energies

Article
Analysis of Cable Screen Currents
for Diagnostics Purposes
Krzysztof Lowczowski * , Zbigniew Nadolny and Bartosz Olejnik
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Poznan University of Technology, 60-965 Poznań, Poland;
[email protected] (Z.N.); [email protected] (B.O.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +48-61-665-2270




Received: 11 February 2019; Accepted: 4 April 2019; Published: 8 April 2019


Abstract: This paper presents current flow in cable screens and a cable screen earthing system.
Moreover, the paper presents the methodology for the detection of problems in cable screens, such as
open phase in a cable screen and high contact resistance of a cable screen in a cable joint. The is based
on cable screen current measurements and allows for localization of the erroneous connection–high
contact resistance or open phase. The phenomenon is simulated in PowerFactory Software. Moreover,
exemplary cable screen current measurements are presented.

Keywords: cable screen; diagnostics; contact resistance; capacitive current

1. Introduction
Current flow in cable screens is often presented in literature in the context of cable screen
losses [1,2]. In order to reduce cable screen losses, different methods can be utilized, i.e., cross-bonding
or single point bonding [3]. The effectiveness of loss reduction methods is based on an assumption
that cable screens are connected properly and the contact resistance of cable screens is negligible.
Unfortunately, in some cases, cable screens could be connected incorrectly, which leads to extensive
heating and changes the current flow in cable screens. Some publications report a big difference
between simulation results and measurements, e.g., an error in the CB (cross bonded) line is in range
of tens of percent [4]. Before the configuration of a cable screen is changed, one has to measure and
analyze the current flow in the cable screen to make sure that losses will be reduced as planned and
to make sure that cable screen connections are made correctly. If the cable screen is not connected
properly, the effectiveness of loss reduction methods would be compromised. In a worst case scenario,
a fragment of a cable screen could be left without earthing if single point bonding would be applied in
a cable with a broken cable screen. In the case of single point grounding transient overvoltage, a cable
screen during earth faults would be in the range of 10-15 kV, and therefore sheath voltage limiters
would be recommended [5,6].
Cable lines are built according to the state of the art, which ensures high quality of cable
installation [7,8]. It is, however, noted that there is no international standard regarding cable
screen connections. Literature presents general information about contact resistance, e.g., about
contact resistance of electromagnetic relays [9,10], but information about cable screen resistance is
limited to a few publications, e.g., [11]. Problems with cable screen connection exist due to a lack of
standards, bad design, non-clear installation procedures, unskilled personnel, and a lack of information
about the installation of power cables. The lack of information is a particularly big problem in the
case of watertight cables, which consist of double screen layers, since different manufacturers have
different recommendations regarding double screen earthing and taking into account second screen
layer conductivity in cable specification [12]. The problematic state of cable screen connections is

Energies 2019, 12, 1348; doi:10.3390/en12071348 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2019, 12, 1348 2 of 17

currently being analyzed by CIRED Working Group—Ground Screen Power Cable Connections—Test
Recommendations for Ground Screen Power Cable Connections.
One has to realize that some damages result from mechanical damages and cannot be avoided,
whereas some
Energies damages
2019, 12, x FOR PEERresult
REVIEWfrom aging or operational errors [13]. Diagnostics of cable 2 of sheath
16
damages is performed by means of direct current (DC) sources [14], whereas the diagnosis of cable
One has to realize that some damages result from mechanical damages and cannot be avoided,
screen connections is made by means of resistance meters. Diagnostics methods require a lot of work
whereas some damages result from aging or operational errors [13]. Diagnostics of cable sheath
and therefore are seldom used in extensive medium voltage (MV) cable networks. In order to diagnose
damages is performed by means of direct current (DC) sources [14], whereas the diagnosis of cable
cablescreen
screenconnections
connections, it is by
is made possible
means of to resistance
monitor cablemeters.screen currents.
Diagnostics methodsIt is require
noted thata lot information
of work
aboutandthe therefore
utilization of cable screen currents for diagnostics purposes is limited
are seldom used in extensive medium voltage (MV) cable networks. In order to [15].
This paper
diagnose cablepresents a methodology
screen connections, for the toidentification
it is possible monitor cableand screenthecurrents.
localization of erroneous
It is noted that
cableinformation
screen connections in two-point
about the utilization bonded
of cable screen MV cables,
currents which arepurposes
for diagnostics commonly used[15].
is limited in Poland.
This paper
The presented presents a methodology
methodology is simple and forallows
the identification and the
for achieving localization
full efficiencyofof erroneous cable loss
cable screen
screenMoreover,
reduction. connectionsa risk
in two-point bondeddue
of cable failure MVtocables, which
excessive are commonly
heating or increased usedovervoltage
in Poland. The in cable
presented
screen is reduced. methodology is simple and allows for achieving full efficiency of cable screen loss
reduction. Moreover, a risk of cable failure due to excessive heating or increased overvoltage in cable
Current and voltage waveforms measured in cable screens can also be used for earth fault
screen is reduced.
detection or for fault localization in alternating current (AC) or DC systems [16–19]. Analysis of cable
Current and voltage waveforms measured in cable screens can also be used for earth fault
screendetection
currentsorgives a possibility
for fault localization toin
distinguish
alternatingthe type(AC)
current of line (cable
or DC or overhead)
systems affectedofbycable
[16‒19]. Analysis an earth
fault screen
[20]. Furthermore, cable screen current measurements can be used for the
currents gives a possibility to distinguish the type of line (cable or overhead) affected by andetection of problems
in cross bonded
earth lines,
fault [20]. e.g., short-circuited
Furthermore, cable screen cable screens
current during flooding
measurements can be used or insulation breakdown
for the detection of in
cableproblems
joints [21–23].
in cross Furthermore,
bonded lines,the wrong
e.g., order of cable
short-circuited cable screen
screensconnections
during flooding in parallel connected
or insulation
cablesbreakdown in cable joints [21‒23]. Furthermore, the wrong order of cable screen connections in
can be detected.
parallel connected cables can be detected.
2. Problem Formulation
2. Problem Formulation
This paragraph presents the theoretical background, which is necessary to interpret measurement
This paragraph presents the theoretical background, which is necessary to interpret
and simulation results.
measurement and simulation results.
Figure 1 presents factors affecting current flow in cables screens and earth currents in cable screens
Figure 1 presents factors affecting current flow in cables screens and earth currents in cable
underscreens
load conditions. Current flow in a cable screen is a result of inductive and capacitive coupling
under load conditions. Current flow in a cable screen is a result of inductive and capacitive
between cablebetween
coupling cores and cable
cable coresscreens. Capacitive
and cable couplingcoupling
screens. Capacitive is a source of screen
is a source and earth
of screen currents
and earth
undercurrents
no-loadunder
conditions and load conditions. Inductive coupling is a major source of current
no-load conditions and load conditions. Inductive coupling is a major source of under
load conditions.
current under load conditions.

