Anthropological Forum

A Journal of Social Anthropology and Comparative Sociology

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Other Dark Sides of Resilience: Politics and

Power in Community-Based Efforts to Strengthen
Resilience

Siobhan McDonnell

To cite this article: Siobhan McDonnell (2019): Other Dark Sides of Resilience: Politics and
Power in Community-Based Efforts to Strengthen Resilience, Anthropological Forum, DOI:
10.1080/00664677.2019.1647828

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/00664677.2019.1647828

Published online: 08 Aug 2019.

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ANTHROPOLOGICAL FORUM
https://doi.org/10.1080/00664677.2019.1647828

Other Dark Sides of Resilience: Politics and Power in

Community-Based Efforts to Strengthen Resilience
Siobhan McDonnell
Crawford School of Public Policy, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Oceanic people and places are increasingly labelled as either Disaster; resilience;
‘resilient’ or ‘vulnerable’ to disasters and climate change. Resilience vulnerability; Pacific; climate
is often described in disaster discourse as a strategy designed to change
overcome vulnerability by helping communities to ‘bounce back’ in
the wake of ‘natural’ disasters. Using ethnographic research
conducted with Community Disaster and Climate Change
Committees (CDCs) in Vanuatu in the wake of Tropical Cyclone
Pam, this paper seeks to problematise disaster responses that see
the ‘community’ as a space to be acted upon by outsiders, or
where people will respond in a unified way to the challenges of
rebuilding after disaster. Using political ecology framings this paper
critiques the ideas of resilience that appear entrenched in
community-based disaster and climate change adaptation
discourse and practice in Oceania. Rather than presupposing
resilience or vulnerability, this paper details the dispersal and
distribution power and agency amongst individual actors and
groups that either supported or manipulated, the distribution of
goods by Community Disaster Committees. In this way, it moves
beyond the limitations of conceptual framings of resilience in
disaster management and climate change into a more considered
appraisal of power, by exploring what James Ferguson has termed
‘the politics of distribution’ in the context of disaster.

Oceanic people and places are increasingly labelled as either ‘resilient’ or ‘vulnerable’ to
disasters and climate change. This is particularly true of island states, which are often
framed by narratives of ‘sinking’ which are, in turn, powerfully resisted by Oceanic acti-
vists who offer the battle cry: ‘We are not drowning. We are fighting’ (350 Pacific 2013;
Kelman 2018). It is a necessary battle cry, as across Oceania countries are experiencing
the dramatic impacts associated with climate change. These include an increase in
extreme weather events, sea-level rise, changes in temperatures and extreme drought
(UNU-EHS 2016). In Vanuatu, where the research that informs this paper was under-
taken, scientific studies based on the best available data (PACCSA 2014) suggest a
range of climate impacts. Given that annual temperatures have increased in Port Vila
since 1950, further warming and an increase in annual temperatures are anticipated. Sat-
ellite data indicates sea-level rises around the Vanuatu archipelago of around 6 mm per
year since 1993. By 2030, under a high emissions scenario, the rise in sea level is

CONTACT Siobhan McDonnell [email protected]

© 2019 The University of Western Australia
2 S. MCDONNELL

anticipated to be in the range of between 3 and 17 cm. Climate variability, driven by El

Niño and La Niña events, have a range of implications on water supplies in Vanuatu,
including increases in the frequency and intensity of extreme rainfall that will cause
flooding and impact agricultural production. These changes to climate variability are
also predicted to have implications for Vanuatu’s water quality and availability. Climate
variability is also likely to lead to disruptions to seasonality and stress on food crops,
thereby impacting on food security. Finally, the climate science linking global warming
to cyclones and other extreme weather events is complex. In the Western Pacific
region, climate change projections suggest a decrease in the frequency of tropical cyclones
but an increase in their intensity.
A recent example of an extreme weather event, or a ‘disaster’, was Tropical Cyclone
Pam, a category five cyclone which struck Vanuatu on 13 March 2015, bringing with it
destructive gale-force winds (peaking at around 320 km/h), storm surges and flooding.
The centre of the cyclone passed just east of Efate island – which hosts the capital city
of Port Vila – destroying homes, schools, health facilities, crops and livestock. Across
Vanuatu Cyclone Pam is estimated to have affected around 188,000 people, or 70% of
the population (Government of Vanuatu 2015). In the period after the cyclone, the loss
of tree cover led to greater exposure of soil and crops to direct sunlight thereby compound-
ing the effects on food security issues by leading to a prolonged period of drought.
Resilience, now an established ‘buzzword’ in development (Lewis 2013, 50), is increas-
ingly being used as a programmatic response of governments and international non-gov-
ernment organisations to the issues associated with climate change and disaster responses
in Oceania, but with little attention to its conceptual framings. Rather than mere rhetoric,
the language of resilience has been mobilised by government and international non-gov-
ernment organisations in Oceania as part of their programmatic responses to disasters and
climate change.
Across Oceania representations of disasters, and the post-disaster relief effort, are
mediated through a particular hierarchical logic involving the provision of expertise
and resourcing to the ‘community’ as a strategy to strengthen resilience. For instance,
the Vanuatu Red Cross, in its program titled ‘Together, Becoming Resilient’ describes
the establishment of Community Disaster and Climate Change Committees (also referred
to by using either the local acronym of ‘CDCs’ or as Committees) made up of local vol-
unteers to ‘increase the capacity of vulnerable communities in order to limit the potential
damage of the natural event’ (Vanuatu Red Cross Society 2014, 2). Here, resilience is
deployed as a strategy to overcome the vulnerability of communities in the wake of
‘natural’ disasters. Using ethnographic research conducted with Community Disaster
Committees on Efate Island in Vanuatu in the wake of Tropical Cyclone Pam, this
paper problematises disaster responses that see the ‘community’ as a space to be acted
upon by outsiders, or a bounded location in which people will respond in a unified way
to the challenges of rebuilding after disaster. The temporal understanding that informs
this paper is that disasters, like other discreet events, create a series of opportunities for
some people, while at the same time potentially destablising other leaders or groups. In
this way, this paper seeks to move beyond the limitations of conceptual framings of com-
munity-based resilience in disaster management and climate change into a more con-
sidered appraisal of agency, by exploring the ‘politics of distribution’ in times of
disaster (Ferguson 2015).
 ANTHROPOLOGICAL FORUM 3

