Fluid Mechanics

WEEK 4 – Tutorial
1. Illustrates entry length and boundary layer thickness

The entrance length for laminar flow in a circular pipe of diameter D is
given by
𝐿𝑒
≈ 0.06 𝑅𝑒𝐷 , 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝐵𝐿 (𝑅𝑒𝐷 < 2300)
𝐷
U D
Le
LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYER INSIDE PIPE
Using relation for boundary layer thickness over flat plate and using δ
= D/2. Find the relation for Le.
𝛿 5.5
= , 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝐵𝐿 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑥 𝑅𝑒𝑥 0.5
𝛿 5.5
=
𝑥 𝑅𝑒𝑥 0.5
x
LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYER OVER FLAT PLATE
SOLUTION
Boundary layer thickness is given by
𝛿 5.5 5.5
= =
𝑥 𝑅𝑒𝑥 0.5 𝜌𝑈𝑥 0.5
( 𝜇 )
𝜇𝑥 0.5
𝛿 = 5.5 ( )
𝜌𝑈
At fully developed length, x = Le we have δ = D/2.

𝐷 𝜇𝐿𝑒 0.5
= 5.5 ( )
2 𝜌𝑈
0.008 𝜌𝑈𝐷2
𝐿𝑒 =
𝜇
𝐿𝑒
= 0.008𝑅𝑒𝐷 ≈ 0.01𝑅𝑒𝐷
𝐷
Where as the actual relation,
𝐿𝑒
≈ 0.06 𝑅𝑒𝐷
𝐷
predicts longer development length.
With the relation developed for laminar flow over flat plate we should
not expect to get exact quantitative result. In the actual pipe flow, the
acceleration of inviscid core is accompanied by a pressure drop. This
pressure drop is superimposed on the boundary layer to accelerate
the boundary layer flow and reduce the growth rate of the boundary
layer. The result is that the actual development length is about six
times more than our simple estimate based on flow over a flat plate.
2. Illustrates how pressure and shear stresses are used to calculate

drag force
A highway sign board has the shape of a half cylinder with diameter
2 m and length 25 m. A rearward 10 km/h wind is blowing over the
sign board, as shown in figure.
y
V∞ Ʈw R θ
x
The pressure and shear stress distributions on the circular surface

are given by
𝑝 − 𝑝∞ = 4.63[1 − 4𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃] 𝑁/𝑚2
and
𝜏 = [1.74 × 10−3 (𝜋 − 𝜃) − 1.59 × 10−5 (𝜋 − 𝜃)2 ] 𝑁/𝑚2
where θ is in radians and p∞ = 105 N/m2. The pressure on the flat
face is constant and equal to the pressure at the corner. There are
no shear stresses on the flat face. Find the drag on the sign board.
Neglect end effects.
a. 620 N
b. 660 N
c. 820 N
d. 860 N
SOLUTION – a
GIVEN
Sign board having shape of half cylinder
Radius, R = 1 m
Length, b = 25 m
Wind velocity, U = 10 km/h
The pressure and shear stress distributions on the circular surface
𝑝 − 𝑝∞ = 4.63[1 − 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃] 𝑁/𝑚2
𝜏 = [1.74 × 10−3 (𝜋 − 𝜃) − 1.59 × 10−5 (𝜋 − 𝜃)2 ] 𝑁/𝑚2
The pressure and shear stress distributions on the flat surface
𝜋
𝑝 − 𝑝∞ = 4.63 [1 − 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( )] 𝑁/𝑚2
2
𝜏 = 0 𝑁/𝑚2
p∞ = 105 N/m2
FIND
Drag force on the sign board
SOLUTION
The direction of the positive drag force is the x direction. So to
compute drag we find the net force acting on the surface along x
direction.
y
Ʈw
π-θ
p
π-θ
dθ
θ
Φ=π-θ x
Consider an elemental area dA = b.R.dθ

𝜋
𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑔, 𝔇 = − [𝑝∞ + 4.63 (1 − 4. 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( ))] . 𝑏. 2𝑅
2
3𝜋⁄2
+∫ (−𝑝. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝜏𝑤 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑏. 𝑅. 𝑑𝜃
𝜋 ⁄2
Due to the symmetry of the object

𝜋
𝔇 = − [𝑝∞ + 4.63 (1 − 4. 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( ))] . 𝑏. 2𝑅
2
𝜋
+ 2 ∫ (−𝑝. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝜏𝑤 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑏. 𝑅. 𝑑𝜃
0
Substituting for p and Ʈw, recognizing that the pressure on the flat
face is constant and equal to that at the corners, and noting that
shear stress is zero over flat face.
𝜋
𝔇 = − [𝑝∞ + 4.63 (1 − 4. 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( ))] . 𝑏. 2𝑅
2
𝜋
+ 2 ∫ −[𝑝∞ + 4.63(1 − 4. 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜃))]. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. 𝑏. 𝑅. 𝑑𝜃
𝜋 ⁄2
𝜋
+ 2 ∫ [1.74 × 10−3 (𝜋 − 𝜃) − 1.59 × 10−5 (𝜋 − 𝜃)2 ]. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. 𝑏. 𝑅. 𝑑𝜃
𝜋 ⁄2
Integrating and using sinθ = sin(π-θ), we get

