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WTWA Chapter 12 - Summary Worlds Together Worlds Apart

World History I (Auburn University)

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CHAPTER 12
CONTACT, COMMERCE,
AND COLONIZATION (1450 - 1600)

I. Introduction

1.) Ferdinand Magellan

a.) Five ships set out and one returns after successfully circumnavigating the globe
i.) 18 men survive (265)
2.) Effects
a.) Intensified contact with Asia’s commercial networks and West Africa - Americas
i.) Mining prospects
3.) What is introduced
a.) Colonization and conquest of the Americas and Africa
i.) Spread of disease
b.) Rise of overseas European empires

THE OLD TRADE AND THE NEW

1.) Recovery from the Black Death
a.) Revived trade patterns and new networks - maritime trade
i.) Primarily focused in China Seas and Indian Ocean
(1) Chinese, Arab, Persian, and Indian merchants
2.) European interest in Africa
a.) Spices, silks, and slaves - Portuguese venture around Africa
b.) Conversion to Christianity

The Revival of the Chinese Economy

1.) Ming revive commerce and initiate economic expansion

a.) Internal economy
i.) Relocation of capital from Nanjing to Beijing - allows for surging domestic
market and reconstruction of the Grand Canal allows for Yangzi
commerce to reach Beijing
ii.) Internal Trading Networks well suited despite closure of the overseas
commerce
(1) Silver remained covet and allowed for Chinese silk and porcelain
to enter global market
(a) Hard money

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(i) 1430s - silver as a form of tax payment

(2) Silver Mining
(a) Japan
(b) Philippines (1570s) - Manila
(c) European Markets

The Revival of Indian Ocean Trade

1.) Chinese revival occurs as trade in Indian Ocean grows - links Red Sea and East Africa
ports w/ Malay, South Asia, and Indian Ocean
2.) India served as geographic and economic epicenter
a.) Large population centers (500K+) - Delhi, Lahore, and Agra
b.) Bengal is the manufacturing center - exports silk and cotton textiles
i.) Exported more than they import
3.) China - had to exchange silver for Chinese luxury goods
4.) Melaka - located strategically between South China Sea and Indian Ocean
a.) Entrepot - relied on long distance trade

Overland Commerce and Ottoman Expansion

1.) Seaborne commerce does not eliminate overland trade along routes that linked
Muscovy, Caspian Sea, China, and Baltic
2.) Caravan towns - Aleppo
a.) Rivaled Damascus and Homs - served as a vital supply point
3.) Importance of Merchants
a.) The Thousand and One Nights - revered merchants
b.) Large caravans of 600 -1000 camels and nearly 400 men or smaller (still needed
good leadership)
4.) Government Regulation
a.) Military outposts and taxation for protective purposes

EUROPEAN EXPLORATION AND EXPANSION

1.) Fall of Constantinople
a.) Need to find new routes to Asia

The Portuguese in Africa and Asia

1.) Belief that Africa had an abundance of precious metals - and myth

2.) NAVIGATION AND MILITARY ADVANCES

a.) Innovations that allow Portuguese to navigate
i.) Ships
(1) Carrack and Caravel
ii.) Tacking - sailing into the wind
iii.) Latitude
(1) Astrolabe and compass
b.) Gunpowder Adaptation

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i.) Prior use

(1) Ottomans use gunpowder to conquer Constantinople w/ 800 lb
cannonballs
(2) Christian sack of Granada
ii.) Use of cannon on warships

3.) SUGAR AND SLAVES

a.) Africa - exhausted soils of Mediterranean allow for Europeans to move into Africa
for sugarcane cultivation
i.) Plantation sugarcane cultivated - high demand of labor and rise of slave
trade
4.) COMMERCE AND CONQUEST IN THE INDIAN OCEAN
a.) Portuguese establish commercial networks and trading systems via exploitation
using its naval power
b.) Voyages of Vasco da Gama - Malindi (Muslim pilot for da Gama)
i.) Reached Malabar in 1498
ii.) Captured in Calicut but later released
iii.) Return to Lisbon
(1) Lost half of the crew
iv.) Returned to Calicut in 1502 - and and murdered the crews of twenty ships
docked in the harbor as a show of Portugal’s force
(1) Repeated show of force in Aden - Red Sea, Hormuz - Persian
Gulf, and Melaka - Malaysia
c.) Portuguese control of the Indian Ocean trade
i.) Cartazes - documents that identified captain, crew, and cargo to be
handed in
ii.) Lisbon becomes a powerhouse

