Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism

Learning Objective

 Distinguish diamagnetic from paramagnetic atoms.

Key Points

o Any time two electrons share the same orbital, their spin quantum numbers
have to be different. Whenever two electrons are paired together in an
orbital, or their total spin is 0, they are diamagnetic electrons. Atoms with all
diamagnetic electrons are called diamagnetic atoms.
o A paramagnetic electron is an unpaired electron. An atom is considered
paramagnetic if even one orbital has a net spin. An atom could have ten
diamagnetic electrons, but as long as it also has one paramagnetic electron,
it is still considered a paramagnetic atom.
o Diamagnetic atoms repel magnetic fields. The unpaired electrons of
paramagnetic atoms realign in response to external magnetic fields and are
therefore attracted. Paramagnets do not retain magnetization in the absence
of a magnetic field, because thermal energy randomizes electron spin
orientations.

Terms

 paramagneticMaterials that are attracted by an externally applied magnetic field

and form internal, induced magnetic fields in the direction of the applied magnetic
field.
 diamagneticMaterials that create an induced magnetic field in a direction opposite
to an externally applied magnetic field and are therefore repelled by the applied
magnetic field.
 lanthanideAny of the 14 rare earth elements from cerium (or from lanthanum) to
lutetium in the periodic table. Because their outermost orbitals are empty, they
have very similar chemistry. Below them are the actinides.
 quantum numberOne of certain integers or half-integers that specify the state of a
quantum mechanical system (such as an electron in an atom).
  MRIMagnetic Resonance Imaging, a medical imaging technique used in radiology
to investigate the anatomy and physiology of the body in both health and disease.

Diamagnetism

Any time two electrons share the same orbital, their spin quantum numbers have to be
different. In other words, one of the electrons has to be “spin-up,” with [latex]m_s =
+\frac{1}{2}[/latex], while the other electron is “spin-down,” with [latex]m_s = -
\frac{1}{2}[/latex]. This is important when it comes to determining the total spin in an
electron orbital. In order to decide whether electron spins cancel, add their spin
quantum numbers together. Whenever two electrons are paired together in an orbital, or
their total spin is 0, they are called diamagnetic electrons.

Think of spins as clockwise and counterclockwise. If one spin is clockwise and the other
is counterclockwise, then the two spin directions balance each other out and there is no
leftover rotation. Note what all of this means in terms of electrons sharing an orbital:
Since electrons in the same orbital always have opposite values for their spin quantum
numbers (ms), they will always end up canceling each other out. In other words, there is
no leftover spin in an orbital that contains two electrons.

Electron spin is very important in determining the magnetic properties of an atom. If all
of the electrons in an atom are paired up and share their orbital with another electron,
then the total spin in each orbital is zero and the atom is diamagnetic. Diamagnetic
atoms are not attracted to a magnetic field, but rather are slightly repelled.

Diamagnetic levitationA small (~6mm) piece of pyrolytic graphite (a material similar to

graphite) levitating over a permanent gold magnet array (5mm cubes on a piece of
steel). Note that the poles of the magnets are aligned vertically and alternate (two with
north facing up, and two with south facing up, diagonally).

Paramagnetism

Electrons that are alone in an orbital are called paramagnetic electrons. Remember that
if an electron is alone in an orbital, the orbital has a net spin, because the spin of the
lone electron does not get canceled out. If even one orbital has a net spin, the entire
atom will have a net spin. Therefore, an atom is considered to be paramagnetic when it
contains at least one paramagnetic electron. In other words, an atom could have 10
paired (diamagnetic) electrons, but as long as it also has one unpaired (paramagnetic)
electron, it is still considered a paramagnetic atom.

Just as diamagnetic atoms are slightly repelled from a magnetic field, paramagnetic
atoms are slightly attracted to a magnetic field. Paramagnetic properties are due to the
realignment of the electron paths caused by the external magnetic field. Paramagnets
do not retain any magnetization in the absence of an externally applied magnetic field,
because thermal motion randomizes the spin orientations. Stronger magnetic effects
are typically only observed when d- or f-electrons are involved. The size of the magnetic
moment on a lanthanide atom can be quite large, as it can carry up to seven unpaired
electrons, in the case of gadolinium(III) (hence its use in MRI).

