accept an insurance
certificate.

Specialist Covers

Whereas standard marine/transport cover is the answer for general cargo, some classes
of business will have special requirements. General insurer may have developed
specialty teams to cater for the needs of these business, and it is worth asking if this
cover can be extended to export risks.

Cover may be automatically available for the needs of the trade.

Example of this are:

 Project Constructional works insurers can cover the movement of goods for the
project.
 Fine art

42
  Precious stones Special Cover can be extended to cover sending of precious
stones.
 Stock through put cover extended beyond the time goods are in transit until when
they are used at the destination.

Seller's Buyer's Contingent Interest Insurance

An exporter selling on, for example FOB (INCOTERMS 2000) delivery terms would
according to the contract and to INCOTERMS, have not responsibility for insurance once
the goods have passed the ship's rail. However, for peace of mind, he may wish to
purchase extra cover, which will cover him for loss or will make up cover where the other
policy is too restrictive. This is known as Seller's Interest Insurance.

Similarly, cover is available to importers/buyers.

Seller's Interest and Buyer's Interest covers usually extended cover to apply if the title in
the goods reverts to the insured party until the goods are recovered resold or returned.

Loss of Profits/ Consequential Loss Insurance

Importers buying goods for a particular event may be interested in consequential loss
cover in case the goods are late (for a reason that id insured) and (expensive)
replacements have to be found to replace them. In such cases, the insurer will pay a
claim and receive may proceeds from the eventual sale of the delayed goods.

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 Chapter 10 - Contract Credit Risk
 Introduction
 Credit Insurance

 Payment Risk

 Bad Debt Protection

 Confirmation of LC

 Factoring and Forfeiting

 Credit Limit

 Benefits of Credit Cover

Introduction
Contract risk and credit risk are the part of international trade finance and are quite
different from each other.
A contract risk is related to the Latin law of "Caveat Emptor", which means "Buyer
Beware" and refers directly to the goods being purchase under contract, whether it's a
car, house land or whatever.
On the other hand a credit risk may be defined as the risk that a counter party to a
transaction will fail to perform according to the terms and conditions of the contract, thus
causing the holder of the claim to suffer a loss.
Banks all over the world are very sensitive to credit risk in various financial sectors like
loans, trade financing, foreign exchange, swaps, bonds, equities, and inter bank
transactions.

Credit Insurance

Credit Insurance is special type of loan which pays back a fraction or whole of the
amount to the borrower in case of death, disability, or unemployment. It protects open
account sales against nonpayment resulting from a customer's legal insolvency or

44
default. It is usually required by manufacturers and wholesalers selling products on
credit terms to domestic and/or foreign customers.
Benefits of Credit Insurance

1. Expand sales to existing customers without increased risk.

2 Offer more competitive credit terms to new customers in new markets.
3. Help protect against potential restatement of earnings.
4. Optimize bank financing by insuring trade receivables.
5. Supplement credit risk management.

Payment Risk

This type of risk arises when a customer charges in an organization or if he does not pay
for operational reasons. Payment risk can only be recovered by a well written contract.
Recovery can not be made for payment risk using credit insurance.

Bad Debt Protection

A bad debt can affect profitability. So, it is always good to keep options ready for bad
debt like Confirmation of LC, debt purchase (factoring without recourse of forfeiting) or
credit insurance.

Confirmation of LC

In an international trade, the confirmation of letter of credit is issued to an exporter or

seller. This confirmation letter assures payment to an exporter or seller, even if the
issuing bank defaults on its payment once the beneficiary meets his terms and
conditions.

Factoring and Forfeiting

Where debt purchase is without recourse, the bank will already have advanced the funds
in the debt purchase transaction. The bank takes the risk of nonpayment.

Credit Limit

Companies with credit insurance need to have proper credit limits according to the terms
and conditions. This includes fulfilling the administrative requirements, including
notification of overdoes and also terms set out in the credit limit decision.

Payment of the claim can only be done after a fix period, which is about 6 months for
slow pay insurance. In case of economic and political events is six or more than six
months, depending on the exporter markets.

Credit insurance covers the risk of non payment of trade debts. Each policy is different,
some covering only insolvency risk on goods delivered, and others covering a wide
range of risk such as :
 Local sales, export sales, or both.

