Group Theory

GROUP THEORY (MATH 33300)
COURSE NOTES
C ONTENTS
1. Basics 3
2. Homomorphisms 7
3. Subgroups 11
4. Generators 14
5. Cyclic groups 16
6. Cosets and Lagrange’s Theorem 19
7. Normal subgroups and quotient groups 23
8. Isomorphism Theorems 26
9. Direct products 29
10. Group actions 34
11. Sylow’s Theorems 38
12. Applications of Sylow’s Theorems 43
13. Finitely generated abelian groups 46
14. The symmetric group 49
15. The Jordan-Hölder Theorem 58
16. Soluble groups 62
17. Solutions to exercises 67
Recommended text to complement these notes: J.F. Humphreys, A Course in Group

Theory (OUP, 1996).
Date: January 11, 2010.

These notes are mainly based on K. Meyberg’s Algebra, Chapters 1 & 2 (in German).
1
2 COURSE NOTES
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GROUP THEORY (MATH 33300) 3
1. B ASICS
1.1. Definition. Let G be a non-empty set and fix a map ◦ : G × G → G. The pair
(G, ◦) is called a group if
(1) for all a, b, c ∈ G: (a ◦ b) ◦ c = a ◦ (b ◦ c) (associativity axiom).
(2) there is e ∈ G such that e ◦ a = a for all a ∈ G (identity axiom).
(3) for every a ∈ G there is a 0 ∈ G such that a 0 ◦ a = e (inverse axiom) .
◦ is called the composition (sometimes also multiplication) and e is called the
identity element (or neutral element) of G, and a 0 the inverse of a. Where there is
no ambiguity, we will use the notation G instead of (G, ◦), and ab instead of a ◦ b.
We will denote by an (n ∈ N) the n-fold product of a, e.g., a3 = aaa.
1.2. Example. The simplest examples of groups are:

(1) E = {e} (the trivial group).
(2) ({0}, +}), (Z, +), (Q, +), (R, +), (C, +), where + is the standard addition.
(3) ({1}, ·), ({−1, 1}, ·), (Q∗ , ·), (R∗ , ·), (C∗ , ·), where · denotes the usual multiplica-
tion and Q∗ = Q \ {0} etc.
1.3. Lemma. Let a be an element of the group G such that a2 = a. Then a = e.
Proof. We have
a = ea (identity axiom)
= (a 0 a)a for some a 0 ∈ G (inverse axiom)
(1.1) = a 0 a2 (associativity axiom)
= a 0a (by assumption)
=e (by definition of a 0 ).

1.4. Exercise. Show that

(1) If a 0 is an inverse of a, then aa 0 = e.
(2) ae = a for all a ∈ G.
(3) The neutral element of G is unique.
(4) For every a there is a unique inverse a 0 . We will denote it by a−1 := a 0 .
(5) (a−1 )−1 = a.
(6) (ab)−1 = b−1 a−1 .
We extend the definition an to negative integers n < 0 by setting an := (a−1 )−n .
We also set a0 = e.
1.5. Definition. The number of elements of a group G is called the order of G and is
denoted |G|. G is called a finite group if |G| < ∞ and infinite otherwise.
4 COURSE NOTES
1.6. Example. Let Zn denote the set {0, 1, . . . , n − 1}, where m is the residue class
modulo n (that is, the equivalence class of integers congruent to m mod n). Then:
(1) (Zn , +) is a finite group of order n.
(2) (Z∗n , ·), with Z∗n = {m ∈ Zn : gcd(m, n) = 1}, is a finite group of order ϕ(n) =
the number of integers < n that are coprime to n (Euler’s ϕ function).
1.7. Definition. A group G is called abelian (or commutative), if ab = ba for all

a, b ∈ G.
1.8. Example. All of the above examples are abelian groups. An example of a non-
abelian group is the set of matrices
!
x y
(1.2) T= : x ∈ R∗ , y ∈ R
0 1/x
where the composition is matrix multiplication.
Proof. We have
! ! !
x1 y1 x2 y2 x3 y3
(1.3) =
0 1/x1 0 1/x2 0 1/x3
where x3 = x1 x2 and y3 = x1 y2 + y1 /x2 . Hence T is closed under multiplication. Ma-
trix multiplication is well known to be associative. The identity element corresponds
to x = 1, y = 0. As to the inverse,
!−1 !
x y 1/x −y
(1.4) = ∈ T.
0 1/x 0 x
Therefore T is a group. It is non abelian since for example
! ! ! ! ! !
2 0 1 1 2 2 2 12 1 1 2 0
(1.5) = 6= = .
0 12 0 1 0 21 0 12 0 1 0 12