Figure
Figure 1. Factorsaffecting
1. Factors affecting screen
screen current
currentflow
flowunder
underloadload
conditions, where:where:
conditions, Z—impedance, R—
Z—impedance,
resistance, A, B, C—cable cores, a, b, c—cable screens, 1—cable beginning, 2—cable
R—resistance, A, B, C—cable cores, a, b, c—cable screens, 1—cable beginning, 2—cable joint, joint, 3—cable
end.
3—cable end.

Current flowing through cable cores–load current is a source of current in cable screens. In the
Current flowing through cable cores–load current is a source of current in cable screens. In the
case of single core cables in a three phase European system, each cable core is coupled with three
case of single core cables in a three phase European system, each cable core is coupled with three cable
cable screens, e.g., a current flowing through a cable core of phase A is a source of current flowing
screens, e.g., aa current
through screen offlowing through
the same a cable core
cable—marked as (a)ofdue
phase A is a source
to inductive of current
coupling flowing
ZAa. The through
same core
a screen of the same cable—marked as (a) due to inductive coupling Z
current is also the source of currents in cable screens (b) and (c) because Aa . The same core current
of inductive coupling ZAb is
and ZAc. Similar coupling exists between other phases, which are presented in Figure 1. As a result of
inductive coupling, relatively high current flows through cable screens. An amplitude of the screen
Energies 2019, 12, 1348 3 of 17

also the source of currents in cable screens (b) and (c) because of inductive coupling ZAb and ZAc .
Similar coupling
Energies 2019, 12,exists between
x FOR PEER REVIEW other phases, which are presented in Figure 1. As a result of 3inductive of 16
coupling, relatively high current flows through cable screens. An amplitude of the screen currents
currents
depends depends
on cable type,on cable
cable type, cable formation,
formation, and loadand load current.
current. If thecurrent
If the load load current is symmetrical
is symmetrical and the
cablesand
arethe
laidcables
in aare laid in
trefoil a trefoil formation
formation (Figure
(Figure 2c), 2c), screen
screen currents
currents are alsoare also symmetrical.
symmetrical. InIn somecases,
some
cases,
a cable laida incable laid information
a trefoil a trefoil formation could change
could change the formation—a
the formation—a middlemiddle
cablecable
couldcould collapse,and a
collapse,
and a flat formation could be formed (Figure 2b). Coupling impedances between cable cores and
flat formation could
Energies
be formedREVIEW
2019,formations
(Figure 2b). Coupling impedances between cable cores and
12, x FOR PEERdiffer 3 of 16
screens in
screens in flat significantly, and the screening effect between cables is weakened.
flat formations differ significantly, and the screening effect between cables is weakened. As a result,
As a result, the currents flowing through the cable screens rise and become unbalanced
the currents currents
flowing depends
throughon cable
thetype,
cable cable formation,
screens rise and load
and current.
become If the load current
unbalanced is symmetrical
(asymmetrical); the current
(asymmetrical);
and the cables the current
are laid in aamplitude in the(Figure
trefoil formation cable screen
2c), ofcurrents
screen the middle cable
are also is lowerIneven
symmetrical. someunder
amplitude
balanced in the
cases,load cable screen
conditions.
a cable
of the middle cable is lower even under balanced load
laid in a trefoil formation could change the formation—a middle cable could collapse,
conditions.
and a flat formation could be formed (Figure 2b). Coupling impedances between cable cores and
screens in flat formations differ significantly, and the screening effect between cables is weakened.
As a result, the currents flowing through the cable screens rise and become unbalanced
(asymmetrical); the current amplitude in the cable screen of the middle cable is lower even under
balanced load conditions.

Figure
Figure 2. Cable
2. Cable formations:
formations: (a)a)trefoil,
trefoil,(b)
b) flat,
flat, (c)
c) flat,
flat,the
thedistance
distancebetween cables
between equal
cables to one
equal to cable
one cable
diameter (analyzed cable presented in right proportions).
diameter (analyzed cable presented in right proportions).