The Discourse of Resilience in Oceania

The etymology of the word resilience is based on the Latin resilio, to bounce, hence the
idea that resilience means to bounce back (Manyena et al. 2011; Alexander 2013, 2708).
Resilience is a concept that has origins across a diverse set of disciplinary approaches
including ecology, psychology, engineering and complex systems analysis (Harrison and
Chiroro 2017, 1024; Brown 2014, 108; Dousset and Nayral 2018, 5–7). Resilience has
an established conceptual and analytic history in ecology and has long been discussed
in terms of the capacity of ecological systems to adapt to change (Folke 2006). More
recently these ideas have been used to describe the functioning of global environmental
systems in the face of extreme change, such as that caused by changes to climate
(Berkes and Ross 2013; Brown 2014). In addition to this disciplinary foundation in
ecology, the concept of resilience is also increasingly influenced by academic work in psy-
chology which discusses the resilience of people in the face of traumatic events, as well as
work in the behavioural sciences which discusses resilience in the face of social disadvan-
tage (Hegney et al. 2008; Orthner, Jones-Sanpei, and Williamson 2005). Informed by these
approaches, advocates for the use of resilience in development approaches argue that it
allows for complexity and adaptability in processes and outcomes (Friend and Moench
2013, 102; Goldstien 2011).
In international development literature, the idea of resilience is often espoused as an
indicator of positive development where ‘more is better’ (Barret and Constas 2014,
14626). Policy choices designed to ensure that society can better deal with hazards or
shocks are often described as building, or strengthening, resilience (Kelman et al. 2016,
130). The legacy of ecology in the conceptual framing of resilience is evident in the privile-
ging of system stability, or the emphasis on return of a system to the status quo after a
shock (Alexander 2013). In the context of climate change and disaster risk reduction,
the International Panel on Climate Change has defined resilience as:
The ability of a system and its component parts to anticipate, absorb, accommodate, or
recover from the effects of a hazardous event in a timely and efficient manner, including
through ensuring the preservation, restoration, or improvement of its essential basic struc-
tures and functions. (IPCC 2012)

In this definition, emphasis is placed on the system to efficiently recover from a hazard.
How this is done appears to contain potential contradictions between efforts that ‘pre-
serve’ or ‘restore’ the existing system, thereby maintaining the status quo, and those
designed to ‘improve’. These internal contradictions remain foundational to many discus-
sions of resilience as a conceptual and normative framework designed to create better
development outcomes (see also Dousset and Nayral 2018, 8).
Across Oceania resilience is often represented as a normative framework that attempts
to understand the capacity of individuals and groups to respond to external stresses and
shocks: as their capacity to ‘bounce back’ in response to change (Brown 2014, 108; Harri-
son and Chiroro 2017, 1024). Numerous climate change reports and disaster preparedness
plans highlight the vulnerability of Oceanic countries, particularly low-lying atolls, and
discuss strengthening resilience as a strategic development response. For example, in
accordance with the established IPCC definition, as reflected in the new Sustainable Devel-
opment Goals and agreements under the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change, the Secretariat for the Pacific Community worked with Oceanic states
4 S. MCDONNELL

to strengthen ‘resilient development’ through an integrated approach to climate change