45
  Protracted default.
 Political risk, including contract frustration, war transfer.
 Predelivery risks.
 Cover for sales from stock.
 Non-honoring of letters of credits.
 Bond unfair calling risks.

Like all other insurance, credit insurance covers the risk of fortuitous loss. Key features
of credit insurance are:
 The company is expected to assess that its client exists and is creditworthy. This
might be by using a credit limit service provided by the insurer. A Credit limit Will
to pay attention to the company's credit management procedures, and require
that agreed procedures manuals be followed at all times.
 While the credit insurer underwrites the risk of non-payment and contract
frustration the nature of the risk is affected by how it is managed. The credit
insurer is likely to pay attention to the company's credit managements
procedures, and require that agreed procedures manuals be followed at all times.
 The credit insurer will expect the sales contract to be written effectively and
invoices to be clear.
 The company will be required to report any overdue or other problems in a timely
fashion.
 The credit insurer may have other exposure on the same buyers or in the same
markets. A company will therefore benefit if other policyholder report that a
particular potential customer is in financial difficulties.
 In the event that the customer does not pay, or cannot pay, the policy reacts.
There may be a waiting period to allow the company to start collection
procedures, and to resolve nay quality disputes.
 Many credit insurers contribute to legal costs, including where early action
produces a full recovery and avoids a claim.

Benefits of Credit Cover

 Protection for the debtor asset or the balance sheet.

 Possible access to information on credit rating of foreign buyer.
 Access to trade finance
 Protection of profit margin
 Advice on customers and levels of credit.
 Disciplined credit management.
 Assistance and /or advice when debts are overdue or there is a risk of loss.
 Provides confidence to suppliers, lenders and investors.
 Good corporate governance.

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 Chapter 11 - Country Political Risk
 Introduction
 Measuring Country Risk

 Political Risk

 Predelivery Risks

 Pre Delivery Cover

 Binding contracts cover and noncancelable limits

Introduction

Country risk includes a wide range of risks, associated with lending or depositing funds,
or doing other financial transaction in a particular country. It includes economic risk,
political risk, currency blockage, expropriation, and inadequate access to hard
currencies. Country risk can adversely affect operating profits as well as the value of
assets.

With more investors investing internationally, both directly and indirectly, the political, and
therefore economic, stability and viability of a country's economy need to be considered.

Measuring Country Risk

Given below are the lists of some agencies that provide services in evaluating the
country risk.

 Bank of America World Information Services

 Business Environment Risk Intelligence (BERI) S.A.
 Control Risks Information Services (CRIS)

47
  Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU)
 Euro money
 Institutional Investor
 Standard and Poor's Rating Group
 Political Risk Services: International Country Risk Guide (ICRG)
 Political Risk Services: CoplinO'Leary Rating System
 Moody's Investor Services

Political Risk

The risk of loss due to political reasons arises in a particular country due to changes in
the country's political structure or policies, such as tax laws, tariffs, expropriation of
assets, or restriction in repatriation of profits. Political risk is distinct from other
commercial risks, and tends to be difficult to evaluate.

Some examples of political risks are:

 Contract frustration by another country, government resulting in your inability to

perform the contract, following which the buyer may not make payment and or /
on demand bonds may be called.
 Government buyer repudiating the contract this may be occur if there is a
significant political or economic change within the customer's country.
 Licence cancellation or non-renewal or imposition of an embargo.
 Sanctions imposed against a particular country or company.
 Imposition of exchange controls causing payments to be blocked.
 General moratorium decreed by an overseas government preventing payment
 Shortage of foreign exchange/transfer delay.
 War involving either importing or exporting country.
 Forced abandonment
 Revoking of Import/ Exports Licence.
 Changes in regulations.

The following are also considered as political risks in relation to exporting:

 Confiscation of assets by a foreign government.
 Unfair calling of bonds.

Insurance companies provide political risk covers. These may be purchased:

 On their own, covering only political risk on the sale to a particular country.
 For a portfolio of political risks.
 For the political risks in relation to the sale to another company in your group
(where there is a common shareholding and therefore insolvency cover is not
available).
 As part of a credit insurance policy.