1.9. Exercise. Prove the following:

(1) The set
!
x −y
(1.6) SO(2) = : x, y ∈ R, x2 + y2 = 1
y x
forms an abelian group with respect to matrix multiplication. (SO stands for
“special orthogonal”.)
(2) Let K be a field and Kn×n the set of n × n matrices with coefficients in K. Then
(1.7) GL(n, K) := {A ∈ Kn×n : det A 6= 0}
is a group with respect to matrix multiplication. (GL stands for “general lin-
ear”.)
1.10. The easiest description of a finite group G = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn } of order n (i.e.,

xi 6= xj for i 6= j) is often given by an n × n matrix, the group table, whose coefficient
in the ith row and jth column is the product xi xj :
 
x1 x1 x1 x2 . . . x1 xn
 x2 x1 x2 x2 . . . x2 xn 
 
(1.8)  .
 . .. .. .. .
 . . . . 
xn x1 xn x2 . . . xn xn
The group table completely specifies the group.
1.11. Theorem. In a group table, every group element appears precisely once in ev-
ery row, and once in every column.
Proof. Suppose in the ith row we have xi xj = xi xk for j 6= k. Multiplying from the left
by x−1
i we obtain xj = xk , which contradicts our assumption that xj and xk are distinct
group elements. The proof for columns is analogous.
1.12. Example. Consider a finite group G = {e, a, b} of order 3. If e is the identity,

the first row and column are already specified:
 
e a b
(1.9) a ? ? .
 
b ? ?
If the central coefficient ? is chosen to be e, then the ? below can, in view of Theorem
1.11 applied to the second column, only be b—but then there are two b 0 s in the final
row. Hence the only possibility is:
 
e a b
(1.10) a b e  .
 
b e a
We have thus shown that there exists only one group of order 3.
1.13. Example. Let G = {e, a, b, c} and assume a2 = b2 = e. Then the group table is
 
e a b c
 
a e ? ?
(1.11) 
b
.
 ? e ?
c ? ? ?
6 COURSE NOTES
The only possibility for ? is c, otherwise there would be two c’s in the last column.
Hence
 
e a b c
 
a e c b 
(1.12) b ? e ?  .
 
 
c ? a ?
Again ? must be c, and thus

 
e a b c
 
a e c b
(1.13) 
b
.
 c e a
c b a e
Hence the group table is completely determined by the relations a2 = b2 = e. The
associativity of the composition law can easily be checked (this is a tedious but in-
structive exercise). The resulting group is called Klein four group.
1.14. Exercise. Write down the group tables for all residue class groups Z∗p for all
primes p ≤ 17.
1.15. Exercise. Let G be the set of symmetries of the regular n-gon (i.e., G comprises
reflections at diagonals and rotations about the center). Show that G forms a group
of order 2n, if the composition is the usual composition law for maps.
[This group is called the dihedral group Dn ; we will meet it again later in the
lecture.]
1.16. Exercise. Let K be a finite field with q elements. Determine the order of GL(n, K).
2. H OMOMORPHISMS
2.1. Definition. Let (G, ◦), (H, ∗) be groups. The map ϕ : G → H is called a homo-
morphism from (G, ◦) to (H, ∗), if for all a, b ∈ G
(2.1) ϕ(a ◦ b) = ϕ(a) ∗ ϕ(b).
2.2. Example.
(1) Let e 0 be the identity element of H. Then map ϕ : G → H defined by ϕ(a) = e 0
is a homomorphism.
(2) The map exp : R → R∗ , x 7→ ex , defines a homomorphism from (R, +) to
(R∗ , ·), since ex+y = ex ey .
(3) The map π : Z → Zn , m → m, defines a homomorphism from (Z, +) to
(Zn , +).
2.3. Exercise. Show that

(1) the maps ϕ1 , ϕ2 : R → T defined by
! !
1 t et 0
(2.2) ϕ1 (t) = , ϕ2 (t) = ,
0 1 0 e−t
are homomorphisms.
(2) the map ϕ3 : R → SO(2) defined by
!
cos(t) − sin(t)
(2.3) ϕ3 (t) = ,
sin(t) cos(t)
is a homomorphism.
2.4. Definition. A homomorphism ϕ : G → H is called