and disaster risk reduction (SPC 2017). Following this regional approach, at a national
level in Vanuatu, the concept of resilience is regularly deployed in terms of disaster risk
reduction and climate change adaptation (see, for example, UNICEF 2015). In these dis-
cussions efforts to strengthen resilience are often located at the scale of the community,
such that it is the community that must be made resilient so as to withstand disaster
and climate change effects. For instance, from 2012 to 2014 a consortium of six national
and international development and humanitarian agencies worked together on a program
designed to strengthen resilience in 37 communities across Vanuatu in response to climate
change and disaster challenges. The program was titled ‘Yumi stap redi long klaemet jenis’
(‘We are ready for climate change’). Funded by the Australian Government, the $2 million
program developed a ‘resilience framework’ to strengthen community resilience which, in
practical terms, involved working alongside Community Disaster Committees in a range
of islands in Vanuatu (Oxfam 2015, 19).
The inclusion of resilience in development discourse has led to a morphing of the orig-
inal disciplinary foundations of the concept such that it now means different things depen-
dent on the context and, like the ‘Yumi stap redi long klaemet jenis’ program, is often
paired with ideas such as ‘community’ ‘participation’ and ‘sustainability’ (Friend and
Moench 2013; Kelman et al. 2016). In the context of the climate change literature, the
concept of resilience, as opposed to adaptation or mitigation, offers a way of supporting
responses to a change that is generally characterised by increasing uncertainty (Friend
and Moench 2013, 103). Critics of resilience have labelled it an ‘empty signifier’ with
mutable meanings that enable it to justify any goal or claim (Weichselgartner and
Kelman 2015, 249; Stumpp 2013). It is also apparent that the concepts of ‘resilience’
and ‘vulnerability’ are not easily translatable in the vernacular languages of people
across Oceania, suggesting that they may be largely alien to people’s ontological worldview
suggesting important implications for efforts to co-design resilience frameworks (Kelman
et al. 2011). In spite of these absences in vernacular languages, the concept of resilience is
increasingly used by civil society organisations and local NGOs across Oceania as the basis
of claims of Indigenous self-reliance, particularly when coupled with forms of Indigenous
knowledge.
Resilience and its twinned concept vulnerability have become dominant discourses in
the international literature on disaster and climate change. Vulnerability is not the oppo-
site of resilience as it is often a result of structural inequality within the existing societal
system. Rather, they are distinct concepts that are often viewed as overlapping in terms
of developmental processes and outcomes (Kelman et al. 2016, 131). There is no
problem with the concept of vulnerability per se, and it is important to acknowledge
that the real and pressing issues of climate change and disaster in Oceania have particular
implications for precarious populations, particularly those impoverished through a lack of
access to adequate land (see McDonnell 2017; McDonnell, Allen, and Filer 2017).
However, increasingly discourses of vulnerability are deployed in Oceania so as to paint
whole countries or people as the passive victims of ‘natural’ forces, thus occluding the
geo-political origins of the climate change crisis.
Vulnerability is often used dialectically to imply a lack of resilience. It is often discussed
in the disaster policy literature as a problem to be addressed by strengthening resilience. As
a concept, it appears to operate at different conceptual scales than resilience, with
 ANTHROPOLOGICAL FORUM 5

discourses of vulnerability being attached to whole regions, or nation states. At the time of
writing, Vanuatu has, once again, received the dubious honour of being the country with
the highest exposure to risk of ‘natural hazards’ (United Nations University 2016). This
analysis of risk is related not only to geophysical ‘natural hazards’, the effects of which
have been exacerbated by climate change, but is also based on an assessment of the coun-
try’s vulnerability as assessed in terms of ‘infrastructure, nutrition, living conditions and
economic circumstances’ (United Nations University 2016, 8). This analysis labels
Vanuatu as a country at risk, and the population as vulnerable. Here the vulnerability
of the country is also attached to people who reside within it; it is a definition that is
attached to place rather than to any particular personal circumstances of the population
(Lewis and Kelman 2010, 193). Such index-based analyses can hide more than they dis-
close because they fail to measure the structural factors that contribute to differences in
vulnerability across the population.

The ‘Holy Grail’: Efforts to Strengthen Community Resilience

Considering how resilience is defined and located demonstrates some of its conceptual
limitations. In the hierarchical model of disaster management, largely replicated across
Oceania, the nation state manages relationships with international donors and INGOs
through a specially-established office, in Vanuatu termed the National Disaster Manage-
ment Office (NDMO). In the context of a disaster, material aid such as shelter and food
parcels are directed through the management hierarchy from the NDMO to the provincial
level, which on Efate Island is represented by SHEFA Province. From the provincial level,
the relief is then directed to the ‘community’ via the Community Disaster Committee.
Interventions around strengthening resilience are overwhelmingly located at the scale
of the community. Much attention has been given in the literature to the supposed
‘holy grail’ of creating disaster resilient communities (Twigg 2009; Tobin 1999; Magis
2010; Islam, Merrell, and Seitz 2010; Berkes and Ross 2013). Resilient communities are
defined as being able to ‘withstand extreme geophysical processes and recover rapidly
from disasters’ (Tobin 1999, 15). For example, in Vanuatu the resilience framework devel-
oped by the INGO consortium is now being described as a successful example of commu-
nity-based adaptation in response to climate change (Webb et al. 2015). The establishment
of Community Disaster Committees therefore provides a practical example of attempts by
the Vanuatu Government and INGOs’ efforts to strengthen community resilience in the
face of perceived vulnerability. Since 2010, the Vanuatu Red Cross Society has been
engaged in a Disaster Risk Reduction project titled ‘Together Becoming Resilient’ in
various locations across Vanuatu and the Solomon Islands. The aim of the program is,
according to the Vanuatu Red Cross, to ‘set up Community Disaster Committees in vul-
nerable communities and train them in order to make the communities less vulnerable
and better prepared to manage disasters’ (VRCS 2014, 4). The Red Cross has established
five CDCs across Efate.
Resilience as a development discourse often speaks to localised agency, while at the
same time requiring that communities be acted upon. Resilience frameworks have been
critiqued for creating technical-reductionist approaches which draw on ‘unchallenged
assumptions about the social world’ (Weichselgartner and Kelman 2015, 263). For
example, the resilience framework developed in Vanuatu by the INGO consortium
6 S. MCDONNELL