Hund’s Rule and Orbital Filling Diagrams

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 State Hund’s rule.

 Apply Hund’s rule to the filling of orbitals.
 Use orbital filling diagrams to describe the locations of electrons in an atom.

HAVE YOU EVER WONDERED WHAT THOSE LOAD LIMIT SIGNS MEAN ON A
BRIDGE?
The sign above says that nothing over five tons is allowed because it will do damage to the
structure. There are limits to the amount of weight that a bridge can support, there are limits to
the number of people that can safely occupy a room, and there are limits to what can go into an
electron orbital.

Hund’s Rule
The last of the three rules for constructing electron arrangements requires electrons to
be placed one at a time in a set of orbitals within the same sublevel. This minimizes the
natural repulsive forces that one electron has for another. Hund’s rule states that
orbitals of equal energy are each occupied by one electron before any orbital is
occupied by a second electron and that each of the single electrons must have the
same spin. The Figure below shows how a set of three p orbitals is filled with one, two,
three, and four electrons.

Figure 1. The 2p sublevel, for the elements boron (Z = 5), carbon (Z = 6), nitrogen (Z = 7), and oxygen (Z = 8).
According to Hund’s rule, as electrons are added to a set of orbitals of equal energy, one electron enters each
orbital before any orbital receives a second electron.

Orbital Filling Diagrams

An orbital filling diagram is the more visual way to represent the arrangement of all
the electrons in a particular atom. In an orbital filling diagram, the individual orbitals are
shown as circles (or squares) and orbitals within a sublevel are drawn next to each
other horizontally. Each sublevel is labeled by its principal energy level and sublevel.
Electrons are indicated by arrows inside the circles. An arrow pointing upwards
indicates one spin direction, while a downward pointing arrow indicates the other
direction. The orbital filling diagrams for hydrogen, helium, and lithium are shown
in Figure below.
Figure 2. Orbital filling diagrams for hydrogen, helium, and lithium.

According to the Aufbau process, sublevels and orbitals are filled with electrons in order
of increasing energy. Since the s sublevel consists of just one orbital, the second
electron simply pairs up with the first electron as in helium. The next element is lithium
and necessitates the use of the next available sublevel, the 2s.

The filling diagram for carbon is shown in the Figure below. There are two 2 p electrons
for carbon and each occupies its own 2 porbital.

Figure 3. Orbital filling diagram for carbon.

Oxygen has four 2 p electrons. After each 2 p orbital has one electron in it, the fourth
electron can be placed in the first 2 p orbital with a spin opposite that of the other
electron in that orbital.
Figure 4. Orbital filling diagram for oxygen.

SUMMARY

 Hund’s rule specifies the order of electron filling within a set of orbitals.
 Orbital filling diagrams are a way of indicating electron locations in orbitals.

PRACTICE

Use the link below to carry out the following exercise:

https://www.caymanchem.com/app/template/chemAssistant,Tool.vm/itemid/4001
1. Select an atom from the list (you will probably want to do lower atomic numbers).
Leave the number set a zero.
2. Look up the atom on a periodic table and determine the number of electrons
present.
3. Draw the orbital filling diagram for the atom.
4. Click on the “Calculate” button and compare your answer with the one provided.

REVIEW

1. State Hund’s rule.

2. What is an orbital filling diagram?
3. Is the diagram in the Figure below correct? Explain your answer.

4. Is the diagram in the Figure below correct? Explain your answer.

RELATED

How to Write the Shorthand Electron Configuration for Lead

Updated March 28, 2018

By Lee Johnson

Electron orbital diagrams and written configurations tell you which orbitals are filled
and which are partially filled for any atom. The number of valence electrons impacts
on their chemical properties, and the specific ordering and properties of the orbitals
are important in physics, so many students have to get to grips with the basics. The
good news is that orbital diagrams, electron configurations (both in shorthand and full
form) and dot diagrams for electrons are really easy to understand once you’ve
grasped a few basics.