(1) monomorphism if the map ϕ is injective,
(2) epimorphism if the map ϕ is surjective,
(3) isomorphism if the map ϕ is bijective,
(4) endomorphism if G = H,
(5) automorphism if G = H and the map ϕ is bijective.
2.5. Definition. Two groups G, H are called isomorphic, if there is an isomorphism

from G to H. We write G ' H.
2.6. Exercise. Show that (Z, +) ' (2Z, +).
2.7. Exercise. Decide whether the homomorphisms in Exercise 2.3 are mono-, epi-,
or isomorphisms.
8 COURSE NOTES
2.8. Lemma. Let ϕ : G → H be a homomorphism, and let e, e 0 denote the identity

elements of G and H, respectively. Then
(1) ϕ(e) = e 0 .
(2) ϕ(a−1 ) = ϕ(a)−1 .
(3) ϕ(an ) = ϕ(a)n for all a ∈ G, n ∈ Z.
[(1) and (2) are of course special cases of (3).]
Proof. (1) We have ϕ(e) = ϕ(ee) = ϕ(e)ϕ(e) and (1) follows from Lemma 1.3.
(2) ϕ(e) = ϕ(a−1 a) = ϕ(a−1 )ϕ(a), which proves (2) in view of (1).
(3) follows from (1) trivially when n = 0, and by induction for n > 0. For n < 0
ϕ(an ) = ϕ((a−1 )−n ) (by definition)
= ϕ(a−1 )−n (as we have just proved)
(2.4)
= (ϕ(a)−1 )−n (by (2))
= ϕ(a)n (by definition).

2.9. Definition. Let ϕ be a homomorphism from (G, ◦) to (H, ∗), and denote by e, e 0
denote the respective identity elements. The set
(2.5) im ϕ = {ϕ(a) : a ∈ G} ⊆ H
is called the image of ϕ, and
(2.6) ker ϕ = {a ∈ G : ϕ(a) = e 0 } ⊆ G
the kernel of ϕ.
2.10. Exercise. Prove that (im ϕ, ∗) and (ker ϕ, ◦) are groups.

[We will return to this problem in the discussion of subgroups.]
2.11. Theorem. ϕ is a monomorphism if and only if ker ϕ = {e}.
Proof. Assume ϕ is injective. If a ∈ ker ϕ, then ϕ(a) = e 0 = ϕ(e) and hence by

injectivity a = e.
Conversely, assume ker ϕ = {e}. Let a, b ∈ G such that ϕ(a) = ϕ(b). We need to
show that a = b.
e 0 = ϕ(b)ϕ(a)−1
(2.7) = ϕ(b)ϕ(a−1 ) (Lemma 2.8)
= ϕ(ba−1 ).
Thus ba−1 ∈ ker ϕ, and hence, by our assumption ker ϕ = {e} we conclude ba−1 = e,
i.e., a = b.
2.12. Theorem.
(1) If ϕ : G → H and ψ : H → K are homomorphisms, then so is ψ ◦ ϕ : G → K.
(2) If ϕ : G → H and ψ : H → K are isomorphisms, then so is ψ ◦ ϕ : G → K.
(3) If ϕ : G → H is an isomorphism, then so is ϕ−1 : H → G.
(4) The identity map id : G → G, a 7→ a is an automorphism.
Proof. (1) We have

(2.8)
(ψ ◦ ϕ)(ab) = ψ(ϕ(ab)) = ψ(ϕ(a)ϕ(b)) = ψ(ϕ(a))ψ(ϕ(b)) = (ψ ◦ ϕ)(a)(ψ ◦ ϕ)(b).
(2) In view of (1) it remains to be shown that ψ ◦ ϕ is bijective—this is evident and

left as an exercise.
(3) Let x = ϕ(a), y = ϕ(b), and so a = ϕ−1 (x), b = ϕ−1 (y). Now
(2.9) ϕ−1 (xy) = ϕ−1 (ϕ(a)ϕ(b)) = ϕ−1 (ϕ(ab)) = ab = ϕ−1 (x)ϕ−1 (y).
(4) This is evident.
2.13. The above theorem has an important consequence: If G ' H then by (3) H '
G. If G ' H and H ' K then by (2) G ' K. Finally, by (4) we have G ' G. Hence '
defines an equivalence relation on groups.
Recall: Given a set X, an equivalence relation R is defined as a subset of X × X with
the properties:
(1) (x, x) ∈ R for all x ∈ R (reflexivity axiom).
(2) (x, y) ∈ R implies (y, x) ∈ R (symmetry axiom).
(3) (x, y), (y, z) ∈ R implies (x, z) ∈ R (transitivity axiom).
If (x, y) ∈ R we say x and y are equivalent and write x ∼ y.
2.14. Let Aut G be the set of automorphisms ϕ : G → G. Because of Theorem 2.12