assumes that for communities to be strengthened – made resilient – they must be sub-
jected to specialised outside knowledge. To become resilient, the community is acted
upon by experts. Little credence is given in the models to the knowledge and capacity
that might be possessed by people living in villages, for instance indigenous knowledge
in relation to disaster management. Instead, resilience often imposes its own framework
on the existing values, knowledge and agency that are present in local contexts (Weichsel-
gartner and Kelman 2015, 263). In an illustration of the way disasters are ‘rendered tech-
nical’, experts discuss the problems of disaster in technical terms that can be solved by
applying expert-driven solutions (Li 2011). This is not to suggest that expertise is not
useful in the context of disaster responses; rather, it is an attempt to question the assump-
tions behind these ideas of expertise: Who is seen as ‘expert’? And who, by contrast, is
viewed as acted upon.
The first period of ethnographic research undertaken for this paper was conducted in
two villages located on the central island of Efate in 2015, some eight months after Cyclone
Pam. During this period, people on Efate Island, including in these two villages, were also
experiencing the effects associated with a prolonged drought. Interviews were conducted
with 32 people in these communities, including both the Chairman and all members of the
two Committee Disaster Committees (men and women); community members, including
those designated as ‘vulnerable’ during the disaster; chiefs, church leaders as well as men,
women and young people. In addition, separate interviews were undertaken with INGO
staff, including staff within the Vanuatu Red Cross. The 2015 research was followed by
a second and third period of fieldwork conducted in 2017 and 2018, which included a
second round of interviews and discussions with Committee and community members,
as well as feedback workshops with INGO staff in three of the main organisations
located in Port Vila. In total 72 people were interviewed as part of this work. The
names of the communities and all participants have been removed. However, where rel-
evant the position held by a particular person is included so as to situate their perspective.
On Efate Island, Committees were established by the Red Cross who completed two
days of training in each of the ‘vulnerable’ communities, the culmination of which was
the formation of the Committee. The membership of the Committee is limited to those
who attended the training. In each of the locales where the ethnographic research was
undertaken, the Red Cross insisted that membership be based on formal gender equality,
resulting in an initial committee of five men and five women but with a male Chair. Once
Committees are established, a Memorandum of Understanding was signed by Red Cross
with the provincial office so as to establish the disaster management hierarchy in relief
efforts. A second Memorandum of Understanding was signed between ‘the community’
and the Red Cross which set out a role of the Committee. However, it was unclear in
research conducted who exactly had signed the MOU as the community representatives.
The Vanuatu Government National Disaster Management Office outlines a herculean
set of tasks as the ‘roles and responsibilities’ of the Committees in relation to disaster risk
reduction and climate change (see Table 1). These large and variable roles appear to be
priority tasks that have been identified as necessary to prepare local populations for
climate change adaptation and disasters. It is worth noting that the Committees are
entirely voluntary and members receive no payment for any tasks that they assist with.
Three separate Committee members describe some of the roles that they performed in
the lead up to Cyclone Pam as follows:
 ANTHROPOLOGICAL FORUM 7

Table 1. Various roles and responsibilities of Community Disaster Committees.

Climate change roles Identify hazards or any changes to your community in relation to weather which
presents a significant risk to your community
Assist other organisations such as NGOs with climate change related work and activities
Advocate and mainstream climate change within the community
Develop a preparedness and climate change plan for the community involving chiefs
and community leaders
Assist in providing climate change information through the community
Collection of data and statistics as required i.e. cropping calendar
Identify hazards and climate change priorities
Disaster risk reduction roles: Develop a Community-Based Disaster Risk Reduction Plan and a Community Response
(1) Planning Plan
Identify resources available to community members i.e. transport, tools, seed stock,
water containers, etc.
Assist other organisations such as NGOs with disaster related work and activities
Advocate and mainstream disaster risk reduction within the community
Maintain and manage resources donated to the community
Organise meetings regularly to update the community and make any changes to the
contacts if necessary for:

. Plans warning/alerting community members of impending hazards

. Details for evacuation routes to safer areas

Disaster risk reduction roles: Assist with preparation, response and recovery work ahead of a hazard or disaster,
(2) In the event of an impending particularly with vulnerable community members
disaster
Disaster risk reduction roles: Undertake initial community assessment after an impact of hazard or extreme event
(3) Post-disaster Assist Rapid Technical Assessment teams with assessments
Assist with vulnerability assessments
Assist vulnerable community members go to safe areas
Assist with distribution of relief supplies
Advise community to ‘build back better’ by considering extreme weather events
Committee members to participate in the school safety committee
Source: Vanuatu Government National Disaster Management Office.

My work is to make sure that when the cyclone hits everyone must be inside a good,
strong house and make sure that everyone has enough food and water in their
houses. Our committee is also supposed to check to make sure that all the houses are in a
good condition ahead of the cyclone. We also need to make sure all vulnerable people
with special needs—disabled people—are in safe houses so that they are safe when the
cyclone hits.

CDCs needed to assess which are the strong, safe houses in the community ahead of the
cyclone. Another job that we did was cut down all the trees that could hit houses in the
cyclone.

When the cyclone came we were inside the safe houses, we did lots of preparation
to make sure that all the houses were safe. Through our work preparing the
community only one house was damaged. The community was well prepared when the
cyclone hit.