Figure Figure 3 presents

3 presents an an amplitudeofofthe
amplitude thecapacitive
capacitive current
currentflowingflowing inina cable
a cable screen under
screen no-load
under no-load
Figure 2. Cable formations: a) trefoil, b) flat, c) flat, the distance between cables equal to one cable
conditions. As
conditions. Asdiameter can be
can be(analyzed observed,
observed, under
cable under
no-load
presentedno-load
conditions, the currents flow from
conditions, the currents flow from both cable ends
in right proportions).
both cable ends to to
the middle of the cable line. In an ideal case (marked in blue), the current
the middle of the cable line. In an ideal case (marked in blue), the current amplitude decreases linearly amplitude decreases linearly
from bothFigure
cable 3ends untilanitamplitude
presents reaches half of the ofcapacitive
the cablecurrent
length. In theinmiddle
flowing of theunder
a cable screen cable,no-load
the current
from both cable ends until it reaches half of the cable length. In the middle of the cable, the current
conditions.
amplitude As It
is zero. can
is be observed,
assumed under
that theno-load
currentconditions,
measuredthe at currents
the cable flow from
ends inboth cable ends
the ideal case to is 1 pu
amplitudethe is middle
zero. Itof is
theassumed that the case
current measured atcurrent
the cable ends in the ideal case is 1 pu
(100%). In the case ofcable
theline. In
erroneousan ideal connection(marked in in
a blue),
cablethe screen, amplitude
the currentdecreases
flow under linearly
no-load
(100%). Infrom
theboth
conditions case
is of the
cable
changed endserroneous
until it reaches
significantly. connection
If ahalf in alength.
of the cable
distance between cable
theIn screen,
the middle
supplying thestation
ofcurrent
the cable,flow
and the under no-load
the current
open-phase
conditions amplitude
is changed is zero. It is assumed
significantly. that the
If a distance current measured at the cable ends in the ideal case is 1 pu
is within 25% of a cable length, a screen currentbetween
amplitudethe supplying
measured at thestation
supply andsidethe open-phase
drops to the is
(100%). In the case of the erroneous connection in a cable screen, the current flow under no-load
within 25%0.5
level of pu
a cable
(50%) length,
and a screen from
decreases current the amplitude
supply sidemeasured
until it at the supply
reaches 25% ofside
the drops
cable to the level
length.
conditions is changed significantly. If a distance between the supplying station and the open-phase
0.5 puAfterwards,
(50%) andthe
is within decreases
25% screen from
current
of a cable the
length, a supply
amplitude sidefrom
rises
screen current until 0ittoreaches
amplitude 1.5 25%
pu (150%)
measured ofatsupply
at the the
thecable
cable length.
end (marked
side drops Afterwards,
to the in
orange). The
the screen current sum of
level 0.5 amplitude the
pu (50%) andrisescurrents measured
from from
decreases 0 to 1.5 at
the pu both cable
(150%)
supply ends
side at is
theitcable
until always
reachesend 2
25% pu.
(markedSimilar reasoning
in orange).
of the cable can
length. The sum
of thebecurrents
carried out
Afterwards, to the
measureddescribe
screen the
at both screen
current cable current
amplitude
endsrises isflow in a0 cable
from
always to
2 1.5
pu.puwith the open-phase
(150%)
Similar atreasoning
the cable end connection
can (marked in 80%
in
be carried out to
of the orange).
cable The sum
length of the currents
(marked in red). measured at both cable ends is always 2 pu. Similar reasoning can
describe the screen current flow in a cable with the open-phase connection in 80% of the cable length
be carried out to describe the screen current flow in a cable with the open-phase connection in 80%
(marked inofred).
the cable length (marked in red).

FigureFigure 3. Cable
3. Cable screen
screen current
current underno-load
under no-load conditions
conditions asasa afunction
functionof of
cable length;
cable orange
length; orange
Figure 3. Cable screen current under no-load conditions as a function of cable length; orange represents
represents
represents open-phase
open-phase in in cable
cable screeninin25%
screen 25% of
of cable
cable length,
length,blue
blue represents ideal
represents cable,
ideal and red
cable, and red
open-phase in cable screen in 25% of cable length, blue
represents open-phase in cable screen in 80% of cable length.
represents ideal cable, and red represents
represents open-phase in cable screen in 80% of cable length.
open-phase in cable screen in 80% of cable length.
Energies 2019, 12, 1348 4 of 17

Under no-load conditions, the earth current–Iearth flow is a result of a voltage difference between
both cables ends. In the case of proper connections, voltages induced by capacitive coupling in three
screens neglect each other; however, when an erroneous connection exists in a cable screen, a resultant
voltage is induced. The resultant voltage can be observed only when a cable is a single point bonded.
According to simulation results under no-load conditions, an earth current depends mostly on an
erroneous resistance. Therefore, simplified formulas describing earth current flow under no-load
conditions can be used. Cable capacitance and conductance, which are sources of voltage in cable
screens under no-load conditions, are described by formulas:

2πε 0 ·ε r
Ci = (1)
ln(r/q)

Gi = ωCi ·tg(δ) (2)

where ε 0 —vacuum permittivity, ε r —relative permittivity of the insulating layer, r is the outside
radius of the insulation, q is the inside radius of the insulation, and tg(δ)—dielectric loss factor of the
insulating layer.
Voltages induced in cable screens under no-load conditions are described by:

1
Uhealthy_SS = Uhealthy_LS = Ihealthy_LS / ( Gi + jωCi ) (3)
2

Uerroneous_SS = Ierroneous_SS /ldistance ( Gi + jωCi ) (4)

Uerroneous_LS = IerroneousSS /(100 − ldistance )( Gi + jωCi ) (5)

Finally, voltages at cable ends are described by formulas:

USS = Uhealthy_SS + Uhealthy_SS + Uerroneous_SS (6)

ULS = Uhealthy_LS + Uhealthy_LS + Uerroneous_LS (7)

Earth current is obtained after calculating:

 
Uss − ULS = Iearth Rearth_1 + Rearth_2 + Rsoil + R parallel_screens (8)

where Uhealthy_SS —voltage at the supply side resulting from capacitive coupling between the cable core
and the cable screen, Ua,b,c_LS —voltage at the load side resulting from capacitive coupling between the
cable core and the erroneous cable screen, and ldistance —a relative distance between the supply side
and the erroneous connection, i.e., 20%.
When the cable line is installed properly, an earth current under no-load conditions is negligibly
small. If the earth current under no-load conditions is in the range of decimal points, one can suspect
that an erroneous connection is responsible for the increased amplitude.
When a cable line supplies a load, an amplitude of the earth current can be significantly higher
because of the additional source—inductive coupling between cable cores and cable screens. A cable
screen current is a function of load current. When the load current increases, the screen current
increases as well. Relations between the cable core and the cable screen currents are presented in the
literature, but an earth current is neglected. For cables laid in a trefoil formation, coupling impedances
are approximately the same, and therefore the current flowing through cable screens is the same. As a
result, the algebraic sum of currents is zero, and the earth current amplitude is also zero. In a trefoil
formation, the earth current can be observed only during an earth fault. It must be emphasized that
the earth current does not flow under an unbalanced load since the geometrical sum of currents is
zero. The earth current flowing through the cable screen earthing system under the phase to earth
fault conditions is a part of the zero sequence current.
Energies 2019, 12, 1348 5 of 17

The self-impedance of a conducting layer is given by the formula:

µ0 µ De
Zii = Ri0 + ω + jω 0 ln a·µr (9)
8 2π e− 4 ·ri

The mutual impedance is given by the formula:

µ0 µ De
Zij = ω + jω 0 ln (10)
8 2π dij

where Ri0 —resistance per length of the conductor, ω—angular frequency (2π f ), µ0 = 4π × 10−7 H/m,
µr —relative permeability of the conductor material, ri —radius of the conductor (m), dij —distance
between the conductors (m), De —equivalent earth penetration depth (m), i, j—phase indices: A, B, C,
a, b, c (Figure 1) r
ρ
De = 658 (11)
f
where ρ—earth resistivity (Ωm).
When the round conductor parameter a = 1, the case of the hollow conductor, a, is calculated
according to the formula:
   −2
a = 1 − 4k2 + (3 − ln(k))·k4 · 1 − k2 (12)

where k—the ratio of the inner and the outer conductor radiuses.
Self and mutual impedances between cores and screens are presented in the matrix form:
    