TL;DR (Too Long; Didn't Read)

Electron configurations have the format: 1s 2 2s2 2p6 . The first number is the principal
quantum number (n) and the letter represents the value of l (angular momentum
quantum number; 1 = s, 2 = p, 3 = d and 4 = f) for the orbital, and the superscript
number tells you how many electrons are in that orbital. Orbital diagrams use the
same basic format, but instead of numbers for the electrons, they use ↑ and ↓ arrows,
as well as giving each orbital its own line, to represent the spins of the electrons too.

Electron Configurations
Electron configurations are expressed through a notation that looks like this:
1s2 2s2 2p1. Learn the three main parts of this notation to understand how it works.
The first number tells you the “energy level,” or the principal quantum number (n). The
second letter tells you the value of (l), the angular momentum quantum number. For l
= 1, the letter is s, for l = 2 it’s p, for l = 3 it’s d, for l = 4 it’s f and for higher numbers it
increases alphabetically from this point. Remember that s orbitals contain a maximum
of two electrons, p orbitals a maximum of six, d a maximum of 10 and f a maximum of
14.

The Aufbau principle tells you that the lowest-energy orbitals fill first, but the specific
order isn’t sequential in a way that’s easy to memorize. See Resources for a diagram
showing the filling order. Note that the n = 1 level only has s orbitals, the n = 2 level
only has s and p orbitals, and the n = 3 level only has s, p and d orbitals.
RELATED

How to Write the Shorthand Electron Configuration for Lead

Updated March 28, 2018

By Lee Johnson

Electron orbital diagrams and written configurations tell you which orbitals are filled
and which are partially filled for any atom. The number of valence electrons impacts
on their chemical properties, and the specific ordering and properties of the orbitals
are important in physics, so many students have to get to grips with the basics. The
good news is that orbital diagrams, electron configurations (both in shorthand and full
form) and dot diagrams for electrons are really easy to understand once you’ve
grasped a few basics.

TL;DR (Too Long; Didn't Read)

Electron configurations have the format: 1s 2 2s2 2p6 . The first number is the principal
quantum number (n) and the letter represents the value of l (angular momentum
quantum number; 1 = s, 2 = p, 3 = d and 4 = f) for the orbital, and the superscript
number tells you how many electrons are in that orbital. Orbital diagrams use the
same basic format, but instead of numbers for the electrons, they use ↑ and ↓ arrows,
as well as giving each orbital its own line, to represent the spins of the electrons too.

Electron Configurations
Electron configurations are expressed through a notation that looks like this:
1s2 2s2 2p1. Learn the three main parts of this notation to understand how it works.
The first number tells you the “energy level,” or the principal quantum number (n). The
second letter tells you the value of (l), the angular momentum quantum number. For l
= 1, the letter is s, for l = 2 it’s p, for l = 3 it’s d, for l = 4 it’s f and for higher numbers it
increases alphabetically from this point. Remember that s orbitals contain a maximum
of two electrons, p orbitals a maximum of six, d a maximum of 10 and f a maximum of
14.

The Aufbau principle tells you that the lowest-energy orbitals fill first, but the specific
order isn’t sequential in a way that’s easy to memorize. See Resources for a diagram
showing the filling order. Note that the n = 1 level only has s orbitals, the n = 2 level
only has s and p orbitals, and the n = 3 level only has s, p and d orbitals.

VIDEO OF THE DAY

00:31
 01:12

These rules are easy to work with, so the notation for the configuration of scandium is:

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d1

Which shows that the whole n = 1 and n = 2 levels are full, the n = 4 level has been
started, but the 3d shell only contains one electron, whereas it has a maximum
occupancy of 10. This electron is the valence electron.

Identify an element from the notation by simply counting the electrons and finding the
element with a matching atomic number.

Shorthand Notation for Configuration

Writing out every single orbital for heavier elements is tedious, so physicists often use
a shorthand notation. This works by using the noble gases (in the far right column of
the periodic table) as a starting point and adding the final orbitals onto them. So
scandium has the same configuration as argon, except with electrons in two extra
orbitals. The shorthand form is therefore:

[Ar] 4s2 3d1

Because the configuration of argon is:

[Ar] = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6

You can use this with any elements apart from hydrogen and helium.