Operating at the frontline of disaster preparedness and management across a wide array of
tasks, the Community Disaster Committees established across Vanuatu have been widely
credited for saving lives by attending to local preparations in the lead up to the Cyclone
Pam (Handmer and Ivenson 2017; CARE 2016, 39). The unpaid labour of Committees
is clearly an extremely valuable resource that can help to effectively manage disasters
and aid with climate change adaptation projects. However, preliminary research suggests
that Committees may operate more successfully in some villages than others.
8 S. MCDONNELL

The Imagined Community, Efforts to Strengthen Resilience

Locating resilience at the scale of the community enables a particular description of dis-
aster response and recovery. The Vanuatu Government National Disaster Review Plan
describes how communities, led by CDCs, should ‘bounce-back’ in the post-disaster
period:
The best form of recovery is achieved by local communities working together to restore their
community back to normal … [Committees] can identify and manage their resources and
outside assistance, and provide status reports and make requests for assistance to the Provin-
cial Disaster Recovery Committee. The plan encourages local communities to work together
as disasters effect [sic] all communities. (NDMO 2009, 33)

This problematic statement suggests both that members will collectively ‘work together’,
and that the desired outcome is to return to the status quo that proceeded the disaster.
Efforts to strengthen community resilience offer a kind of optimistic ‘self-help’ strategy
supposedly designed to counter the effects of the vulnerabilities of a social group that
may otherwise be ‘helpless’ (Lewis and Kelman 2010, 205). However, no amount of
strengthening of community capacity could adequately address the root causes of vulner-
ability of certain cohorts of people living within villages. Evidence from other disaster con-
texts, such as those black communities seriously impacted by Hurricane Katrina in New
Orleans, suggests that communities are not able to be resilient in the face of long-term gov-
ernmental neglect and structural violence (Lewis and Kelman 2010, 205). Similarly, given
the potential long-terms impacts of climate change in the region, resilient discourse may
be setting up Oceanic communities to fail.
The Vanuatu Government Disaster Review Plan also invokes the idea of the hom-
ogenous, unified community with shared characteristics, implying the existence of a
group of individuals that possess a similar set of values and goals (Agarwal and Gibson
1999, 636). In practice ‘communities’ do not exist as coherent identities, but rather
consist of various groups of people with shifting allegiances. In the context of Indigenous
people, idealised visions of shared-community interests are often grafted onto suggestions
of collective approaches to ‘traditional’ governance and resource management that
promote environmental stewardship and community harmony. This vision has long
been critiqued for failing ‘to attend to differences within the communities, and how
these differences affect resource management outcomes, local politics and strategic inter-
actions, as well as the possibility of layered alliances that can span multiple levels of poli-
tics’ (Agarwal and Gibson 1999, 633; see also Green 2016; Li 1996). The imaginary of the
collectively governed, egalitarian community is in practice a space of overlapping and con-
tested interests.
The vision of the community as a unified, collective group has long been attractive to
policy makers involved in arguing for community-based adaptation and resource manage-
ment. However, in practice, efforts to strengthen resilience through community-based
interventions may fail to pay attention to the power and the political leverage of key
actors. In the post-disaster period attention to power is vitally important to ensuring equi-
table access to disaster relief. Political ecology scholars have challenged the conceptual
framings of resilience for failing to pay attention to the role of politics and power relations
(Beymer-Farris, Basset, and Bryceson 2012; Ingalls and Steadman 2016). Political ecology
research considers how social and environmental conditions are constituted through
 ANTHROPOLOGICAL FORUM 9

unequal power relations, both global and local, by considering the role played by a panoply
of actors operating in ‘historically and culturally constructed fields of power’ (Peluso and
Watts 2001, 25). Post-disaster environments provide an arena for considering the
struggles over scarce, relief-related resources. Developing a community-based committee
approach may permit some members of the community to benefit while at the same time
disadvantaging others.
Building on the challenges posed by political ecology theorists to concepts of resilience,
and on the work of Ferguson (2015) on the ‘politics of distribution’ I seek to describe the
way villages are governed by existing institutions and actors who utilise their own agency
in ways that either support, or circumscribe, ‘top-down’ national approaches to disaster
distribution. The two villages that form the basis of this research present a study in con-
trasts: in one village (termed ‘village A’) the work of the Community Disaster Committee
is highly regarded by chiefs, church leaders, women leaders, youth, and other village
members. In the other village (termed ‘village B’), the work of the Committee has been
repeatedly undermined, and the efforts of the Chairman and other members of the Com-
mittee have been largely discredited.
In the village where the Committee operated well (village A) the members of the Com-
mittee highlighted the importance of the support of chiefs and church leaders in establish-
ing and recognising the role of the Committee. The Committee Chairman describes how
the senior village chief announced the composition of the Committee and the role that the
Committee would play during a number of church services; ‘After the CDC was formed
the chief announced my role as the Chairman, and the other members of the Committee,
in church. He told everyone that they had to support the work of the Committee’. This
early statement of support meant that the Chairman operated with the imprimatur of
the Chief, supported by both local chiefly and religious institutions.