UA Z AA Z AB Z AC Z Aa Z Ab Z Ac IA

 UB  
  ZBA ZBB ZBC ZBa ZBb ZBb 
 IB 

 UC   ZCA ZCB ZCC ZCa ZCb ZCb  IC 
= · (13)
    
Ua ZaA ZaB ZaC Zaa Zab Zac Ia
 
    
    
 Ub   ZbA ZbB ZbC Zba Zbb Zbc  Ib 
Uc ZcA ZcB ZcC Zca Zcb Zcc Ic

In order to consider an erroneous connection, one has to change the real component of the cable
screen self-impedance. To achieve the same result, it is also possible to divide an analyzed cable into
two sections and add resistance between the sections.
Impedances in PowerFactory software are calculated based on geometrical parameters of the cable
and the material parameters. The PowerFactory support lumped and distributed the parameters cable
model. Considering the presented steady-state phenomenon, it is possible to use a simpler, lumped
parameter model. In order to present the method of cable parameters calculation, an example of core
self-impedance calculation is given. Core self-impedance is calculated according to formula (14):

Zcc = Z11 + 2Z12 + Z22 (14)

where impedances Z11 , Z12 , and Z22 are described by formulas (15), (16), and (17):

Z11 = Zc,out + Zc/s ins + Zs,in (15)

Z12 = Z21 = Zs,mutual (16)

Z22 = Zs,out (17)

Energies 2019, 12, 1348 6 of 17

The impedances Zc,out and Zs,in , and Zs,mutual are found with the modified Bessel functions [24].
Impedance Zc/s ins stands for the longitudinal voltage drop due to the magnetic field in the insulating
layers and is given by formula (18):
µ0  q 
Zins = jω ln (18)
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
2π r 6 of 16
where r, q—outer, inner radius of the insulating layer.
Thedescription
The descriptionof ofthe
theadvanced
advancedcablecablemodel
modelfor fortransient
transientanalysis
analysiscancanbebefound
foundin in[25].
[25].Another
Another
modelthat
model thatincludes
includesground
ground return
return wire
wire isis presented
presented in [26].
Anerroneous
An erroneous connection
connection in a cable screen screen connection
connectionreduces reducesthethescreen
screencurrent
currentamplitude,
amplitude,asasis
isrequired
requiredbybyOhmOhmlaw.
law.Currents
Currentsin inother
other screens
screens areare higher
higher than
than the current in the the cable
cable with
with an an
erroneousconnection,
erroneous connection,and andthethealgebraic
algebraicsum sumof ofcurrents
currentsisisgreater
greater than
than zero.
zero. As
Asaaresult,
result, the
the earth
earth
currentisisinduced.
current induced.When
Whenloadloadcurrent
currentincreases,
increases,the theearth
earthcurrent
currentincreases
increasesas aswell
wellsince
sincethethealgebraic
algebraic
sum is bigger.
sum bigger. However,
However,ititmustmust bebe
emphasized
emphasized that, in the
that, in case of a flat
the case of aformation, an earthing
flat formation, current
an earthing
is present
current due to the
is present dueasymmetry of the coupling
to the asymmetry impedances.
of the coupling The higher
impedances. Thethe asymmetry
higher (distance
the asymmetry
between cables)
(distance betweenis,cables)
the higher
is, thethehigher
earth the
current
earthiscurrent
induced. is induced.
Three single
Three singlecores
cores cables
cables earthed
earthedat at both
both ends
ends (two(two points
points bonded)
bonded)can can bebe compared
comparedto to three
three
currenttransformers
current transformers(CT)(CT)utilized
utilizedin inaaresidual
residualconnection
connection(Holmgreen
(Holmgreensystem),
system),which
whichare arepresented
presented
inFigure
in Figure 4.
4. The
Theearth
earthcurrent
current cancan be
be compared
compared with with the the zero-sequence
zero-sequence current
current (3I
(3I00))in
inthe
the residual
residual
connection configuration.
connection configuration. IfIfphasephaseororamplitude
amplitudeerrors errorsofof current
current transformers
transformers utilized
utilized in in the
the
Holmgreen system are different, the geometric sum of the currents is greater
Holmgreen system are different, the geometric sum of the currents is greater than zero, and the zero than zero, and the
zero sequence
sequence current
current is [27].
is [27]. The The earthearth current
current in single
in single core
core cables
cables is is alsoinduced
also inducedwhen whenthe the load
load
characteristic(dependency)
characteristic (dependency)of of cables
cables are
are different.
different.

Theprinciple
Figure4.4.The
Figure principleofofresidual
residual(Holmgreen)
(Holmgreen)CT
CTconnection
connection(CTs—line
(CTs—linecurrent
current transformers)
transformers) [28].
[28].

3. Results
3. Results
This section presents the measurement and the simulation results. Simulation software provides
This section presents the measurement and the simulation results. Simulation software provides
reference values, which are compared with measured values. The comparison shows clear deviations
reference values, which are compared with measured values. The comparison shows clear deviations
between the simulation and the measurement results. In order to analyze the case, sensitivity analysis
between the simulation and the measurement results. In order to analyze the case, sensitivity analysis
is made with the help of simulation software.
is made with the help of simulation software.
3.1. Data Preparation
3.1. Data Preparation
Measurements are taken in a 110/15 kV station, the general configuration of which is presented in
Measurements are taken in a 110/15 kV station, the general configuration of which is presented
Figure 5. The analyzed cable is the XRUHAKXS 3x120/50. According to the catalogue data, the XLPE
in Figure 5. The analyzed cable is the XRUHAKXS 3x120/50. According to the catalogue data, the
insulation is 5.5 mm, the sheath is 2.5 mm, and the overall diameter is 35.8 mm. Radiuses of the cable
XLPE insulation is 5.5 mm, the sheath is 2.5 mm, and the overall diameter is 35.8 mm. Radiuses of the
core and the cable screen are calculated according to the formula describing the surface of the circle.
cable core and the cable screen are calculated according to the formula describing the surface of the
Finally, a filling factor, which accounts for the compacting ratio, is adjusted, thus the resistances of
circle. Finally, a filling factor, which accounts for the compacting ratio, is adjusted, thus the
the model are the same as the resistances specified in the catalogue. The cable supplies a traction
resistances of the model are the same as the resistances specified in the catalogue. The cable supplies
a traction load, which explains the high variability of the load [29]. The first measurements are taken
with clamp meters (Brymen BM135s) and a power quality analyzer (Fluke 435). The currents flowing
through the cable screens are measured with clamp meters, which are equipped with a logger. The
logger is able to store one minimum and one maximum current amplitude registered during the one
minute period. The load current is measured with the Fluke 435, which is configured to save
Energies 2019, 12, 1348 7 of 17