Predelivery Risks

A company can suffer financial loss, if export contract is cancelled due to commercial or
political reasons, even before the goods and services are dispatched or delivered. In
such a situation, the exposure to loss will depends on:

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  The nature of the contract.
 If the company can salvage any products and resell them quickly, with a small
amount of re working
 Any stage payments
 If servicing staff have left the country.
 The extent of the commitments to suppliers.
 The horizon of pre delivery risk
 The customer and country risks

Pre Delivery Cover

Credit insurance can be extended to cover predelivery risk, in particular, the risk of
customer insolvency predelivery or political frustration predelivery.

Some times predelivery cover can be extended included the frustration of a contract
caused by non-payment of a pre delivery milestone, and or non-payment of a
termination account, and or bond call.

Predelivery risks are often complicated and the wording of the cover is worth careful
examination.

It is to be noted that in the event that it was clearly unwise to dispatch goods, credit risk
(payment risk) cover would not automatically apply if the company nonetheless went
ahead and dispatched head them.

Binding contracts cover and Noncancelable Limits

Binding contracts cover and noncancelable limits are not included in predelivery cover.
However, they provide a commitment from the credit insurer that the cover for
dispatches / invoices will not be withdrawn without a prior notice.
If the company's customer is overdue, or it is imprudent to dispatch, there is no credit
insurance cover for dispatches subsequently made, even where the company holds
binding contract cover or noncancelable limits.

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 Chapter 12 - Currency Risk
 Introduction
 Currency Hedging
 FOREX Market
 Spot Rate
 Forward Price
 Forward Price vs. Spot Price
 RBI Reference Rate
 Inter Bank Rates
 Telegraphic Transfer
 Currency Rate
 Cross Rate
 Long and Short
 Bid and Ask
 Buying and Selling
 FOREX Rates vs. Interest Rates
 Calculating the Forward Rates
Introduction
Currency risk is a type of risk in international trade that arises from the fluctuation in
price of one currency against another. This is a permanent risk that will remain as long
as currencies remain the medium of exchange for commercial transactions. Market
fluctuations of relative currency values will continue to attract the attention of the
exporter, the manufacturer, the investor, the banker, the speculator, and the policy maker
alike.

While doing business in foreign currency, a contract is signed and the company quotes a
price for the goods using a reasonable exchange rate. However, economic events may
upset even the best laid plans. Therefore, the company would ideally wish to have a
strategy for dealing with exchange rate risk.
Currency Hedging

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Currency hedging is technique used to avoid the risks associated with the changing
value of currency while doing transactions in international trade. It is possible to take
steps to hedge foreign currency risk. This may be done through one of the following
options:
 Billing foreign deals in Indian Rupees: This insulates the Indian exporter from
currency fluctuations. However, this may not be acceptable to the foreign buyer.
Most of international trade transactions take place in one of the major foreign
currencies USD, Euro, Pounds Sterling, and Yen.
 Forward contract. You agree to sell a fixed amount of foreign exchange (to
convert this into your currency) at a future date, allowing for the risk that the
buyer’s payments are late.
 Options: You buy the right to have currency at an agreed rate within an agreed
period. For example, if you expect to receive $35,000 in 3 months, time you
could buy an option to convert $35,000 into your currency in 3 months. Options
can be more expensive than a forward contract, but you don't need to
compulsorily use your option.
 Foreign currency bank account and foreign currency borrowing: These may be
suitable where you have cost in the foreign currency or in a currency whose
exchange rate is related to that currency.

FOREX Market

Forex market is one of the largest financial markets in the world, where buyers and
sellers conduct foreign exchange transactions. Its important in the international trade can
be estimated with the fact that average daily trade in the global forex markets is over US
$ 3 trillion. We shall touch upon some important topics that affect the risk profile of an
International transaction.

Spot Rate

Also known as "benchmark rates", "straightforward rates” or "outright rates", spot rates is
an agreement to buy or sell currency at the current exchange rate. The globally
accepted settlement cycle for foreign exchange contracts is two days. Foreign exchange
contracts are therefore settled on the second day after the day the deal is made.

Forward Price

Forward price is a fixed price at which a particular amount of a commodity, currency or

security is to be delivered on a fixed date in the future, possibly as for as a year ahead.
Traders agree to buy and sell currencies for settlement at least three days later, at
predetermined exchange rates. This type of transaction often is used by business to
reduce their exchange rate risk.

