Chloride Attack on Concrete Structures:

Chloride attack is one of the most important aspects for

consideration when we deal with the durability of concrete. Chloride
attack is particularly important because it primarily causes corrosion
of reinforcement. Statistics have indicated that over 40 per cent of
failure of structures is due to corrosion of reinforcement.

Due to high alkalinity of concrete a protective oxide film is present

on the surface of steel reinforcement. The protective passivity layer
can be lost due to carbonation. This protective layer also can be lost
due to the presence of chloride in the presence of water and
oxygen. In reality the action of chloride in inducing corrosion of
reinforcement is more serious than any other reasons. One may
understand that Sulphates attack the concrete whereas the chloride
attacks steel reinforcements.

Chloride enters the concrete from cement, water, and aggregate

and sometimes from admixtures. The present day admixtures are
generally containing negligible quantity of chloride or what they call
chloride free. Chloride can enter the concrete by diffusion from
environment. The Bureau of Indian Standard earlier specified the
maximum chloride content in cement as 0.05 percent. But it is now
increased the allowable chloride content in cement to 0.1 per cent. I
S 456 of 2000 limits the chloride content as (Cl) in the concrete at
the time of placing is shown in table-1.

Table-1: Limits of Chloride Content of Concrete (IS 456 of

2000)
Maximum Total
acid soluble
S.No. Type of Use of Concrete chloride content.
Expressed as
kg/m3 of concrete
1 Concrete containing metal and steam cured at
elevated temperature and prestressed 0.4
concrete.
2 Reinforced concrete or plain concrete
containing embedded metal. 0.6
3 Concrete not containing embedded metal or
any material requiring protection from 3.0
chloride.

The amount of chloride required for initiating corrosion is partly

dependent on the pH value of the pore water in concrete. At a pH
value less than 11.5 corrosion may occur without the presence of
chloride. At pH value greater than 11.5 a good amount of chloride is
required.
DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE TO
ENVIRONMENT
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Durability and strength are two most important criteria for the
design of reinforced concrete structures. These are the two
requirements for the long term performance of concrete structures.
Any deficiency in any of the two i.e. durability and strength, could
make the structure unfit for the intended purpose. If the structure is
not durable, but it has sufficient strength, then the strength of
structure reduces with the age due to deterioration of concrete and
reinforcement due to surrounding environment.
Standard codes in limit state design method have made the
durability check as an integral part of the design process. When
checking for durability of the reinforced concrete structure,
durability of concrete as well as steel reinforcement is considered.
Any lack of the required durability reduces the designed life of the
structure.
Environment plays an important role while selecting durable
materials for reinforced concrete structures. For environments such
as coastal areas where rate of corrosion is very high, special care is
taken for the corrosion allowance of reinforcement, epoxy painting
of reinforcement, required cover to reinforcement, grade of concrete
to be used, water-cement ratio, quality of water for construction,
proper placement and compaction of concrete.
Some precautions to be taken care while constructions of
reinforced concrete structure for durability are:
1. Proper amount of minimum cover specified by the code should be
provided.

2. Minimum cement content in concrete mix and maximum water-

cement ratio guidelines based on type of environment provided by
the code should be followed.

3. Using good quality lab tested coarse and fine aggregates suitable
for construction and free from (or within permissible limits)
impurities such as dust, alkalies, chlorides, sulfates etc. should be
used.

4. Based on environment attack on structure, suitable type of

cement, concrete admixturesand water-cement ratio should be
used.
5. Good placement and compaction of concrete.
6. Following formwork removal schedule as per type of construction
as per guidelines given by standard codes.

7. Proper curing of concrete for the required period of time.

Some of the major durability problems caused by

environment are:
1. Corrosion of steel reinforcement:
This corrosion of steel reinforcement can be controlled by:

 Cover to reinforcement (IS 456, Cl.25.4)

 Minimum cement content (IS 456, Table-19)
 Proper water-cement ratio
 Proper compaction and curing
 Using epoxy coated reinforcement.

2. Deterioration of Concrete:
Due to chemical attacks such as sulfates present near chemical
industries atmosphere, soil and ground water, the concrete even
without reinforcement steel deteriorates. Concrete in plant drains or
sewers are also exposed to such environment and deteriorates due
to sulfate action. To overcome the problem of such deterioration of
concrete, following points should be followed:

 Using proper cement types such as sulphate resistant cement or

cement with low C3A content
 Using minimum cement content as specified by the code
 Using proper water-cement ratio for the concrete
 Using protective coating to concrete surface buried under the
soil.

Table – Classification of Exposure Conditions (According to

IS 456- Table-19)
 Type of Exposure Environment Description
Mild Protected concrete surface
Sheltered from rain or permanently under water or in contact with
Moderate
non-aggressive soils
Severe Alternate wetting and drying or exposed to sea water
Very severe Exposed to sea water spray or corrosive fumes
Extreme Exposed to abrasive action like sea water carrying solids

Table – Nominal Cover for Durability (BS 8110)

Exposure Concrete Grade (Size of aggregate – 20mm)
Condition
25 30 35 40 45

Mild 25 20* 20* 20* 20*

Moderate - 35 30 25 20
Severe - - 40 30 25

Very Severe - - 50 40 30

Extreme – - - 60 50

Notes:
1. Minimum grade of concrete for Reinforced concrete work is 25
(According to BS 8110).