load, which explains the high variability of the load [29]. The first measurements are taken with clamp
meters (Brymen BM135s) and a power quality analyzer (Fluke 435). The currents flowing through
the cable screens are measured with clamp meters, which are equipped with a logger. The logger is
able to store one minimum and one maximum current amplitude registered during the one minute
period. The load current is measured with the Fluke 435, which is configured to save maximum and
minimum current amplitudes every three seconds. In order to correlate the current flowing through
Energies
the cable 2019, 12, x(load
cores FOR PEER REVIEW
current) with the currents flowing through the cable screens, the recorded values 7 of 16

are synchronized (time offset between measurements from different meters is removed) and resampled.
removed) and taken
Measurements resampled.
by the Measurements taken by the
Fluke are downsampled and,Fluke are downsampled
as a result, the maximal trueand,RMSas a result,
in phasesthe
maximal true RMS in phases A, B, and C for every minute is obtained. The processed
A, B, and C for every minute is obtained. The processed measured cable screen currents are then measured cable
screen currents
compared with the arereference
then compared withreference
values. The the reference
valuesvalues.
can be The reference
obtained values can
via simulation be obtained
software, e.g.,
via simulation software, e.g., ATP, PSCAD, PowerFactory, or other simulation
ATP, PSCAD, PowerFactory, or other simulation software. The procedure of obtaining the reference software. The
procedure of obtaining the reference values in PowerFactory is presented in [1].
values in PowerFactory is presented in [1]. It is also possible to calculate the reference values byIt is also possible to
calculate
means the formulas
of the referencegivenvaluesinbyIECmeans ofThe
60287. the procedure
formulas given
can beinperformed
IEC 60287.with
The minimum
procedurevalues
can be
performed with minimum values or average values if values are recorded. When
or average values if values are recorded. When professional meters with global positioning system professional meters
with global
(GPS) positioning
synchronization andsystem (GPS) synchronization
high sampling rate are used, itand high
is not sampling
necessary rate are the
to perform used, it is not
procedure
necessaryabove.
described to perform the procedure described above.

Figure5.5.Typical
Figure Typicaldistribution
distributionsystem
systemnetwork
networkininPoland.
Poland.

Figure
Figure66presents
presentsthethecurrent
currentflowing
flowingthrough
throughthe thecable
cablecores
coresin
inphases
phasesa,a,b,
b,and
andccduring
duringthethe
measurements.
measurements. The corresponding measured screen currents are presented in Figure 7. Asbecan
The corresponding measured screen currents are presented in Figure 7. As can seen
be
in Figure 6, the cable core currents (load currents) are symmetrical (the curves overlap
seen in Figure 6, the cable core currents (load currents) are symmetrical (the curves overlap each each other),
whereas the current
other), whereas the flowing
current through
flowing the cable the
through screens
cableare asymmetrical—the
screens amplitudeamplitude
are asymmetrical—the of the cable
of
screen current in phase B is significantly lower than those in phases A and C and
the cable screen current in phase B is significantly lower than those in phases A and C and is comparable withis
the amplitudewith
comparable of the
theearthing
amplitudecurrent. Additionally,
of the the highAdditionally,
earthing current. earthing currenttheduring load conditions
high earthing current
and the high asymmetry of the no-load current is noted.
during load conditions and the high asymmetry of the no-load current is noted.
measurements. The corresponding measured screen currents are presented in Figure 7. As can be
seen in Figure 6, the cable core currents (load currents) are symmetrical (the curves overlap each
other), whereas the current flowing through the cable screens are asymmetrical—the amplitude of
the cable screen current in phase B is significantly lower than those in phases A and C and is
comparable with the amplitude of the earthing current. Additionally, the high earthing current
Energies 2019, 12, 1348 8 of 17
during load conditions and the high asymmetry of the no-load current is noted.

Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 16

Figure
Figure6.6.Measured
Measuredload
loadcurrent
current(3(3ssmeasurements
measurementsdownsampled
downsampledto
tomaximum
maximumper
per11min).
min).

Figure 7.
Figure 7. Measured
Measured cable
cable screen
screen current
current(max
(maxevery
every11min).
min).

Second measurements
Second measurements are are taken
taken onon the
the cable
cable screen
screen with
with the
the Fluke
Fluke 435
435 at
at the
the second
second endend of
of the
the
cable line.
cable line. The
The measured
measured cable
cable screen
screen currents
currents are are presented
presentedin inFigure
Figure8. 8. The
The measurements
measurements allowedallowed
forthe
for theobservation
observationofofthe
theno-load
no-loadcurrent
currentflowing
flowing from
from the
the load
load side.
side. The
The no-load
no-load currents
currents measured
measured at
at both
both sides
sides are given
are given in Table
in Table 1. Itbecan
1. It can be observed
observed that the that the current
current amplitudeamplitude
measured measured in two
in two phases
phases
at at both
both cable cable
ends haveends havethe
almost almost
same the same amplitude,
amplitude, whereas the whereas the amplitude
amplitude of the current of the current
measured
measured
in one phase in one phase is unusually
is unusually low at thelow at the
supply supply
side and side and unusually
unusually high at thehigh at the
load load
side. side.on
Based Based
the
on the unusually high unbalance (asymmetry) of the cable screen currents, an assumption can be
unusually high unbalance (asymmetry) of the cable screen currents, an assumption can be made that
made that resistance
additional additionalinresistance
one of theincable
one of the cable
joints joints is responsible
is responsible for flow.
for the current the current
The cableflow.
is The cable
modeled
is modeled
and simulatedandinsimulated
PowerFactoryin PowerFactory
2018 SP3 in order2018 SP3 in order
to verify the to verify the assumption.
assumption.
Table 1 presents exemplary screen currents for different cable formations. As can be observed,
by increasing the distance Table 1. Current
between flow in the
the cables, the cable cores and
amplitude of the
thescreens.
screen currents and the screen
currents’ asymmetry increases as well. As a result,
Cable Core (A) energy losses in the cable screens
Cable Screenincrease.
(A]
Load State Earthing
Phase A Phase B Phase C Phase a Phase b Phase c
System
Exemplary load state (110/15
35.7 35.7 35.5 9.89 2.33 11.18 3.05
kV substation; measured)
Reference for case A* (simula-
tion results; 110/15 kV substa- 35.7 35.7 35.5 5.4 5.35 5.5 0.73
tion; formation: Figure 2a)
Reference for case B* (simula-
tion results; 110/15 kV substa- 35.7 35.7 35.5 7.13 4.27 8.28 0.73
tion; formation: Figure 2b)
Energies 2019, 12, 1348 9 of 17