Orbital Diagrams
Orbital diagrams are like the configuration notation just introduced, except with the
spins of electrons indicated. Use the Pauli exclusion principle and Hund’s rule to work
out how to fill shells. The exclusion principle states that no two electrons can share the
same four quantum numbers, which basically results in pairs of states containing
electrons with opposite spins. Hund’s rule states that the most stable configuration is
the one with the highest possible number of parallel spins. This means that when
writing orbital diagrams for partially full shells, fill in all of the up-spin electrons before
adding any down-spin electrons.

This example shows how orbital diagrams work, using argon as an example:

3p ↑ ↓ ↑ ↓ ↑ ↓
3s ↑ ↓

2p ↑ ↓ ↑ ↓ ↑ ↓

2s ↑ ↓

1s ↑ ↓

The electrons are represented by the arrows, which also indicate their spins, and the
notation on the left is standard electron configuration notation. Note that the higher-
energy orbitals are at the top of the diagram. For a partially full shell, Hund’s rule
requires that they’re filled in this way (using nitrogen as an example).

2p ↑ ↑ ↑

2s ↑ ↓

1s ↑ ↓

paramagnetic and diamagnetic

Paramagnetic compounds (and atoms) are attracted to magnetic fields while diamagnetic
compounds (and atoms) are repelled from magnetic fields.
Paramagnetic compounds have unpaired electrons while in diamagnetic compounds the electrons
all have paired spins.
Very few individual atoms are paramagnetic since this requires having a half-filled MO. In contrast,
nearly all molecules are diamagnetic (O2 is a notable exception). That is, they essentially have all
paired electrons in MOs.
See this video of a frog floating in a magnetic field. Why does the frog float? The frog is repelled by
the magnetic field since all the molecules that make up the frog (or at least the vast majority of them)
are diamagnetic. In addition, the magnet is really strong such that the repulsion of the diamagnetic
compounds in the frog is strong enough to overcome gravity.
 C

H Home Background Color: He

Li Be Black White Gray B C N O F Ne
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Cs Ba La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Fr Ra Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og

Magnetic Type of the elements

Text lists sorted by: Value | Atomic Number | Alphabetical
Plots: Shaded | Ball | Crossed Line | Scatter | Sorted Scatter
Log scale plots: Shaded | Ball | Crossed Line | Scatter | Sorted Scatter
Good for this property: Atomic Number

Hydrogen Diamagnetic Niobium Paramagnetic Thallium Diamagnetic

Helium Diamagnetic Molybdenum Paramagnetic Lead Diamagnetic
Lithium Paramagnetic Technetium Paramagnetic Bismuth Diamagnetic
Beryllium Diamagnetic Ruthenium Paramagnetic Polonium N/A
Boron Diamagnetic Rhodium Paramagnetic Astatine N/A
Carbon Diamagnetic Palladium Paramagnetic Radon N/A
Nitrogen Diamagnetic Silver Diamagnetic Francium N/A
Oxygen Paramagnetic Cadmium Diamagnetic Radium N/A
Fluorine N/A Indium Diamagnetic Actinium N/A
Neon Diamagnetic Tin Diamagnetic Thorium Paramagnetic
Sodium Paramagnetic Antimony Diamagnetic Protactinium Paramagnetic
Magnesium Paramagnetic Tellurium Diamagnetic Uranium Paramagnetic
Aluminum Paramagnetic Iodine Diamagnetic Neptunium N/A
Silicon Diamagnetic Xenon Diamagnetic Plutonium Paramagnetic
Phosphorus Diamagnetic Cesium Paramagnetic Americium Paramagnetic
Sulfur Diamagnetic Barium Paramagnetic Curium N/A
 Chlorine Diamagnetic Lanthanum Paramagnetic Berkelium N/A
Argon Diamagnetic Cerium Paramagnetic Californium N/A
Potassium Paramagnetic Praseodymiu Paramagnetic Einsteinium N/A
m
Calcium Paramagnetic Neodymium Paramagnetic Fermium N/A
Scandium Paramagnetic Promethium N/A Mendeleviu N/A
m
Titanium Paramagnetic Samarium Paramagnetic Nobelium N/A
Vanadium Paramagnetic Europium Paramagnetic Lawrencium N/A
Chromium Antiferromagn Gadolinium Ferromagnetic Rutherfordiu N/A
etic m
Manganese Paramagnetic Terbium Paramagnetic Dubnium N/A
Iron Ferromagnetic Dysprosium Paramagnetic Seaborgium N/A
Cobalt Ferromagnetic Holmium Paramagnetic Bohrium N/A
Nickel Ferromagnetic Erbium Paramagnetic Hassium N/A
Copper Diamagnetic Thulium Paramagnetic Meitnerium N/A
Zinc Diamagnetic Ytterbium Paramagnetic Darmstadtiu N/A
m
Gallium Diamagnetic Lutetium Paramagnetic Roentgenium N/A
Germanium Diamagnetic Hafnium Paramagnetic Copernicium N/A
Arsenic Diamagnetic Tantalum Paramagnetic Nihonium N/A
Selenium Diamagnetic Tungsten Paramagnetic Flerovium N/A
Bromine Diamagnetic Rhenium Paramagnetic Moscovium N/A
Krypton Diamagnetic Osmium Paramagnetic Livermorium N/A
Rubidium Paramagnetic Iridium Paramagnetic Tennessine N/A
Strontium Paramagnetic Platinum Paramagnetic Oganesson N/A
Yttrium Paramagnetic Gold Diamagnetic
Zirconium Paramagnetic Mercury Diamagnetic