2. Grades of concrete shown in Table include a relaxation of 5 MPa.

3. The cover specified is the nominal cover to reinforcement,

including links.

4. Cover may be reduced to 15mm in places marked by * when the

aggregate size does not exceed 15mm.

Table – Increased cover for special conditions for concrete

below M25 Grade (IS456-Cl.25.4)
Condition Additional Cover (mm)
Members totally immersed in sea water 40
Members periodically immersed in sea water or subjected to sea water
50
spray
Members exposed to harmful chemicals and in contact with earth faces 15 to 50
contaminated with chemicals (Average value =35)

Notes: For concrete grade M25 and above, the additional cover
specified may be reduced to half. In all cases, the cover to
reinforcement should not exceed 75mm.
Table – Minimum cement content and water-cement ratio for
Durability (IS 456, Table-19)
Exposure Minimum Cement Content Maximum water cement ratio
3
Condition (kg/m )
IS BS IS BS
Mild 250 275 0.65 0.65
Moderate 290 300 0.55 0.6
Severe 360 385 0.45 0.55
TYPES OF CHEMICAL ATTACKS ON
CONCRETE STRUCTURES
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Chemical attacks on concrete structures causes deterioration of

structure and its durability is affected. The life of structure reduces
and it can lead to failure of structures. The various types of chemical
attacks and their effects on concrete structures are discussed
below:

(a) Chlorides attacks on concrete structures:

High concentrations of chloride ions cause corrosion of
reinforcement and the products of corrosion can disrupt the
concrete. Chlorides can be introduced into the concrete either
during or after construction as follows.

(i) Before construction Chlorides can be admitted in admixtures

containing calcium chloride, through using mixing water
contaminated with salt water or improperly washed marine
aggregates.

(ii) After construction Chlorides in salt or sea water, in airborne sea

spray and from de-icing salts can attack permeable concrete causing
corrosion of reinforcement.

Chlorides are discussed in BS8110: Part 1, clause 6.2.5.2. The

clause limits the total chloride content expressed as a percentage of
chloride ion by mass of cement to 0.4% for concrete containing
embedded metal. It was common practice in the past to add calcium
chloride to concrete to increase the rate of hardening. The code now
recommends that calcium chloride and chloride-based admixtures
should not be added
to reinforced concrete containing embedded metals.

Fig: Chemical attack on concrete column

(b) Sulphates attacks on concrete structures:
Sulphates are present in most cements and some aggregates.
Sulphates may also be present in soils, groundwater and sea water,
industrial wastes and acid rain. The products of sulphate attack on
concrete occupy a larger space than the original material and this
causes the concrete to disintegrate and permits corrosion of steel to
begin. BS8110: Part 1, clause 6.2.5.3, states that the total water-
soluble sulphate
content of the concrete mix expressed as SO3should not exceed 4%
by mass of cement in the mix. Sulphate-resisting Portland cement
should be used where sulphates are present in the soil, water or
atmosphere and come into contact with the concrete.
Super-sulphated cement, made from blast furnace slag,can also be
used although it is not widely available. This cement can resist the
highest concentrations of sulphates.

(c) Carbonation of concrete structures:

Carbonation is the process by which carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere slowly transforms calcium hydroxide into calcium
carbonate in concrete. The concrete itself is not harmed and
increases in strength, but the reinforcement can be seriously
affected by corrosion as a result of this process.

Normally the high pH value of the concrete prevents corrosion of the

reinforcing bars by keeping them in a highly alkaline environment
due to the release of calcium hydroxide by the cement during its
hydration. Carbonated concrete has a pH value of 8.3 while the
passivation of steel starts at a pH value of 9.5. The depth of
Carbonation in good dense concrete is about 3 mm at an early stage
and may increase to 6–10 mm
after 30–40 years. Poor concrete may have a depth of Carbonation
of 50 mm after say 6–8 years. The rate of Carbonation depends on
time, cover, concrete density, cement content, water-to-cement
ratio and the presence of cracks.
 Fig: Chemical attack precautions in concrete structures
(d) Alkali—silica reaction in concrete structures:
A chemical reaction can take place between alkali in cement and
certain forms of silica in aggregate. The reaction produces a gel
which absorbs water and expands in volume, resulting in cracking
and disintegration of the concrete.

BS8110: Part 2, clause 6.2.5.4, states that the reaction only occurs
when the following are present together:

1. a high moisture level in the concrete

2. cement with a high alkali content or some other source of alkali
3. aggregate containing an alkali-reactive constituent

The code recommends that the following precautions be taken if

uncertainty exists:
1. Reduce the saturation of the concrete;
2. Use low alkali Portland cement and limit the alkali content of the
mix to a low level;
3. Use replacement cementitious materials such as blast furnace
slag or pulverized fuel ash. Most normal aggregates behave
satisfactorily.

(e) Acids attacks on concrete structures:

Portland cement is not acid resistant and acid attack may remove
part of the set cement. Acids are formed by the dissolution in water
of carbon dioxide or sulphur dioxide from the atmosphere. Acids can
also come from industrial wastes. Good dense concrete with
adequate cover is required and sulphate-resistant cements should
be used if necessary.