Table 1. Current flow in the cable cores and the screens.

Cable Core (A) Cable Screen (A)

Load State
Earthing
Phase A Phase B Phase C Phase a Phase b Phase c
System
Exemplary load state (110/15
35.7 35.7 35.5 9.89 2.33 11.18 3.05
kV substation; measured)
Reference for case A*
(simulation results; 110/15
35.7 35.7 35.5 5.4 5.35 5.5 0.73
kV substation; formation:
Figure 2a)
Reference for case B*
(simulation results; 110/15
35.7 35.7 35.5 7.13 4.27 8.28 0.73
kV substation; formation:
Figure 2b)
Reference for case C*
(simulation results; 110/15
35.7 35.7 35.5 10.19 7.82 11.64 0.75
kV substation; formation:
Figure 2c)
No-load conditions (110/15
2.5 2.6 2.8 1.32 0.92 1.31 0.36
kV substation; measured)
No-load conditions (MV No-load No-load No-load
1.5 1.6 1.3 0.2
substation; measured) conditions conditions conditions
A*—XRUHAKXS cable laid in a trefoil formation (Figure 2a); B*—XRUHAKXS cable laid in a flat formation
(Figure 2b); C*—XRUHAKXS cable laid in a flat formation with the distance between the cable equal to one diameter
of cable (Figure 2c); MV—medium voltage.

One should note that the reference (simulated) currents have lower amplitudes because only the
fundamental component is considered. The measurements taken by the author and other colleagues
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 16
from the Institute of Electrical Engineering of Poznan University of Technology show clearly that the
measured
measured screen currents are typically
typically 20‒40%
20-40% higher
higherthan
thanthe
thereference
referencescreen
screencurrents.
currents.InIn order
order to
to analyze
analyze thethe results
results properly,
properly, it it
is is therefore
therefore better
better to to compare
compare thethe screen
screen currents’
currents’ unbalance
unbalance or,or,if
ifpossible,
possible,totomeasure
measurethe thefundamental
fundamentalcomponent
componentofofthethescreen
screencurrents.
currents.

Figure 8.
Figure 8. Measured
Measured cable
cable screen
screen current;
current;sampling
sampling0.25
0.25s.s.

Onecan
One cannotice
noticethe
thedifference
difference between
between no-load
no-load currents
currents measured
measured at both
at both cablecable
ends.ends. The no-
The no-load
load screen
screen current
current depends
depends on aon a few
few parameters,
parameters, mostly
mostly voltage
voltage level
level and andtanδ,
tanδ,which
whichareareused
used for
for
diagnostics purposes.
diagnostics purposes. It is believed that registered differences
differences result
result from
from different
different voltage
voltage levels
levels
during measurements.
during measurements. It is alsoalso believed
believed that the
the no-load
no-load screen
screen currents
currents registered
registered inin reference
reference to
to
voltagelevel
voltage levelcould
couldbebeananindicator
indicatorof
ofinsulation
insulationconditions.
conditions.

3.2. Simulation Results

The model considers capacitive and inductive coupling. In order to analyze the impact of the
contact resistance on the cable screen current flow, an automation script is developed [30]. The
resistance and the location of an erroneous connection are changed in the loop. The erroneous
connection is moved from the beginning to the end of the XRUHAKXS 3x120/50 cable line. The
 Figure 8. Measured cable screen current; sampling 0.25 s.

One can notice the difference between no-load currents measured at both cable ends. The no-
load screen current depends on a few parameters, mostly voltage level and tanδ, which are used for
diagnostics
Energies purposes. It is believed that registered differences result from different voltage levels10 of 17
2019, 12, 1348
during measurements. It is also believed that the no-load screen currents registered in reference to
voltage level could be an indicator of insulation conditions.
3.2. Simulation Results
3.2. Simulation Results
The model considers capacitive and inductive coupling. In order to analyze the impact of
Theresistance
the contact model considers
on the capacitive and inductive
cable screen currentcoupling.
flow, anInautomation
order to analyze theisimpact
script of the [30].
developed
contact resistance on the cable screen current flow, an automation script is developed
The resistance and the location of an erroneous connection are changed in the loop. The erroneous [30]. The
resistance and the location of an erroneous connection are changed in the loop. The erroneous
connection is moved from the beginning to the end of the XRUHAKXS 3x120/50 cable line.
connection is moved from the beginning to the end of the XRUHAKXS 3x120/50 cable line. The
The beginning and the end represent the terminals and the erroneous connection at the terminals,
beginning and the end represent the terminals and the erroneous connection at the terminals,
respectively, whereas
respectively, whereasthethe
resistance
resistancealong
along the
the cable linerepresents
cable line representsthethe joints
joints andandthe the erroneous
erroneous
connection at the cable joint. For each location of the erroneous connection, the resistance
connection at the cable joint. For each location of the erroneous connection, the resistance is changedis changed
fromfrom
1 to 20 Ω. The erroneous connection is
1 to 20 Ω. The erroneous connection is in in the middle cable, as presented in Figure 9. Simulation
middle cable, as presented in Figure 9. Simulation
results are presented
results in Figures
are presented in Figures10–13.
10‒13.

Figure
Figure 9.9.AAschematic
schematic diagram
diagram ofofthe
thesimulations.
simulations.