Forward Price vs. Spot Price

Theoretically it is possible for a forward price of a currency to equal its spot price
however, interest rates must be considered. The interest rate can be earned by holding
different currencies usually varies, therefore forward price can be higher or lower than
(at premium or discount to) the spot prices.

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RBI Reference Rate

Their reference rate given by RBI is based on 12 noon rates of a few selected banks in
Mumbai.

Inter Bank Rates

Interbank rates quotes the bank for buying and selling foreign currency in the inter bank
market, which works on wafer thin margins . For inter bank transactions the quotation is
up to four decimals with the last two digits in multiples of 25.

Telegraphic Transfer

Telegraphic transfer or in short TT is a quick method of transfer money from one bank to
another bank. TT method of money transfer has been introduced to solve the delay
problems caused by cheque or demand drafts. In this method, money does not move
physically and order to pay is wired to an institutions’ casher to make payment to a
company or individual. A cipher code is appended to the text of the message to ensure
its integrity and authenticity during transit. The same principle applies with Western
Union and Money Gram.

Currency Rate

The Currency rate is the rate at which the authorized dealer buys and sells the currency
notes to its customers. It depends on the TC rate and is more than the TC rate for the
person who is buying them.

Cross Rate

In inter bank transactions all currencies are normally traded against the US dollar, which
becomes a frame of reference. So if one is buying with rupees a currency X which is not
normally traded, one can arrive at a rupee exchange rate by relating the rupee $ rate to
the $X rate . This is known as a cross rate.

Long and Short

When you go long on a currency, its means you bought it and are holding it in the
expectation that it will appreciate in value. By contrast, going short means you reselling
currency in the expectation that what you are selling will depreciate in value.

Bid and Ask

Bids are the highest price that the seller is offering for the particular currency. On the
other hand, ask is the lowest price acceptable to the buyer. Together, the two prices
constitute a quotation and the difference between the price offered by a dealer willing to
sell something and the price he is willing to pay to buy it back.

The bid ask spread is amount by which the ask price exceeds the bid. This is essentially

52
the difference in price between the highest price that a buyer is willing to pay for an
asset and the lowest price for which a seller is willing to sell it.
For example, if the bid price is $20 and the ask price is $21 then the "bidask spread" is
$1.
The spread is usually rates as percentage cost of transacting in the forex market, which
is computed as follow:

Percent spread =(Ask price Bid price)/Ask price *100

The main advantage of bid and ask methods is that conditions are laid out in advance
and transactions can proceed with no further permission or authorization from any
participants. When any bid and ask pair are compatible, a transaction occurs, in most
cases automatically.

Buying and Selling

In terms of foreign exchange, buying means purchasing a certain amount of the foreign
currency at the bid or buying price against the delivery /crediting of a second currency
which is also called counter currency.
On the other hand, selling refers to a fix amount of foreign currency at the offered or
selling price against the receipt / debiting of another currency.

FOREX Rates vs. Interest Rates

Forex rates or exchange rate is the price of a country's currency in terms of another
country's currency. It specifies how much one currency is worth in terms of the other. For
example a forex rate of 123 Japanese yen (JPY, ¥) to the United States dollar (USD, $)
means that JPY 123 is worth the same as USD 1.
Choice of currency and its interest rate is a major concern in the international trade.
Investors are easily attracted by the higher interest rates which in turns also effects the
economy of a nation and its currency value.
For an example, if interest rate on INR were substantially higher than the interest rate on
USD, more USD would be converted into INR and pumped into the Indian economic
system. This would result in appreciation of the INR, resulting in lower conversion rates
of USD against INR, at the time of reconversion into USD.

Calculating the Forward Rates

A forward rate is calculated by calculating the interest rate difference between the two
currencies involved in the transactions. For example, if a client is buying 30 days US
dollar then, the difference between the spot rate and the forward rate will be calculated
as follow:
The US dollars are purchased on the spot market at an appropriate rate, what causes
the forward contract rate to be higher or lower is the difference in the interest rates
between India and the United States.

The interest rate earned on US dollars is less than the interest rate earned on Indian
Rupee (INR). Therefore, when the forward rates are calculated the cost of this interest
rate differential is added to the transaction through increasing the rate.