Other Dark Sides of Resilience: The Politics of Disaster Distribution

Resilience discourse can work to obscure the structural power asymmetries associated with
disasters and climate change. In her work on the applications of resilience to climate
change and development issues, Brown (2012) demonstrates that overall the analysis of
resilience often contributes to maintaining the status quo, rather than any substantial
structural change. The approach by the Resilience Alliance which is framed in terms of
creating a ‘return to normal’ society after a shock (see, for example, Folke 2006) has
been critiqued on the grounds that structural vulnerability is an established state of
most societies, such that gender, racial and ethnic inequalities are often the established
norm (Kelman et al. 2016, 137). This analysis describes what is termed the ‘dark side of
resilience’ the way in which systems are maintained even where they create undesirable
outcomes (Mitchell and Harris 2012, 5). Galliard’s (2010) discussion of the use of resili-
ence and vulnerability as conceptual framings for understanding disasters suggests that
while resilience is able to highlight existing capacities, it does this at the cost of considering
the root causes of vulnerability. In the context of these critiques, attempts to strengthen
resilience at the local level must consider questions of institutional governance, as well
as the unequal distribution of power and resources within the space of the ‘community’.
Efforts focussing on strengthening community-based resilience in times of disaster
must pay particular attention to power and politics within the space of the imagined
10 S. MCDONNELL

community. Relief efforts operate as a new form of social transfer which, like the presence
of cash transfer systems in certain countries in Africa, may bring with them a particular
‘politics of distribution’ (Ferguson 2015, 10). These new welfare systems, and particularly
those of South Africa and Namibia, are accompanied by a ‘the exhaustion of older forms of
politics and [the] vital possibilities for new ones’ (Ferguson 2015, 14). Like cash transfers,
relief after disaster is provided without any requirement of labour, thereby creating a par-
ticular ‘politics of distribution’.
Exploring the politics of distribution, it is evident that access to resources post-disaster
became a central claim to status and authority within local villages. Ferguson suggests that
the politics of distribution is apparent in ‘new kinds of political claim making’ (Ferguson
2015, 14). More specifically, he describes the politics of distribution as ‘the general pro-
cesses of distribution as they unfold in contemporary societies, and about the sorts of
binding claims and counter-claims that can be made about these processes’ (Ferguson
2015, 20). In the aftermath of the cyclone, the claims of Community Disaster Committees
to represent the legitimate community structure were either supported or contested by
powerful men already embedded in alternative local authority structures. Assuming the
position as Chairman of a CDC became a position of considerable power over scarce
relief resources. In terms of the stipulated role of CDCs, the Chairman has a degree of
access and control over the management of relief efforts at the local scale of the
‘community’.
In the post-disaster context, the position as a Chairman becomes one of elevated status,
which can be supported by the existing leadership and subsumed into already existing
power structures, as occurred in village A. Alternatively, Chairman and committee
members can be viewed as a rival source of authority by local leadership, as occurred in
village B. In this context, Community Disaster Committees can be viewed as externally
imposed on to communities, operating as a challenge to the existing roles and responsi-
bilities of chiefs. The Chairman of the CDC of village B describes the political contesta-
tions surrounding the distribution of goods after Cyclone Pam:
Some chiefs keep pushing to take over the Committee. When the relief supplies came all the
men wanted to be involved. They were cross with me, they came and talked strongly to me. I
was in the chief’s farea sharing the food and they would come and yell at me and I just said, ‘I
am doing my job’.

Here the resources made available in the period post-cyclone provided a channel for the
politics of disaster distribution – the contestations of status and authority accompanied the
distributions of funds, material goods and other offers of assistance at the local scale within
the ‘community’. The politics of distribution is made manifest in the series of political
claims and counter-claims about who is best able to represent the community so as to
access relief supplies.
At the local level, the experience of both the disaster and the relief effort is directly
related to how individuals and family groups are positioned in relation to supportive
social relations as well as economic and political agency (Nadiruzzaman and Wrathall
2015, 196; Watts and Bohle 1993). Villages are dominated by localised leadership and
power structures. Gender, age, local claims to authority such as through chiefly status
or other leadership positions, wealth and status all structure the relative positioning of
individuals and families at the local level. Social relationships and power structures
 ANTHROPOLOGICAL FORUM 11

have a significant impact on how disaster supplies are distributed. In Vanuatu, claims to
authority over the allocation and distribution of resources were contested between local
customary institutions, provincial agencies and village-based Community Disaster Com-
mittees. In particular, various actors demonstrated their own agency by directly accessing
disaster relief, thereby bypassing the disaster management hierarchy. In village B, the fero-
city of the politics around the distribution of disaster relief was enhanced by the sense of an
imposed structure operating as an alternative to existing institutional authority as rep-
resented by the chiefs and churches. A local chief offers an account of the politics that sur-
rounded the work of the Committee in village B:
With the Cyclone and the relief effort there was a lot of politics. Some men wanted to overrule
the Committee. Some chiefs went directly to Shefa Province to receive the distributions but
Shefa told them that they were not Committee members and they had to go back to the
island.

In this account, the local provincial distribution structure was forcefully adhering to the
operational disaster-management hierarchy, by reasserting the role of the CDCs as the
legitimate community representatives. It also demonstrates the repeated challenges and
counter-claims made by powerful men to the structure imposed by the disaster manage-
ment hierarchy that positioned the Committee as the legitimate community
representatives.
Political ecologists have offered a pointed critique of resilience framings as being ‘naïve
about, or perhaps even unable to engage with, the workings of power’ (Ingalls and Stead-
man 2016, 1; Walsh-Dilley, Wolford, and McCarthy 2013). While offering the intuitive
appeal in highlighting strengths of communities in the face of extreme change, resilience
has been critiqued for its failure to consider how this capacity is contingent on political
and institutional arrangements (Brown 2014, 109), such that the agency of a group or indi-
vidual is configured by gender, race, class dimensions. These issues have prompted politi-
cal ecologists to ask: ‘resilience for what and for whom’ (Friend and Moench 2013, 104;
Brown 2014, 109), to which it is important to add: resilience as defined by whom, and
for what political purpose?
Ethnographic accounts of relief distribution contained in this paper suggest that the
work to strengthen community-based approaches in disaster management and climate
change adaptation can assume a simplistic and idealised vision of people working together
for a common good. These assumptions are particularly problematic in a post-disaster
context where people’s livelihoods are threatened and where existing institutional arrange-
ments and power structures may be challenged. Ideas of a unified, homogeneous ‘commu-
nity’ fail to take into account localised expressions of social structures and power relations
embedded in ideas of gender, status and authority, and the difference and diversity
amongst people. Instead, the concept of community so regularly deployed in policy
praxis as a way of managing disaster and climate change adaptation must be understood
‘as a political association formed through processes of political and cultural creation and
imagination – the generation of meaning in the contexts of unequal power’ (Roseberry
1989, 14). The space of the ‘community’, so reified in disaster-management hierarchies,
is itself an imagined illusion.
In the immediate aftermath of the cyclone, the politics of distribution highlight the con-
tested spaces of the community and the alternate claims made by powerful actors to relief
12 S. MCDONNELL