𝜋
𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃
𝔇 = −2𝑏. 𝑅(𝑝∞ − 13.9) − 2𝑏. 𝑅 [𝑝∞ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 4.63 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 18.5 ( )]
3 𝜋 ⁄2
𝜋
−3
+ 3.48 × 10 𝑏. 𝑅 ∫ (𝜋 − 𝜃). 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜋 − 𝜃)𝑑𝜃 − 3.18
𝜋 ⁄2
𝜋
× 10 𝑏. 𝑅 ∫ (𝜋 − 𝜃)2 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜋 − 𝜃)𝑑𝜃
−5
𝜋 ⁄2
Substituting in limits for the pressure terms and using ϕ = π – θ so

that dϕ = -dθ gives
𝔇 = −2𝑏. 𝑅(𝑝∞ − 13.9)[1 − 0]
0−1
− 2𝑏. 𝑅 [𝑝∞ [0 − 1] + 4.63 [0 − 1] − 18.5 ( )]
3
0
−3
− 3.48 × 10 𝑏. 𝑅 ∫ 𝜙. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙. 𝑑𝜙 + 3.18
𝜋 ⁄2
0
× 10 𝑏. 𝑅 ∫ 𝜙 2 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙. 𝑑𝜙
−5
𝜋 ⁄2
𝔇 = 2𝑏. 𝑅(12.4) − 3.48 × 10−3 . 𝑏. 𝑅[𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 − 𝜙. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙]0𝜋⁄2

+ 3.18 × 10−5 . 𝑏. 𝑅[2𝜙. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 − (𝜙 2 − 2). 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙]0𝜋⁄2
𝔇 = 24.8. 𝑏. 𝑅 = 620𝑁
DISCUSSION
Similar approach can be used to calculate force perpendicular to flow
direction, namely LIFT. Lift force in this case would be along y
direction. But due to symmetry with respect to x axis, you will find that
lift is zero.
3. Illustrates airfoil lift
A race car uses an inverted NACA 2415 airfoil to provide downthrust
on its rear wheels. The airfoil has two end plates, so the flow may be
assumed two dimensional. The airfoil has frontal area of 1.6 m 2 and
lift coefficient of 1.12. Find the downforce it will generate when the
car is moving at a speed of 70 m/s. Take density of air as 1.2 kg/m 3.
Inverted
airfoil
a. 1.8 kN
b. 3.4 kN
c. 5.2 kN
d. 6.7 kN
SOLUTION – c
GIVEN
Flow over an airfoil,
With coefficient of lift, CL = 1.12
Frontal area, S = 1.6 m2
Relative velocity between fluid and car, U = 70 m/s
Density, ρAIR = 1.2 kg/m3
FIND
Lift force on airfoil, L
SOLUTION
Lift force on airfoil, L = ½ CL ρ U2S = 5268 N
DISCUSSION
The down force created by the airfoil helps to improve traction in the
wheels.
Vehicle direction
Normal
force, N
Traction force = μfriction x N
An undesirable effect of airfoil will be the drag ( D = ½ CD ρ U2S )

which opposes the vehicle motion, but this can be controlled by
streamlining the airfoil appropriately. Both these forces are
proportional to U2, so these forces are predominant at high speed,
not normally considered for road vehicles.
4. Illustrates application of viscous flow in household pump
An apartment has an overhead tank at an elevation of 10 m from the
sump. Tanks are connected using 1.5 inch diameter size and 300 m
long pipe. A pump is required which can convey water at 4 kg/s.
4 kg/s
Overhead tank
Pump
Sump
Calculate the power rating of the pump required, assuming an
efficiency of 80%.
Following correlations can be used for finding Darcy’s friction factor,

64
𝑓= , 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 (𝑅𝑒𝐷 < 2300)
𝑅𝑒𝐷
𝑓 = 0.182 (𝑅𝑒𝐷 )−0.2 , 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 (𝑅𝑒𝐷 > 2300)
Properties of water are : ρ = 1000 kg/m3
μ = 8 x 10-4 Ns/m2
a. 1.2 kW
b. 3.6 kW
c. 4.4 kW
d. 6.3 kW
SOLUTION – c
GIVEN
Mass flow rate, ṁ = 4 kg/s
Length of pipe, L = 300 m
Diameter of pipe, d = 1.5 inch = 0.038 m
Height of tank, H = 10 m
Efficiency of pump, η = 80 %
FIND
Power required for the pump.
SOLUTION
𝑚̇ 4
Average flow velocity, 𝑉 = 𝜋 = 𝜋 = 3.5 𝑚/𝑠
𝜌 𝑑2 1000× 0.0382
4 4
𝜌𝑉𝑑 1000×3.5×0.038
Reynolds number, 𝑅𝑒 = = = 1.7 × 105
𝜇 8×10−4
Hence the flow is turbulent.
Friction factor, f = 0.182 x Re-0.2 = 0.182 x (1.7x105)-0.2 = 0.016
𝑓𝐿𝑉 2 0.016×300×3.52
Head loss due to friction, h𝐿 = = = 78.8 𝑚
2𝑔𝑑 2×9.81×0.038
Total head, hTOTAL = H + hL = 10 + 78.8 = 88.8 m
Fluid power = hρgQ = 88.8 x 1000 x 9.81 x 0.25 x π x 0.0382x3.5 = 3.5 kW
Electric power required = PF / η = 4.4 kW

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WEEK 4 – Tutorial

1. Illustrates entry length and boundary layer thickness

At fully developed length, x = Le we have δ = D/2.

2. Illustrates how pressure and shear stresses are used to calculate

The pressure and shear stress distributions on the circular surface

Consider an elemental area dA = b.R.dθ

Due to the symmetry of the object

Integrating and using sinθ = sin(π-θ), we get

Substituting in limits for the pressure terms and using ϕ = π – θ so

𝔇 = 2𝑏. 𝑅(12.4) − 3.48 × 10−3 . 𝑏. 𝑅[𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 − 𝜙. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙]0𝜋⁄2

Traction force = μfriction x N

An undesirable effect of airfoil will be the drag ( D = ½ CD ρ U2S )

Following correlations can be used for finding Darcy’s friction factor,

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