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USD 100,000 X 1.5200 = INR 152,000
INR 152,000 X 1% divided by 12 months = INR 126.67
INR 152,000 + INR 126.67 = INR 152,126.67
INR 152,126.67/USD 100,000 = 1.5213

Chapter 13 - Export Import (Exim) Policy

 Introduction
 Highlight of Exim Policy 200207

 Service Exports

 Status Holders

 Hardware/Software

 Gem & Jewellery Sector

 Removal of Quantitative Restrictions

 Special Economic Zones Scheme

 EOU Scheme

 EPCG Scheme

 DEPB Scheme

 DFRC Scheme

 Miscellaneous

Introduction

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Export Import Policy or better known as Exim Policy is a set of guidelines and
instructions related to the import and export of goods. The Government of India notifies
the Exim Policy for a period of five years (1997 2002) under Section 5 of the Foreign
Trade (Development and Regulation Act), 1992. The current policy covers the period
2002 2007. The Export Import Policy is updated every year on the 31st of March and the
modifications, improvements and new schemes became effective from 1st April of every
year. All types of changes or modifications related to the Exim Policy is normally
announced by the Union Minister of Commerce and Industry who coordinates with the
Ministry of Finance, the Directorate General of Foreign Trade and its network of regional
offices.

Highlight of Exim Policy 2002 - 07

1. Service Exports

Duty free import facility for service sector having a minimum foreign exchange earning of
Rs. 10 Lakh. The duty free entitlement shall be 10% of the average foreign exchange
earned in the preceding three licensing years.

However, for hotels the same shall be 5 % of the average foreign exchange earned in
the preceding three licensing years. Imports of agriculture and dairy products shall not
be allowed for imports against the entitlement. The entitlement and the goods imported
against such entitlement shall be non transferable.

2. Status Holders

a. Duty free import entitlement for status holder having incremental growth of more
than 25% in FOB value of exports (in free foreign exchange). This facility shall
however be available to status holder having a minimum export turnover of Rs.
25 Crore (in free foreign exchange).
b. Annual Advance Licence facility for status holder to be introduced to enable them
to plan for their imports of raw material and component on an annual basis and
take advantage of bulk purchase.
c. Status holder in STPI shall be permitted free movement of professional
equipments like laptop/computer.

3. Hardware/Software

a. To give a boost to electronic hardware industry, supplies of all 217 ITA1 items
from EHTP units to Domestic Tariff Area (DTA) shall qualify for fulfillment of
export obligation.
b. To promote growth of exports in embedded software, hardware shall be
admissible for duty free import for testing and development purpose. Hardware
up to a value of US$ 10,000 shall be allowed to be disposed off subject to STPI
certification.
c. 100% depreciation to be available over a period of 3 years to computer and
computer peripherals for units in EOU/EHTP/STP/SEZ.

4. Gem & Jewellery Sector

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 a. Diamonds & Jewellery Dollar Account for exporters dealing in purchase /sale of
diamonds and diamond studded jewellery.
b. Nominated agencies to accept payment in dollar for cost of import of precious
metals from EEFC account of exporter.
c. Gem & Jewellery units in SEZ and EOUs can receive precious metal
Gold/silver/platinum prior to export or post export equivalent to value of jewellery
exported. This means that they can bring export proceeds in kind against the
present provision of bringing in cash only.

5. Removal of Quantitative Restrictions

a. Import of 69 items covering animals products, vegetables and spice antibiotics

and films removed from restricted list
b. Export of 5 items namely paddy except basmati, cotton linters, rare, earth, silk,
cocoons, family planning device except condoms, removed from restricted list.

6. Special Economic Zones Scheme

a. Sales from Domestic Tariff Area (DTA) to SEZ to be treated as export. This would
now entitle domestic suppliers to Duty Drawback / DEPB benefits, CST
exemption and Service Tax exemption.
b. Agriculture/Horticulture processing SEZ units will now be allowed to provide
inputs and equipments to contract farmers in DTA to promote production of
goods as per the requirement of importing countries.
c. Foreign bound passengers will now be allowed to take goods from SEZ’s to
promote trade, tourism and exports.
d. Domestic’s sales by SEZ units will now be exempt from SAD.
e. Restriction of one-year period for remittance of export proceeds removed for SEZ
units.
f. Netting of export permitted for SEZ units provided it is between same exporter
and importer over a period of 12 months.
g. SEZ units permitted to take job work abroad and exports goods from there only.
h. SEZ units can capitalize import payables.
i. Wastage for sub contracting/exchange by gem and jewellery units in transactions
between SEZ and DTA will now be allowed.
j. Export/Import of all products through post parcel /courier by SEZ units will now
be allowed.
k. The value of capital goods imported by SEZ units will now be amortized uniformly
over 10 years.
l. SEZ units will now be allowed to sell all products including gems and jewellery
through exhibition and duty free shops or shops set up abroad.
m. Goods required for operation and maintenance of SEZ units will now be allowed
duty free.