resources. These actors strategically tried to pas bihaen (pass behind) the Committee to
directly access relief resources. The phrase, however, also implies a subverting of the estab-
lished process for distributing resources. Used in terms of marriage, for example, the
phrase ‘pas bihaen’ means to have extra-marital affairs. Amidst the politics of distribution,
the Chairman and committee members of village B were left with the unenviable position
of trying to defend their position as the representative of the community in the disaster
management hierarchy. Here the Chairman describes his position, at the time:
We signed an MOU with Red Cross to say that after any disaster we would manage the dis-
tribution in the community. But some people wanted to pas bihaen.

Donors want to support people, so they provided resources directly to people. Some men will
just distribute and tell me what they have done after. The Committee distributed the food and
clothing from our Australian friends, but for lots of the other things other men just distrib-
uted them.

The big problem with our work is that all other men pas bihaen the Committee.

We wrote letters to Port Vila or to Shefa Province to make a request for supplies needed to
help with the recovery—things like a chainsaw and generator—but the generator never came
and the chainsaw just pas bihaen. I had to get the chainsaw back from the people who had
taken it.

Now I’m trying to place things that are donated in the clinic so that they don’t get taken by
the chiefs. Chiefs, individuals and church members have all been trying to pas bihaen to get
clothes, food.

In this discussion, the Chairman makes his claim to authority to manage distributions by
referencing the work of international agencies and their processes in legitimating the role
of the Committee as the legitimate community structure. The ‘we’ of this quote is not the
community but rather it is the Committee members themselves who have signed onto the
Memoranda of Understanding. In the face of this imposed community structure, existing
male leaders have chosen to pas bihaen, strategically engaging in challenging the authority
of the Committee by making their own claims to accessing, managing and facilitating relief
efforts. In this way, local powerful men were enacting an alternative idea of the ‘commu-
nity’, one in which they are positioned as the authority figures who can lay claim to the
masculine status associated with managing the distribution of resources to their family
and kinship groups.
As well as undermining the operations of the Committee externally – by accessing relief
efforts directly – the operations of the Community Disaster Committee in village B were
also undermined by critiques from other people living within the village locale. The idea of
the Committee as an imposed structure became evident in the many critiques made by
local chiefs, women and young people of the work of the Committee. Within the village
in the post-disaster period, many people began to challenge the behaviour of the Commit-
tee, and key Committee members, on moral grounds associated with failing to demon-
strate an understanding of kastom. Kastom in this context can be understood as the
‘ways of place’: the correct and proper way of behaving as a person of the place, a man-
ples. Specifically, the Committee was critiqued for not upholding the locally-privileged
kastom moral code of sharing the distribution of goods amongst kin and family. Many
of the same chiefs who had been involved in trying to pas bihaen the Committee to
 ANTHROPOLOGICAL FORUM 13

access aid were also involved in critiquing the efforts of the Committee to the point where
Committee membership began to decline. In village B, the female members left the Com-
mittee due to the accusations from powerful men that surrounded the distribution of food,
clothes and other material goods.
The outcome of these repeated challenges to the authority of the Community Disaster
Committee in village B was that the Committee was no longer able to perform its role and
functions. In the post-disaster period, in several instances where clothes and other material
goods were distributed, chiefs and other villagers from village B decided that the distri-
bution would be managed by the Committee from village A, rather than their own
CDC. This had two effects. First, it further exacerbated the rivalry between the two villages,
which created a regional discussion around the politics of distribution with suggestions
made that one village benefitted significantly more than the other from relief efforts.
Second, even more concerning, was the human cost in terms of reputational damage as
well as the breakdown in family and kinship ties, associated with the failure of the Com-
mittee in village B to secure the support of powerful chief and church leaders.
As the relief effort progressed, accusations were repeatedly made that the Committee
members in village B were hiding food or acting selfishly in the interests of their own
families, rather than properly managing the distribution of goods for the benefits of all
members of the village. Regardless of whether these accusations were true, they served
to delegitimise the Committee on the basis that they were not upholding local kastom
values. The challenges of powerful men to the operations of the Committee were
deemed morally appropriate by many village members, on the basis that the Committee
had not performed its distribution functions in accordance with the proper practice of
kastom. These challenges also created a significant human cost to the members, and par-
ticularly female members, of the Committee, who were deemed to have managed the dis-
tribution of relief efforts in ways that were self-interested, and who were subsequently
widely regarded by other Community members as immoral and unfair. The second and
third periods of fieldwork conducted as part of this research starkly illustrated one
aspect of this human cost: the Chairman of the village B Committee is no longer living
in the village as a result of the reputational damage of being involved in the relief distri-
bution process. Beyond the Chairman many of the members of the original CDC no longer
want to be involved in Committee work.