Electron Configuration
The purpose of introducing quantum numbers has been to show that similarities in the electron
arrangement or electron configuration lead to the similarities and differences in the properties of
elements. But writing the quantum numbers of electrons of an element in set notation like {2,1,-
1,1⁄2} is time consuming and difficult to compare so an abbreviated form was developed. An
electron configuration lists only the first two quantum numbers, n and ℓℓ, and then shows how
many electrons exist in each orbital. For example, write the electron configuration of scandium,
Sc: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d1 . So for scandium the 1st and 2nd electron must be in 1s orbital, the
3rd and 4th in the 2s, the 5th through 10th in the 2p orbitals, etc.

This is a memory device to remember the order of orbitals for the first two quantum numbers.
Follow the arrow starting in the upper right, when the arrow ends go to the next arrow and start
again.
In Scandium, the 4s has lower energy and appears before 3d (the complexity of the d-orbitals
leads to its higher energy), so it is written before adding 3d to the electron configuration. But it is
common to to keep all the principle quantum numbers together so you may see the electron
configuration written as Sc: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d1. Writing electron configurations like this
can cause difficulties in determining the element that matches an electron configuration. But if
you just count the number of electrons it will equal the number of protons which equals the
atomic number which is unique for each element. For example: “Which element has the electron
configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s23d104s24p6 4d8 5s2 ?” Counting the electrons gives 46, which is
the atomic number of palladium.
Here’s a diagram of the first several electron configurations. David’s Whizzy Periodic Table is a
visual way of looking at the changing electron configuration of
elements. http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/applets/a2.html & http://www.physics.ohio-
state.edu/~ntg/H133/applets/ physics2000_davids_periodic_table.php.
Note the 3d orbital follows the 4s in the lowest row, but starting with Ga (#31) it is next to the 3p
orbital. It is most commonly listed with the other 3 orbitals, but sometimes it follows the 4s
orbital to indicate that the 3d orbital is lower in energy than the 4s while it is being filled.