7. EOU Scheme

Provision b, c, i, j, k and l of SEZ (Special Economic Zone) scheme, as mentioned

above, apply to Export Oriented Units (EOUs) also. Besides these, the other important
provisions are:

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 a. EOUs are now required to be only net positive foreign exchange earner and
there will now be no export performance requirement.
b. Period of Utilization raw materials prescribed for EOUs increased from 1 year to
3 years.
c. Gems and jewellery EOUs are now being permitted sub contracting in DTA.
d. Gems and jewellery EOUs will now be entitled to advance domestic sales.

8. EPCG Scheme

a. The Export Promotion Capital Goods (EPCG) Scheme shall allow import of
capital goods for preproduction and postproduction facilities also.
b. The Export Obligation under the scheme shall be linked to the duty saved and
shall b 8 times the duty saved.
c. To facilities upgradation of existing plant and machinery, import of spares shall be
allowed under the scheme.
d. To promote higher value addition in export, the existing condition of imposing an
additional Export Obligation of 50% for products in the higher product chain to be
done away with.
e. Greater flexibility for fulfillment of export obligation under the scheme by allowing
export of any other product manufactured by the exporter. This shall take care of
the dynamics of international market.
f. Capital goods up to 10 years old shall also be allowed under the Scheme.
g. To facilitate diversification in to the software sector, existing manufacturer
exporters will be allowed of fulfill export obligation arising out of import of capital
goods under the scheme for setting up of software units through export of
manufactured goods of the same company.
h. Royalty payments received from abroad and testing charges received in free
foreign exchange to be counted for discharge of export obligation under EPCG
Scheme.

9. DEPB Scheme

a. Facility for pro visional Duty Entitlement Pass Book (DEPB) rates introduced to
encourage diversification and promote export of new products.
b. DEPB rates rationalize in line with general reduction in Customs duty.

10. DFRC Scheme

a. Duty Free Replenishment Certificate (DFRC) scheme extended to deemed

export to provide a boost to domestic manufacturer.
b. Value addition under DFRC scheme reduced from 33% to 25%.

11. Miscellaneous

a. Actual user condition for import of second hand capital goods up to 10 years old
dispensed with.
b. Reduction in penal interest rate from 24% to 15% for all old cases of default
under Exim policy
c. Restriction on export of warranty spares removed.
d. IEC holder to furnish online return of importers/exporters made on yearly basis.

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 e. Export of free of cost goods for export promotion @ 2% of average annual
exports in preceding three years subject to ceiling of Rs. 5 Lakh permitted.

Chapter 14 - Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA)

 Introduction
 Some Highlights of FEMA
 Buyer’s /Supplier's Credit
Introduction
Foreign Exchange Management Act or in short (FEMA) is an act that provides guidelines
for the free flow of foreign exchange in India. It has brought a new management regime
of foreign exchange consistent with the emerging framework of the World Trade
Organization (WTO). Foreign Exchange Management Act was earlier known as FERA
(Foreign Exchange Regulation Act), which has been found to be unsuccessful with the
proliberalisation policies of the Government of India.
FEMA is applicable in all over India and even branches, offices and agencies located
outside India, if it belongs to a person who is a resident of India.

Some Highlights of FEMA

 It prohibits foreign exchange dealing undertaken other than an authorised

person;

58
  It also makes it clear that if any person residing in India, received any Forex
payment (without there being a corresponding inward remittance from abroad)
the concerned person shall be deemed to have received they payment from a
nonauthorised person.
 There are 7 types of current account transactions, which are totally prohibited,
and therefore no transaction can be undertaken relating to them. These include
transaction relating to lotteries, football pools, banned magazines and a few
others.
 FEMA and the related rules give full freedom to Resident of India (ROI) to hold or
own or transfer any foreign security or immovable property situated outside India.
 Similar freedom is also given to a resident who inherits such security or
immovable property from an ROI.
 An ROI is permitted to hold shares; securities and properties acquired by him
while he was a Resident or inherited such properties from a Resident.
 The exchange drawn can also be used for purpose other than for which it is
drawn provided drawl of exchange is otherwise permitted for such purpose.
 Certain prescribed limits have been substantially enhanced. For instance,
residence now going abroad for business purpose or for participating in
conferences seminars will not need the RBI's permission to avail foreign
exchange up to US$. 25,000 per trip irrespective of the period of stay; basic
travel quota has been increased from the existing US$ 3,000 to US$ 5,000 per
calendar year.