THE ATLANTIC WORLD

1.) European expansion along the Atlantic and into the Americas
a.) Disease - smallpox, typhus, and cholera allows Europeans to conquer and
colonize the Americas
i.) Labor shortages - Africans sold and transported to Americas
(1) Triangular Trade
2.) Spanish ambitions - discovery of the Americas was out of search for a new passage to
Asia but instead a “New World”
a.) Europe scrambles to Atlantic and begins destroying societies in the New World
and sharpens rivalries between European dynasties

Westward Voyages of Columbus

1.) 1492 Voyage - three ships depart Spain and arrive in San Salvador (Bahamas) on
October 12, 1492
a.) Sought to Christianize and exploit

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First Encounters
1.) Caribbean Tainos - bloodshed with the Spanish
a.) No religion - but did have some gold
b.) Conversion and rich soils - ideal for settlement
c.) Opinion of Europeans - may have frightened them
2.) Explorers become conquistadors (conquerors)

First Conquests
1.) Columbus discovers gold on the island of Hispaniola (Haiti and the Dominican Republic)
a.) 10 years later the Spanish dispatch a fleet of 2.5K men (Columbus had 87)
2.) 1492 - 1519 Experimentation of the colonial rule for Spanish
a.) Recurring Issues
i.) Indian Resistance - sparked in 1494 when starving Spaniards raided and
pillaged Indian villages
(1) Spanish began enslaving natives for work in gold mines
ii.) Encomiendas - Spanish crown promoted systematized grants for control
over Indian labor which allowed for a rich class of Spanish
(Encomederos)
3.) Abuse of the Indians - seen as potential converts that were equal in the Eyes of God
a.) 1511- Father Antonio Montesinos - accused settlers of barbary

The Aztec Empire and the Spanish Conquest

1.) Hispaniola bounties began to dry up - forces Spanish colonies to look for alternatives
and set out to the American landmasses
a.) Encounter massive and complex civilizations of the Incan and Aztec Empires
i.) Ceremonial warfare poised a disadvantage of these empires

2.) AZTEC SOCIETY

a.) Mexicas formed a three-city league in 1430 around Lake Texcoco and Central
Valley of Mexico
i.) Form the Aztec Empire under a single monarch (who ruled with
counselors, military advisors, and priests)
(1) Controlled 25 Million people
b.) Capital was at Tenochtitlan - situated on a island in Lake Texcoco
i.) Metropolis that utilized irrigation and fertilizing techniques to produce
foods
c.) Extended kinship - marriage of men and women to different villages helped form
alliances
i.) Kinship and clans
d.) Spread of Aztec power
i.) Village hierarchy oriented into local elders w/ representative councils that
elected a chief speaker
(1) Chief speaker became Emperor
ii.) Religious importance

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(1) Rituals could influence the God's

iii.) Conquest
(1) Constant warfare deprived Aztecs of stability - introduced tribute
to finance Aztecs
(a) Prisoners for sacrifice - Sun God required human hearts to
keep burning and blood for rain
(i) 1487 - in a single ceremony between 20K - 80K
were slaughtered
(2) Warfare and Unrest - required mass conscription around the time
of Moctezuma II