UnitUnit impedance
impedance and
and admittancematrixes
admittance matrixes (Ω/km)
(Ω/km) ofofthe analyzed
the cable
analyzed are are
cable given below
given (A, B,(A, B,
below
C—cable cores; a, b, c—cable screens):
C—cable
Energiescores; a,xb,
2019, 12, FORc—cable screens):
PEER REVIEW 10 of 16

Figure 10 presents the screen current amplitude in the cable in which there is an erroneous
connection as a function of resistance (ax x) and length between the supplying power station and the
location of the erroneous connection (ax y). The current amplitude is marked in colors, i.e., red is 25
A, and dark blue is 5 A.
Energies 2019, 12, 1348 11 of 17

Figure
Figure 10 10 presents
presents thethe screen
screen current
current amplitude
amplitude in in
thethe cable
cable in in which
which there
there is an
is an erroneous
erroneous
connection
connection as aasfunction
a function of resistance
of resistance (ax(ax x) and
x) and length
length between
between thethe supplying
supplying power
power station
station and and
thethe
location
location of the
of the erroneous
erroneous connection
connection (ax The
(ax y). y). The current
current amplitude
amplitude is marked
is marked in colors,
in colors, i.e.,isred
i.e., red is 25
25 A,
andA,dark
and blue
darkisblue
5 A.is 5 A.

Figure
Figure 10.10. Current
Current in the
in the middle
middle cable
cable with
with additional
additional resistance;
resistance; formation
formation presented
presented in Figure
in Figure 2c. 2c.

It is assumed that the cable is energized and supplies a 2.5 MW load. As can be observed,
the amplitude of the screen current is strongly correlated with the resistance of the erroneous
connection; the current drops when the resistance rises. It can also be observed that the location
of the erroneous connection has a limited impact on the current amplitude. It is therefore difficult to
localize the erroneous connection just by analyzing the cable screen currents under load conditions.
According to the simulation results, the earth current amplitude under no-load conditions is
very similar for different cable formations, and therefore only the earth current for a flat formation is
presented in Figure 11. It can be seen that the earth current measured at the supply side (110/15 kV
station) has the lowest amplitude when the erroneous connection is in the middle of the cable line.
Moreover, it can be seen that the earth current increases with the rise of resistance of the erroneous
connection, and that earth current increases with the increasing distance between the erroneous
connection and the middle of the line. The earth current under no-load conditions can be used for the
identification of an erroneous connection in the cable screen. It is, however, difficult to specify the
localization of the erroneous connection just by analyzing the earth current.
Moreover, it can be seen that the earth current increases with the rise of resistance of the erroneous
connection, and that earth current increases with the increasing distance between the erroneous
connection and the middle of the line. The earth current under no-load conditions can be used for the
identification of an erroneous connection in the cable screen. It is, however, difficult to specify the
Energies 2019,
localization of12,
the1348
erroneous connection just by analyzing the earth current. 12 of 17

Figure
Figure TheThe
11. 11. earth
earth current
current under
under no no load
load conditions;
conditions; formation
formation presented
presented in Figure
in Figure 2c.2c.

In order to localize the erroneous connection, amplitudes of the cable screen currents under
In order to localize the erroneous connection, amplitudes of the cable screen currents under no-
no-load conditions should be analyzed. Figures 12 and 13 present the no-load screen current in a phase
load conditions should be analyzed. Figures 12 and 13 present the no-load screen current in a phase
with an erroneous connection measured at both cable ends in a function of resistance and distance
with an erroneous connection measured at both cable ends in a function of resistance and distance
between the erroneous connection and supply side (cable beginning). As can be seen, the screen
between the erroneous connection and supply side (cable beginning). As can be seen, the screen
currents measured at both cable ends are inversely proportional; when the earth current measured
currents measured at both cable ends are inversely proportional; when the earth current measured at
at the supply station increases, the screen current measured at the load side decreases. Owing to the
the supply station increases, the screen current measured at the load side decreases. Owing to the
relationship between the two, it is possible to measure the screen currents at both cable ends and
relationship between the two, it is possible to measure the screen currents at both cable ends and to
to calculate the distance between the cable ends and the erroneous connection. It is also possible to
calculate the distance between the cable ends and the erroneous connection. It is also possible to
calculate the distance based on a single point measurement, however, if the second measurement point
calculate the distance based on a single point measurement, however, if the second measurement
is included, the accuracy of the calculations is increased.
point is included, the accuracy of the calculations is increased.
As can be seen in Figures 12 and 13, an impact of resistance on the current amplitude is limited,
As can be seen in Figure 12 and Figure 13, an impact of resistance on the current amplitude is
whereas the screen current amplitude strongly depends on the distance between the cable end and the
limited, whereas the screen current amplitude strongly depends on the distance between the cable
erroneous connection. In many practical applications, it is possible to simplify analysis and consider
end and the erroneous connection. In many practical applications, it is possible to simplify analysis
only the distance between the erroneous connection and the cable end, as in the open-phase conditions
and consider only the distance between the erroneous connection and the cable end, as in the open-
presented in Figure 3. In order to calculate the approximate distance to an erroneous connection,
one can use formula (14). Simplification is justified because faulty connections exist in cable joints,
which are typically installed within a few hundred meters distance.
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 16

phase conditions presented in Figure 3. In order to calculate the approximate distance to an erroneous
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 16
connection,
Energies 2019,one can use formula (14). Simplification is justified because faulty connections
12, 1348 exist in17
13 of
cable phase
joints,conditions
which arepresented
typicallyininstalled within a few hundred meters distance.
Figure 3. In order to calculate the approximate distance to an erroneous
connection, one can use formula (14). Simplification is justified because faulty connections exist in
cable joints, which are typically installed within a few hundred meters distance.

Figure 12.12.
Figure
Figure No-load
12.
No-loadscreen
No-load
screencurrent
screen measured
current
current measuredatatat
measured the
the
thesupply
supply side;
side;
supply formation
formation
side; presented
presented
formation ininFigure
in Figure
presented 2c. 2c.
Figure 2c.