Buyer’s /Supplier's Credit

Trade Credit has been subjected to dynamic regulation over a period of last two years.
Now, Reserve Bank of India (RBI) vide circular number A.P. (DIR Series) Circular No. 24,
Dated November 1, 2004, has given general permission to ADs for issuance of
Guarantee/ Letter of Undertaking (LoU) / Letter of Comfort (LoC) subject to certain terms
and conditions. In view of the above, we are issuing consolidated guidelines and process
flow for availing trade credit.
1. Definition of Trade Credit: Credit extended for imports of goods directly by the
overseas supplier, bank and financial institution for original maturity of less than
three years from the date of shipment is referred to as trade credit for imports.
Depending on the source of finance, such trade credit will include supplier's
credit or buyers credit, Supplier 's credit relates to credit for imports into India
extended by the overseas supplier, while Buyers credit refers to loans for
payment of imports in to India arranged by the importer from a bank or financial
institution outside India for maturity of less than three years.

It may be noted that buyers credit and suppliers credit for three years and above
come under the category of External Commercial Borrowing (ECB), which are
governed by ECB guidelines. Trade credit can be availed for import of goods only
therefore interest and other charges will not be a part of trade credit at any point
of time.
2. Amount and tenor: For import of all items permissible under the Foreign Trade
Policy (except gold), Authorized Dealers (ADs) have been permitted to approved
trade credits up to 20 millions per import transaction with a maturity period (from
the date of shipment) up to one year.

Additionally, for import of capital goods, ADs have been permitted to approved

59
 trade credits up to USD 20 millions transactions with a maturity period of more
than one year and less than three years. No roll over/ extension will be permitted
by the AD beyond the permissible period.
3. All in cost ceiling: The all in cost ceiling are as under: Maturity period up to one
year 6 months LIBOR +50 basis points.

Maturity period more than one year but less than three years 6 months LIBOR* +
125 basis point
* for the respective currency of credit or applicable benchmark like EURIBOR.,
SIBOR, TIBOR, etc.
4. Issue of guarantee, letter of undertaking or letter of comfort in favour of overseas
lender: RBI has given general permission to ADs for issuance of guarantee /
Letter of Undertaking (LOU) / Letter of Comfort (LOC) in favour of overseas
supplier, bank and financial instruction, up to USD 20 millions per transaction for
a period up to one year for import of all non capital goods permissible under
Foreign Trade Policy (except gold) and up to three years for import of capital
goods.

In case the request for trade credit does not comply with any of the RBI
stipulations, the importer needs to have approval from the central office of RBI.

FEMA regulations have an immense impact in international trade transactions

and different modes of payments. RBI release regular notifications and circulars,
outlining its clarifications and modifications related to various sections of FEMA.

Chapter 15 - Fedai Guidelines

Established in 1958, FEDAI (Foreign Exchange Dealers' Association of India) is a group
of banks that deals in foreign exchange in India as a self regulatory body under the
Section 25 of the Indian Company Act (1956).
The role and responsibilities of FEDAI are as follows:
 Formulations of FEDAI guidelines and FEDAI rules for Forex business.
 Training of bank personnel in the areas of Foreign Exchange Business.
 Accreditation of Forex Brokers.
 Advising/Assisting member banks in settling issues/matters in their dealings.
 Represent member banks on Government/Reserve Bank of India and other
bodies.
 Rules of FEDAI also include announcement of daily and periodical rates to its
member banks.

FEDAI guidelines play an important role in the functioning of the markets and work in
close coordination with Reserve Bank of India (RBI), other organizations like Fixed
Income Money Market and Derivatives Association (FIMMDA), the Forex Association of
India and various other market participants.

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