Conclusion: Resilience for Whom?

As externally imposed structures, the success of Community Disaster Committees appears
to depend largely on whether they are accepted by existing power structures already
located within the village. Where they are not carefully established, CDCs can exacerbate
tensions within villages (particularly on the basis of leadership, status and gender), as well
as rivalry between villages. As we have seen, Committees can become embroiled in a poli-
tics of disaster distribution: this emerges as a set of political claims and counter-claims
about who is best able to represent the community so as to control access to and distribute
relief supplies.
Serious attention needs to be paid to this localised politics of distribution as there can be
significant implications for individual Committee members; the same people who have
personally experienced disaster can potentially be further victimised by others who wish
14 S. MCDONNELL

to challenge the role of the Community Disaster Committee as the legitimate representa-
tive of the ‘community’. There is a very real human cost to disaster and climate change
adaptation programming that fails to pay attention to the operation of power at the
local scale. In answering the question ‘resilience for whom?’, we need to ask a further ques-
tion: when resilience is based on a model of collective community working together to
‘bounce back’ are there some people disadvantaged, or bearing additional costs? And if
so, how are these costs accounted for in attempts to strengthen resilience? There is a
danger that without attention to power, strengthening the resilience of one group may
come at the cost of another. In this way, community-based approaches to strengthening
resilience may, in practice, actually perpetuate vulnerabilities.
Resilience is the discourse of development in which ‘more is better’. It is aimed squarely
at an audience of international donors, with policy developed to attend to an international,
rather than a local audience. Resilience continues to be defined by an external audience of
INGOs, government and academics with little reference to the actual population that have
experienced either disaster or the ongoing effects of climate change. It is designed to
counter international assessments of ‘vulnerability’, whether based on risk or supposed
individual characteristics such as being female, young, old or disabled. These designations
of vulnerability fail to pay attention to localised structures based on family and kin, cul-
tural norms and existing institutional arrangements. Efforts to strengthen resilience or
address vulnerability must pay more attention to power, institutional and structural
arrangements. In Oceania, efforts to strengthen resilience must be reoriented so as to
involve the local affected population in defining aspects of resilience that are meaningful
in their lives and livelihoods, as they are increasingly affected by ‘natural’ disasters and
climate change.
Resilience narratives that are designed as community-based approaches to disaster
management or climate change adaptation, flatten the local scale into a homogenous
group in which people are supposed to work together around a shared set of values.
Approaches to community-based disaster management and climate change adaptation
also position ‘the community’ as a space to be acted on by external technical knowledge,
strengthened by engagement with external expertise. Rather than viewing the community
as a romanticised space of resilience, the ethnographic research that informs this paper
illustrates how key actors influenced decision-making over the distribution of aid
resources, post-disaster. Establishing Community Disaster Committees without reference
to existing institutional arrangements, or attention to local politics and power, created
contestation over the resources that were distributed in the immediate period after Tropi-
cal Cyclone Pam.
Rather than establishing new externally imposed structures, another model of disaster
distribution at the local level could involve building from existing institutional arrange-
ments. Programming that wishes to address gender equity in terms of distribution could,
for example, work in partnership alongside existing women’s church groups. These partner-
ships would need to be built over time and, would inevitably, involve more than just two
days of training in each village area. Existing church and chiefly institutions are also the
subject of unequal power and politics. However, they are also institutions that have a par-
ticular function and form, and that operate with an existing mandate.
Discussions of resilience can privilege ideas of recovery, rather than any fundamental
change to the system that addresses the causes of the problem. They can thereby create
 ANTHROPOLOGICAL FORUM 15

a conservative narrative that allows for the continuance of unsustainable practices (Adger,
Brown, and Nelson 2011; Barnett and O’Neill 2010). Returning to the question posed by
political ecology theorists, we need more awareness in disaster and climate change policy
documents around the politics of resilience. We must ask: resilience for whom? Resilience
offers a supposedly apolitical conceptual lens. However, the danger of this framing is that it
can obscure some of global structural inequalities associated with climate change and
disaster.
The most effective way of ensuring the resilience of people in Oceania to the threats
posed by climate change and disaster is to stop global carbon emissions. This geo-political
solution is surely the root cause of climate-related vulnerabilities (Ribot 2014). By contrast,
the language of resilience is, as described in this paper, locates risks and solutions at the
scale of the community: as a strategy designed to address the vulnerabilities of particular
communities. At its most problematic, the concept of resilience offers a morally-loaded
discourse in which the responsibility for the response to disasters can be placed on the
individual or community, with the expectation that they will ‘bounce back’. At the
same time, removing responsibility from the states or the global international community
of polluters who are contributing to issues of climate change and exacerbating the intensity
of ‘disasters’ in Oceania. In its failure to attend to global structural inequalities, resilience
as a conceptual framing can place the burden of disaster management and climate change
adaptation on the same Oceanic populations that are already disproportionately burdened
by the impacts of climate change. There is a representational politics implicit to determi-
nations of who is able to be resilient and how resilience is made manifest, and it is this that
we must carefully consider in approaches that are designed to strengthen community-
based resilience to disasters or climate change.

Disclosure Statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

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