1.

- Please give a few information related to short-circuit

•Short-circuit analysis is carried out in electrical power utility systems, industrial power
systems, commercial power systems and power station auxiliary systems.
•Other special applications are in concentrated power system installations on board
military and commercial ships and aircraft.

2. Why short-circuit current calculations are necessary?

•Calculations of minimum short-circuit currents are made and these are used in the
calculation of protection relay settings to ensure accurate and coordinated relay
operations.

•In transmission systems, short-circuit currents must be quickly cleared to avoid loss of
synchronism of generation plant and major power system blackouts.

•Maximum short-circuit current calculations are carried out for the design of substation
earth electrode systems.

3. What is short-circuit fault analysis aimed at?

•Short-circuit fault analysis is carried out to ensure the safety of workers as well as the
general public.
•Power system equipment such as circuit-breakers can fail catastrophically if they are
subjected to fault duties that exceed their rating.
•Other equipment such as busbars, transformers and cables can fail thermally or
mechanically if subjected to fault currents in excess of ratings.

•Short-circuit fault analysis is carried out to ensure the safety of workers as well as the
general public.

•Power system equipment such as circuit breakers can fail catastrophically if they are
subjected to fault duties that exceed their rating.

•Other equipment such as bus bars, transformers and cables can fail thermally or
mechanically if subjected to fault currents in excess of ratings

4. Please give the definition of a fault

A fault on a power system is an abnormal condition that involves an electrical failure of
power system equipment operating at one of the primary voltages within the system.

5. Classification of SC under the angle of sources

• Fault due to lightning
• Tree limbs falling on the line
• Wind damage
• Insulation deterioration
• Vandalism

6. Classification of short-circuits
2 types of classifications:
Far-from-generator short-circuit
 When double the rated current is not exceeded in any machine, we speak of a far-
from-generator short-circuit.
Near-to-generator short-circuit
When the value of the initial symmetrical short-circuit current I²k exceeds double the
rated current in at least one synchronous or asynchronous machine at the time at
which the short-circuit occurs, we speak of a near-to- generator short-circuit.

7. Definition of SC according to IEC 60 909

A short-circuit is the accidental or intentional conductive connection through a relatively

low resistance or impedance between two or more points of a circuit which are normally at
different potentials.

8. Definition of Initial symmetrical short-circuit current:

This is the effective value of the symmetrical short-circuit current at the moment at which
the short-circuit arises, when the short-circuit impedance has its value from the time zero.

9. Definition of Initial symmetrical short-circuit apparent power:

The short-circuit power represents a fictitious parameter. During the planning of networks,
the short-circuit power is a suitable characteristic number

10. Definition of Peak short-circuit current:

The largest possible momentary value of the short-circuit occurring

11. Please depict an example of short-circuit current for the following cases:
- short current without aperiodic component,

(a) short current without aperiodic component,

- short current with maximum value of aperiodic component

 (b) short current with maximum value of aperiodic component I”K- initial short-circuit
current , ip- inrush current, IK- stead-state short-circuit current

12. Please give a few information about the path of the armature flow in a generator during
transient states:

13. Please give the equivalent reactance of a synchronous generator in the different states:
14. Which calculation procedures are used for the determination of The short-circuit
currents in three phase systems
The short-circuit currents in three-phase systems can be determined by three different
calculation procedures:
1. Calculating with the equivalent voltage source at the fault location
2. Superposition method for a defined load flow case
3. Transient calculation

15. What the DC component of a short circuit current depends on?

The DC aperiodic component depends on the point in time at which the short - circuit
occurs. For a near-to generator short-circuit, the sub transient and the transient behavior
of the synchronous machines is important.
 Following the decay of all transient phenomena, the steady state sets in.

16. Please depict an example of short-circuit and indicate the following components.
- The DC component of the phase current and the corresponding ac field and damper
winding current

- the AC component of the phase A current and the corresponding dc component of the
field and damper winding current
 - the resulting current, the field and the damper winding as the sum of the AC and DC
current

17. What is the Symmetrical Component Method - 0,1,2 method aimed at?
The main idea of the methods discussed in this chapter is to replace the phase voltages
and currents by other fictional voltages and currents so that the relationship between the
fictional voltages and currents correspond to a diagonal matrix, that is to say that there is
no magnetic coupling between fictional circuits

18. Please demonstrate the passage from the matrix

To the matrix

19. Please describe the derivation of the superposition method as used for three-phase short
circuit calculation.
3-phase short-circuit: Please demonstrate the passage from the equivalent circuit given
below

Pagina 26 – ultimo pdf

To the following form
20. What is the electrical interpretation of the decomposition of a three-phase system into
symmetrical components?
21. Please give a few information about the mechanism and the role of the superposition
method in short circuit computation.
The superposition method is an exact method for the calculation of the short-circuit
currents.
The method consists of three steps. The voltage ratios and the loading condition of the
network must be known before the occurrence of the short-circuit.