3.) CORTES AND CONQUEST

a.) Strange sightings of “floating mountains (ships), pale bearded men and monsters
(horses and dogs)
i.) Aztecs thought this was the God Quetzalcoatl
b.) Hernan Cortes (1485 - 1547) - former law student who became a model
conquistador (was a encomendero is Hispaniola)
i.) Set sail w/ 500 men (11 ships), sixteen horses, and artillery
c.) Cortes’ landing in Veracruz - acquired two translators (one was Dona Marina -
daughter of a wealthy Tabasco region)
i.) Dona Marina - fluent in several languages and became lover to Cortes
ii.) Found about the plans of the Aztecs - marched on the city of Tenochtitlan
(1) Allied with Aztec rivals
(2) Aztecs fought to capture - not to kill
(a) Captured Montezuma and installed him as a puppet
d.) Rebellion
i.) Spanish troops massacre an unarmed crowd in the central square -
provoking an uprising - in which Montezuma was led to the palace walls
to plead for a truce
(1) Moctezuma is killed
ii.) Cortes flees and regroups with a large force - sends ships to bombard the
capital with artillery
(1) Smallpox also was deadly
iii.) Aztec king - Cuauhtemoc rallies forces but starvation, disease, and lack
of defensive artillery finish off Aztec forces
(1) Cortes becomes governor of “New Spain”

The Incas
1.) Valley of Cuzco - Inca Empire controlled a population of 4-6 million
2.) Issues for Succession of Huayna Capac (Inca ruler) who died (possibly from Smallpox)
which spread through trade routes
a.) Huascar - “the official” son - took Cuzco (killed by Atahualpa - who used his skull
as a vessel for maize-beer
b.) Atahualpa - took the province of modern-day Ecuador

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3.) 1523 - The Spanish arrive under Francisco Pizarro

a.) 500 men who lay a trap for Atahualpa in the town of Cajamarca and was
decapitated - as Spanish conquistadors overran Cuzco in 1533
4.) Encomiendas establish themselves in the new capital of Lima
a.) 1541 - Pizarro assassinated
b.) Spanish reinforce loyalty to Madrid by preventing encomiendas from becoming
heritable
5.) Results from European conquest in the Americas
a.) Opened a new market

Environmental Consequences of the Conquest

1.) Columbian Exchange - exchange of plants (grapevines, wheat, sugarcane), people,
products, and eventually disease
a.) Effects
i.) Destruction of the Amerindian population by European disease
(1) Accounts from Smallpox decimating Tenochtitlan
(2) Measles, Pneumonic Plague, and later influenza followed - wiped
out 90% of populations
(3) Hispaniola had only 5-10% of native population remained
ii.) Agricultural revolutions
(1) Europeans acquire potatoes and corn
(a) Millet, rice, grains, and sorghum introduced to Americas
(b) Cash crops - tobacco
(c) Livestock introduced to the region
iii.) Ecological Disaster
(1) Livestock rapid reproduction
(2) Destruction of ecological habitats

Spain’s Tributary Empire

1.) Exploitation of indigenous empires w/o fully dismantling them - Spain could extract
wealth without settlement
a.) Encomiendas - could demand labor for mines, estates, and public works; as well
as tribute
2.) Role of Women - few were settlers
a.) Ines Suarez - arrived in Indies to locate husband (who arrived earlier, dead) and
became a mistress of Petro de Valdivia
i.) Served as nurse, caretaker, advisor, and guard
ii.) Later ruled Chile as the wife of Rodrigo de Quiroga
b.) Typically - foraged for food, tended soldiers, and set up settlements
c.) Few Spanish women - men settled with local women
i.) Pizarro wedded an Incan princess
ii.) Intermarriage - helped regulate population decline
3.) Former cities - still prosper
a.) Tenochtitlan becomes Mexico City

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b.) Cuzco arose from Incan capital

Silver
1.) Europeans extract precious metals of gold and silver and introduce it to the Afro-
Eurasian markets
a.) More gold was extracted from Mexico and Andean than was accumulated by
Europeans
2.) Mining
a.) 1545 - Andean Potosi mines
i.) 1560 - 1685 - Spanish sent 25-35K tons of silver annually to Spain
(1) After 1685 - sum doubled
ii.) Motherlodes - Potosi (Bolivia) and Zacatecas (northern Mexico)
3.) Effects of Colonia Mines
a.) Required extensive network of drafted and enslaved labor
i.) Spanish adopted Inca and Aztec practices of subjugating village labor