Periodic Table Exceptions To Know

There is a major exception to the normal order of electron configuration at Cr (#24) and Cu
(#29). It turns out that the energy the electron configuration that is half-filled, 4s1 3d5 , and filled
orbital, 4s1 3d10 , has lower energy than the typical filling order, 4s2 3d4 , and 4s2 3d9 . This pattern
is followed in the 5th row with Mo (#42) and Ag (#47).

f block
Elements For completeness a couple of f-block elements are listed here. Neodymium, Nd, which
is used in very powerful magnets, has an atomic number of 60. For 60 electrons the electron
configuration is:
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d104s24p6 4d105s25p66s24f4
For californium, Cf, with 98 electrons the electron configuration is:
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d104s24p6 4d105s25p66s24f145d106p67s25f10
Orbital Diagrams
Many times it is necessary to see all the quantum numbers in an electron configuration, this the
purpose of the orbital diagram. In addition to listing the principle quantum number, n, and the
subshell, ℓℓ, the orbital diagram shows all the different orientations and the spin of every
electron. The diagram shows the number of subshell by using boxes or lines for electrons (use
three for p-orbitals, five for d-orbitals, and 7 for f-orbitals). In each box the spin of an electron is
noted by using arrows, up arrows mean 1⁄2 spin and down arrows mean –1⁄2 spin. For example,
the orbital diagram for the first 18 atoms are shown below.

Rules for Filling Orbitals

Aufbau Principle states that the lowest energy orbital is filled first. So electrons usually fill the
lowest energy level and the simplest orbital shape first.
Pauli Exclusion Principle states that no two electrons can have the same four quantum
numbers. This is why each orbital only has two electrons, one spin up ( 1⁄2) and one spin down
(–1⁄2).
Hund’s Rule states that orbitals of the same energy, those which differ only in their orientation,
are filled with electrons with the same spin before the second electron is added to any of the
orbitals. This is why electrons have up spin, ↑, in the orbital diagrams of B to N and of Al to P in
the diagrams above.

More Examples of Orbital Diagrams

Here are some orbital diagrams of elements with more electrons to help you understand the rules,
electron configuration, orbital diagrams, and quantum numbers.
Noble Gas Abbreviation
Writing out the electron configuration over and over can be tedious and shifts ones attention away
from the outer electrons which are the most important electrons. So an abbreviated form of electron
configurations was developed using the final column of the periodic table, the noble gases. Any
element can be abbreviated except H and He, by using the noble gas with fewer electrons than the
element. For example, instead of Sc : 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d1 it would be abbreviated as [Ar]4s23d1 or
[Ar]3d14s2. For Ag the abbreviation would be: [Kr]5s14d10 (see orbital diagram above), and for Os:
[Xe]6s24f145d6 or [Xe]4f145d66s2. Just remember that the abbreviations require that you use oble
gases only and that you use a noble gas with fewer electrons. Also you can’t abbreviate a noble
gas by using its symbol in brackets; that is, Ar is [Ne]3s23p6 not [Ar]. Finally, you can still count
the number of electrons to determine the element, you just start with the number of electrons in
the noble gas. For example “What is the element with the electron configuration: [Xe]6s24f145d6 ?”
Counting the electrons 54 + 2 + 14 + 6 = 76 which is the atomic number for osmium, Os.

Similarities in Electron Configuration

Equal Similar Properties. Now we can put together the first and second part of this unit. When
the periodic table was being developed, chemists looked for similarities in chemical and physical
properties. Any theory that describes the arrangement of electrons must be able to explain these
similarities. Let’s look at the electron configurations in a periodic table format again.
The first column of this periodic table has a single electron in the outer s-orbital: H 1s1, Li 2s1, Na
3s1 , K 4s1. So that similarity in the electrons in the outer energy level must be why the alkali metals
are all acting the same both in their chemistry and their physical properties. Hydrogen is an
exception because it is a single proton in the nucleus and single electron which gives it wholly
unique properties (although at high pressure and low temperature it can act as a metal). All the
way through the periodic table we see this same pattern in each column where the outermost
electrons have filled the subshells in a similar manner. For transition metals the outermost electrons
are the 4s2 electrons that surround the filling 3d orbital (the 4s is in the 4th energy level and the 3d
is in the lower 3rd energy level). As transition metals add more electrons and more protons their
properties change more subtly than the alkali metals and alkaline earth metals, because the
outermost electrons are nearly always the same (remember the exceptions of Cr and Cu). The
outermost electrons are so important that we give them a name: valence electrons. The valence
electrons will be a major part of our discussion of bonding and formation of compounds.

Contributors
 Kenneth Pringle and Curriki. This content is licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution Share-Alike 3.0 License.