In the first step the currents, voltages and the internal voltages for steady-state operation
before onset of the short-circuit are calculated (Figure b). The calculation considers the
impedances, power supply feeders and node loads of the active elements.

In the second step the voltage applied to the fault location before the occurrence of the
short-circuit and the current distribution at the fault location are determined with a
negative sign (Figure c). This voltage source is the only voltage source in the network. The
internal voltages are short-circuited.

In the third step, both conditions are superimposed. We then obtain zero voltage at the
fault location. The superposition of the currents also leads to the zero value.
22. Please describe the derivation of the superposition method as used for three-phase short
circuit calculation.
23. Please give a few information about the mechanism and the role of the superposition
method in short circuit computation.
24. Please describe the derivation of the superposition method as used for line to earth short
circuit calculation.
25. Please describe the derivation of the superposition method as used for line to line short
circuit calculation.

Generator and line models for short-circuit calculations

1. Please indicate what are the main assumptions we have to make in order to create a proper
synchronous generator model for short-circuit calculations.
2. What are the assumptions to be taken in order to derive the following formulas?

When building the mathematical model of synchronous generator?

3. Which elements the impedances the symmetrical components of overhead transmission

lines depend on?

The symmetrical impedances of symmetrical components of overhead transmission lines

depend on self and mutual impedances of the different phases, which in turn depend on such
construction parameters like:

• Number of wires in a phase (conduit),

• Arrangement of phase wires,

• Distance between different phases,

• Distance between different phases and earth.

4. Please indicate the model of overhead line for short-circuit calculations.

5. What are the main parameters, which influence the model of overhead line for short-circuit
calculations?

6. What is the difference between a model of underground and overhead line?

Underground cable line mathematical models are the same as for overhead power lines. Only
the unit parameters are different for the following reasons:

The distance between phase conductors are very small. So are the distance between earthing
conductors, plumb jackets (older types of cables), aluminum sheath and metallic paper outer
jacket, protective jacket and so on.

All the circuits, expect the auxiliary wiring circuits are connected to earth by adequate earthing
by means of cable wiring in cable boxes considering the high value of certain leakage
conductance protective shields all along the cable length.

Small distances between wires make the capacitive reactances between lines and earth higher.
The positive sequence reactance is smaller and the ratio X0/X1 higher

7. What are the main parameters, which influence the model of cable line for, short-circuit
calculations?

Transformers

1. What type of losses are taken into account in order to model a real transformer
accurately?
To model a real transformer accurately, we need to account for the following losses:
 Copper losses – resistive heating in the windings: I2R.
1. Eddy current losses – resistive heating in the core: proportional to the square of
voltage applied to the transformer.
2. Hysteresis losses – energy needed to rearrange magnetic domains in the core:
nonlinear function of the voltage applied to the transformer.
3. Leakage flux – flux that escapes from the core and flux that passes through one
winding only.

2. Why the transformer models are of T-type?

Let us consider why the T-model is used as equivalent circuit of transformer for the
following reasons:
Let’s consider two windings, whose the number of winds situated on the same core are
the same. Then they are magnetically coupled.
3. How can the transformer impedance used for short-circuit calculations be determined?
4. Please depict the three winding transformer equivalent circuit. How are calculated the
different short-circuit impedances used in the model?
5. What are the two essential characteristics of three winding transformers, which decide
about the zero sequence impedance values?

6. Please give a few information about the parameters which decide about the zero sequence
impedance values of three winding transformer.
7. Please show the flow of zero sequence current from the Y connection point in a circuit for
transformers with Yy winding configuration. Please explain the phenomenon and depict an
appropriate equivalent circuit
8. Please show the flow of zero sequence current from the Y connection point in a circuit for
transformers with Yy winding configuration. Please explain the phenomenon and depict an
appropriate equivalent circuit

OJO
ESTUDIAR TODOS LOS CIRCUITOS
EQUIVALENTES DE SECUENCIA CERO EN
TRANSFORMADORES

9. Please indicate the way how the currents are induced at the primary side of the
transformer in case a line to earth short-circuit occurs at the secondary side as shown in
the following picture