PORTUGAL’S NEW WORLD COLONY

1.) Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494 - divided Americas, Africa, and Asia into spheres of
influence shared by Spain and Portugal
a.) Unenforceable
b.) Portugal found fertile lands in Brazil

Coastal Enclaves
1.) Failure to find native cities - colonists remained in more dispersed populations
a.) Late 17th Century - Brazil had a white population of 300K
2.) Use of native labor - later rebellions forced the Portuguese to stay near the enclaves -
extracted brazilwood (source of red dye) and sugar
a.) Began importing African slaves
i.) Bay of All Saints (northeast Brazil) becomes Atlantic’s first sugar-
producing commercial center

Sugar Plantations
1.) Cultivation first originated in West Africa and Indian - but was transported to Caribbean
and Brazil
a.) Sugar becomes major export - requires a lot of labor
2.) The Transatlantic Flow of Slaves becomes a rapid component
a.) Plantations were exposed to 60-100 slaves who worked in horrendous conditions
and died off fairly quickly

Beginnings of the Transatlantic Slave Trade

1.) Started in 15th Century
a.) 1525 - First Direct Voyage Occurs
b.) Support of sugar cultivation
i.) Expansion occurs as demand for sugar increased

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(1) Till 1820 - approximately 2 Million Europeans and 12 Millions

Africans were brought to the Americas (2 Million Africans
perished)
2.) Was an extensive network that involved all of Western Europe as well as New World
Merchants in both North and South America
a.) Africa originally began slave trading with the Muslim world - and the numbers
exceeded those sold into the Atlantic Slave Trade
i.) Africans had slaves as well - due to labor scarcities
(1) But would marry into families and gain power
b.) Americas - intensified slave trade resulting in a narrow band that stretched down
the spine of Africa
i.) Atlantic System or Triangle Trade
(1) Africa - labor
(2) Americas - land and materials
(3) Europe - technology and military power

THE TRANSFORMATION OF EUROPE

1.) Atlantic system deepened the region’s internal divides
a.) Spanish Empire’s wealth increased Habsburg power
b.) Roman Catholic Church splits during Reformation

The Habsburgs and the Quest for Universal Empire in Europe

1.) Habsburgs want to establish a continental empire (similar to Roman Empire)
a.) Inherited Charlemagne’s Empire and establish the Holy Roman Empire (which
was a loose confederation of principalities that were obeyed the emperor that
was elected by lower-level sovereigns (dukes, bishops, and kings) that usually
came from the Austrian house of Habsburg (after 1273)
i.) Spanned across all of Europe (Netherlands, Germany, Austria, Belgium,
parts of Poland, and Switzerland)
b.) Enormous but was not effectively centralized
2.) 1519 - Habsburg prince Charles V becomes Holy Roman Emperor
a.) Grandson of Isabella and Ferdinand and Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I
i.) Controlled Spanish territories in America's
b.) 1556 - Charles abdicates due to growing Protestant unrest and younger brother
Ferdinand (r. 1556 - 1564) takes control of Austria, Germany, and Central
Europe/ Philip II, (Charles V’s son) takes over Spain, Belgium, Netherlands,
southern Italy, and the New World and also Portugal

Conflict in Europe and the Demise of Universal Empire

1.) Spain and Portugal experience conflict with Dutch, English, and French elites
a.) Began privateering and piracy at seas due to envy of wealth
2.) English privateering - Sir Francis Drake
a.) 1577 - 1580 - attacked various Spanish ports and attacked Spanish galleons
carrying Mesoamerican and Andean gold in the Caribbean

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i.) Queen Elizabeth made him a knight as a reward for his assaults on the
Spanish Empire
b.) Spain responds… sails an armada of 130 ships (20K men) into the English
Channel
3.) Defeat of the Spanish Armada and death of the Sir Francis Drake
a.) English occupy city of Cadiz (Spanish premier Port) for two weeks
b.) War between European powers negates possibility of a Christianized Empire