Figure
Figure 13.13. No-loadscreen
No-load screencurrent
current measured
measured atatthe
theload side;
load formation
side; presented
formation in Figure
presented 2c. 2c.
in Figure

3.3. 3.3. Proposed

Proposed Methodology
Methodology
Figure 13. No-load screen current measured at the load side; formation presented in Figure 2c.
Based
Based on on
thethe presentedanalysis,
presented analysis, the
the following
following procedure
procedureis is
proposed:
proposed:
3.3. Proposed
1. Methodology
The measurement of cable screen currents on the energized cable.
1. The measurement
2. onIf the of cable
the amplitudes of thescreen
phase currentsdiffer
on the energizedno-load
cable. screen currents should be
Based presented analysis, thecurrents significantly,
following procedure is proposed:
2. If the measured.
amplitudes of the phase currents differ significantly, no-load screen currents should
1. beThe measurement of cable screen currents on the energized cable.
measured.
3. 2. IfIfthe
theno-load
amplitudes of the
screen phase
current incurrents
two phasesdiffer
is significantly, no-load
similar, one can screen
assume thatcurrents should bein
the connections
measured.
those phases are made properly and use the current as the reference.
Energies 2019, 12, 1348 14 of 17

4. The calculation of the distance to the erroneous connection. The formula is only valid for solid
bonded cables.
I ·0.5Lcable
Ldistance = erroneous_side (19)
Ire f
where Ierroneous_side —no-load current measured at the supply side or the load side in the cable with
the erroneous connection, Ldistance —distance between the supply side or the load side and the
erroneous connection, e.g., 20%, Ire f —capacitive current in the properly made cable, Lcable —total
cable length.
5. If the calculation indicates a location in which there are a few cable joints in close proximity,
the screen current measurements should be repeated at the second end of the cable line.
6. The calculation of the reference current—an average of all “healthy” no-load screen currents.
7. The calculation of the distance to the erroneous connection.

If the cable length is unknown, one could use a repetitive pulse method to calculate the cable
length [31]. The pulse diagnostic method is also recommended in a case of many erroneous connections
along the cable line.

4. Discussion
This section presents factors that should be considered during the analysis of the cable screen
currents flow.
Simple clamp meters are sufficient for the detection of abnormalities in cable screen connections
under balanced load conditions. One should note that measurements have to be taken simultaneously
in three phases. Clamps should be placed in an optimal position. Moreover, one has to pay attention to
safety procedures. In some cases, an earth current could be increased because of harmonic distortions.
Power quality analyzers offer additional possibilities, e.g., the observation of harmonics flow in the
cable screen or the observation of the fundamental current. Moreover, power quality (PQ) meters take
measurements synchronously, which minimizes the risk of erroneous measurements.
One should note that there are two types of clamp meters—RMS meters and true RMS meters.
True RMS meters are considered better than RMS meters because power losses and heating effects
can be calculated accurately. It is, however, difficult to compare true RMS screen currents with RMS
references obtained from simulation software. In the case of cable screen current analysis, it is easier to
use an old type RMS meter, which is equipped with a down-sample filter. Due to the filter, only the
amplitude of the fundamental component is measured, and the comparison of references is simpler
and more accurate [32]. If the load is unbalanced, advanced PQ meters have to be used.
In a typical high voltage (HV)/MV station, the resistance of the earthing system is approximately
0.1 Ω, whereas the grounding resistance in an MV/low voltage (LV) station in Poland is a few ohms,
e.g., below 2.78 Ω [33]. As a result of the big difference between earthing resistances, it is possible that
earthing current from different cables would flow through the first cable in the feeder. As a result,
the measurement of the earthing current in a 110 kV station could be used for online monitoring of
other cables in the feeder. Online monitoring would allow for early detection of abnormal screen
connections. The presented methodology has limited sensitivity in the case of long feeders and
therefore cannot fully replace conventional diagnostic methods, e.g., the measurement of the cable
screen resistance. It should be considered as a complementary method that allows for simple, fast,
and online measurement on an energized cable. Nevertheless, one has to consider safety procedures
because during phase to ground or two phase to ground faults, the potential of cable screens could rise
to dangerous levels.
The proposed method helps to improve the reliability of a power system. According to statistical
data of some Polish distribution system operators, seven failures of cable lines per 100 km occur
during a year [34]. High occurrences of failures and the increasing cost of non-supplied energy
allow one to expect that the proposed method will be used in the future [35]. It is believed that in
Energies 2019, 12, 1348 15 of 17

the initial period, the proposed diagnostic method will help to increase the competence of workers,
and in the next decade, the solution will be used for online control of cable screens of important cable
lines [36]. The proposed method could be a part of an expert system, e.g., a fuzzy expert system
that offers additional functionalities, e.g., localization of phase to ground faults or identification of
failing components [37,38].
The presented methodology is limited to solid bonded cables. The authors plan to develop a
methodology for the detection of an erroneous connection for other cable screen bonding methods.
Moreover, it is planned to customize the methodology to HV cable lines.

5. Conclusions
Owing to the measurements, the problem of erroneous cable screen connections is noticed and
discussed. Simulation software is used to find a source of unusually high screen current unbalance.
Physical phenomena are explained, and general conclusions are made.
The erroneous connection of the two points bonded power cable can be identified via analysis
of the cable screen currents. If unusually high asymmetry of currents flowing in the cable screen is
observed, one can suspect there is a problem with the cable screen connections. To make sure that
an erroneous connection is responsible for the current flow in the cable screens, it is recommended
to measure the earthing current of the cable screens. If the earthing current is unusually high and
depends on the load current, one can suspect an erroneous connection of the cable screen. If the cable
line is installed properly, the earthing current under no-load conditions is negligibly small. After the
erroneous connection is identified, one can pre-locate the erroneous connection. In order to assess the
distance to the erroneous connection, amplitudes of the cable screen current under no-load conditions
should be analyzed. Under no-load conditions, the current distribution in the cable screen with the
erroneous connection is clearly affected; amplitudes of the screen currents flowing from both cable
ends are different. In other phases with a proper connection, currents flowing from both cable ends
have the same amplitude.
Simple clamp meters can be utilized for observing the current flow in cable screens when a load
is symmetrical. However, it is recommended to use professional portable meters because the meters
simplify the measuring process significantly and increase the accuracy of results, particularly when a
load is unbalanced.

Author Contributions: K.L. software, B.O. validation, K.L., Z.N., B.O., formal analysis, K.L. investigation,
Z.N. resources, K.L. data curation, K.L. writing—original draft preparation, K.L., Z.N. writing—review and
editing, K.L. visualization, Z.N. supervision, Z.N. funding acquisition.
Funding: The research was financed from resources of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education for
Statutory Activities No. 04/41/DS-PB/4347, name of the task: Improvement of Reliability of Supply in
Distribution Network.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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