The Reformation
1.) Similar to the Renaissance - Protestant Reformation drove to return to ancient sources -
biblical scriptures
a.) Interpretation of the bible was dangerous - Church feared heresies and
challenges to authority

2.) MARTIN LUTHER CHALLENGES THE CHURCH

a.) Martin Luther (1483 - 1546) was a German monk and professor of theology who
used knowledge of bible to criticize church ideals and practices in effort to
persuade church leaders to make reforms
i.) 1516 - interpreted Paul’s Letters to the Romans as admittance to heaven
can only be gained through faith in God’s grace and forgiveness
(1) Just read the Bible
(2) Did not need an appointed mediator - the Bible served that
purpose
b.) Three Principles
i.) Faith alone saves
ii.) Scriptures hold key to Christian truth
iii.) Priesthood of all believers
c.) Ninety-Five Theses in 1517
i.) Posted on the doors of the Wittenberg Cathedral
(1) On the Freedom of the Christian Man (1520)
d.) Church and Habsburg push to quiet Luther
i.) Declared him a heretic
ii.) Luther wrote more pamphlets
(1) Described the pope as the anti-Christ
iii.) Married former nun Katharina von Bora
(1) Encouraged marriage of clergy and laity
iv.) Translated the New Testament from Latin to German - encouraged
Protestants to spread as it was more accessible

3.) OTHER “PROTESTANT” REFORMERS

a.) Luther’s doctrines gained support and followers “Protestants” who asserted
independence from Habsburg Holy Roman Empire and sought a more reformed
Christianity
i.) Moral foundation for community life

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ii.) Appealed to those who resented rule by Catholic “outsiders” such as

Philip II
b.) Jean Calvin (1509 - 1564) - Frenchman who modified Lutheranism
i.) Emphasized…
(1) Moral regeneration through church discipline and autonomy of
religious communities
(2) Predestination - individual’s selection for salvation or damnation at
birth
(a) Presbyterianism
c.) Henry VIII (r. 1509- 47) and Elizabeth (1558 - 1603) established a moderate
reformed religion - “middle way” called Anglicanism
i.) Americans - Episcopalians
ii.) England remained further subdivided between Catholics, Presbyterians,
and Anglicans

4.) COUNTER-REFORMATION AND PERSECUTION

a.) Church responds to Luther and Calvin by launching the Counter-Reformation
i.) Council of Trent (held sessions from 1545-63)
(1) Reaffirmed church doctrines, sacraments, acts of charity, papal
supremacy, clergy role, and celibacy of monks, priests, and nuns
ii.) Emphasis on individual spirituality and Popes became renowned for piety
and asceticism
(1) Missionary work - Ignatius Loyola (1491 - 1556)
(a) Brotherhood of priests - Society of Jesus
(i) Jesuits
iii.) Repression and Persecution
(1) Public exorcisms on Protestants
(2) Banned theses of Luther and Calvin, etc.
(a) Printing helped spread these texts however
(3) Persecution of witches (between 1500-1700: upwards to 100K
people were accused and executed)
(a) Charges - cursing or poisoning babies, killing livestock, etc.
(b) Believed that weak and susceptible women might have sex
with the devil or be tempted by him

Religious Warfare in Europe

1.) Circulation of Lutheran books in 1520s sparked peasant revolts against feudal landlords
2.) Religious Autonomy in Germany
a.) 1555- Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire allows German princes to choose
either Lutheranism or Catholicism (Calvinism is still outlawed)
3.) Spanish exhaustion of wealth - waged war in Europe and attempting to subdue Dutch
colonies (Netherlands gain independence)
a.) Within two decades - Spain declares bankruptcy three times
4.) Spanish decline and the rise of Dutch and English

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a.) Trade networks into Asia and New World and eventual trade wars
5.) France
a.) St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre of 1572 - Catholic crowds murder Parisian
Huguenot men, women, and children
i.) 3K dead in Paris and 10K dead in provincial towns
ii.) Fall of the Valois Dynasty
(1) Henry of Navarre - Protestant prince who be Henry IV and
converted to Catholicism but issued the Edict of Nantes (gave
Protestants freedom of religion)

PROSPERITY IN ASIA
1.) Asian empires expand and consolidate power as trade flourishes
a.) European sailors and traders in Indian Ocean strengthen trading ties in region
i.) Ming elegance in textiles
ii.) Mughal Akbar
iii.) Suleiman the Magnificent of the Ottomans

Mughal Indian and Commerce

1.) Mughal Empire
a.) Wealthy from European trade connections
b.) Established in 1526 and controlled a population of 100-150 million
2.) Military Power
a.) Babur - introduced horsemanship, artillery, field cannons, and gunpowder to
secure military victories in Northern Indian
b.) Akbar (r. 1556-1605) expanded and consolidated power
i.) Military prowess and diplomacy skill
(1) Intermarriage
3.) Trade
a.) Did not have any naval capacity
(1) Used overland routes and rivers to access Iranian goods
b.) European Contact
i.) Portuguese arrive and in 1578 - Akbar recognized the credentials of a
Portuguese ambassador and allowed a Jesuit missionary to enter his
court
(1) Commercial ties between Portugal and Mughal Empire intensified
until 1580-1590s - when Mughals allowed for Dutch and English to
dock in ports
4.) Prosperity of the Mughal Empire
a.) Zamindars - collectors who possessed rights to claim a share but earmarked part
of their earnings for the emperor
b.) Trade flourishing allowed Akbar to monetize the tax assessment system and curb
Zamindar power - centralizing imperial revenue for financing of military
expeditions and beautification

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i.) Emergence of market towns and ports - peasants sold produce to pay
taxes

Prosperity in Ming China

1.) China prospered from increased commerce due to silver interests
a.) Silver from the Americas did circulate in China - as it allowed employers to pay
workers with money rather than with produce and goods
b.) Textiles flourished
c.) Population surge
i.) ⅓ of the World Population
ii.) 90% lived in rural areas - but the country boasted large cities
(1) 1 Million People - Beijing and Nanjing
iii.) Beijing and Nanjing undergo intense beautification projects to display
elegance and material prosperity
2.) Urban Prosperity
a.) Entertainment and Freedom
i.) Women
(1) Could work as refined entertainers or courtesans
(2) Midwives, poets, sorcerers, and matchmakers
(3) Other worked in literature
(4) Healers, consorts, and power brokers in the Emperor’s Forbidden
City
3.) Problems for the Ming
a.) Piracy along coastlines
b.) Corruption - Wang Yangming - neo-Confucian who urged commitment to social
action
i.) His followers assumed women were equal to men intellectually and
should receive full educations

Asian Relations with Europe

1.) 1557 - Portuguese arrived in Macao and attempt to mediate Chinese import-export trade
but Ming refused to establish an official relationship with European traders
a.) Confined merchants to coastal enclaves - and even built a wall at the isthmus
connecting Macao to the mainland and stationed soldiers there to prevent
Portuguese access to inland trade
i.) However Portuguese mediated much of the trade with Japan and shipped
many Chinese luxuries to Europe
2.) Spain arrives in the Philippines in 1565
a.) Spanish seize Manilla in the Philippines in 1571 and launch trading operations in
the Pacific and to China
b.) 1571 - Spain begins trading on a trade circuit based on Magellan’s expeditions
i.) Americas to China, China to Europe, Europe to Americas…
3.) Other Europeans

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a.) 1591 - Captain James Lancaster makes first English voyage to East Indies in
1591 and 94’
b.) 1599- English subscribers (101) establish the English East Indian Company and
gain rights to import goods and displaced the Portuguese in the Arabian Sea and
Persian Gulf
i.) Acquired ports on both coasts of Indian
(1) Fort St. George (Madras; 1639), Bombay (1661), and Calcutta
(1690)

CONCLUSION OF CHAPTER 12

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