(2) and (3) we find that if ϕ, ψ ∈ Aut G, then ϕ ◦ ψ ∈ Aut G and ϕ−1 ∈ Aut G. (4)
says that id ∈ Aut G. Hence (Aut G, ◦) is a group, called the automorphism group
of G.
2.15. Lemma. Given g ∈ G, define the map ϕg : G → G by ϕg (a) = gag−1 . Then

ϕg ∈ Aut G.
Proof. ϕg is a homomorphism since
(2.10) ϕg (ab) = gabg−1 = gag−1 gbg−1 = ϕg (a)ϕg (b).
It is in fact invertible:
(2.11) ϕ−1
g = ϕg−1
since ϕg ◦ ϕg−1 (a) = g(g−1 ag)g−1 = a, and so ϕg is bijective.

10 COURSE NOTES
2.16. Definition. ϕ ∈ Aut G is called an inner automorphism if there is a g ∈ G

such that ϕ = ϕg . Two elements a, b ∈ G are called conjugate if there is a g ∈ G such
that ϕg (a) = b. We write a ∼ b.
2.17. Exercise. Show that ∼ is an equivalence relation.
2.18. Exercise. Show that for a, b ∈ G the elements ab and ba are conjugate.
2.19. Theorem. The map Φ : G → Aut G, a 7→ ϕa , is a homomorphism.

Proof. We have for any fixed g ∈ G
(2.12) ϕab (g) = abg(ab)−1 = abgb−1 a−1 = ϕa (bgb−1 ) = ϕa ◦ ϕb (g),
so ϕab = ϕa ◦ ϕb , i.e., Φ(ab) = Φ(a) ◦ Φ(b).
2.20. Definition. The kernel of Φ is called the center of G and is denoted by Z(G).
Explicitly,
Z(G) = {a ∈ G : ϕa = id} (by definition)
(2.13) = {a ∈ G : aba−1 = b for all b ∈ G}
= {a ∈ G : ab = ba for all b ∈ G}.
Hence Z(G) is the set of elements in G that commute with all elements in G. Note
that obviously Z(G) is a group, cf. also Exercise 2.10.
2.21. We have Z(G) = G if and only if G is abelian.
2.22. Exercise. Determine all automorphisms of the Klein four group.
2.23. Exercise. Show that the symmetry group of a rectangle (that is not a square) is
the Klein four group.
2.24. Exercise. Set ζ := e2πi/n , and let G = {ζk : k = 1, . . . , n} be the group of the nth
roots of unity, where the composition is standard multiplication in C.
(1) Show that ϕ : Z → G, m 7→ ζm , is a homomorphism.
(2) Calculate ker(ϕ).
2.25. Exercise. Let G be a group. Show that:

(1) If Aut G = {id} then G is abelian.
(2) If x 7→ x2 defines an homomorphism of G, then G is abelian.
(3) If x →7 x−1 defines an automorphism of G, then G is abelian.
3. S UBGROUPS
3.1. Definition. A non-empty subset H ⊆ G is called a subgroup, if H is a group

with respect to the same composition as in G; we will write in this case H ≤ G.
H is called a proper subgroup if H 6= G; we write H < G.
3.2. Example.
(1) (Z, +) < (Q, +) < (R, +) < (C, +).
(2) If d ∈ N divides n ∈ N, then (nZ, +) ≤ (dZ, +).
(3) The groups in Example 1.8 and Exercise 2.3 are subgroups of GL(2, R).
3.3. Theorem. Let G be a group and H ⊆ G a non-empty subset. Then H is a sub-

group if and only if
(3.1) (a, b ∈ H) ⇒ (ab ∈ H and a−1 ∈ H).
Proof. Assume H is a subgroup. Then the image of H × H under the composition

◦ : G × G → G satisfies ◦(H, H) ⊆ H, i.e., ab ∈ H for all a, b ∈ H. If e is the identity
in H, we have e2 = e, but this means by Lemma 1.3 that e is also the identity in G.
Hence the inverse of a in H is also the inverse of a in G, and so a−1 ∈ H.
Conversely, assume (3.1). Then the composition ◦ on G, restricted to H, yields a
map H × H → H, (a, b) 7→ ab. The map is clearly associative (since this is true in the
full set G), and we only need to show that the identity e in G is contained in H. But
this follows from taking b = a−1 in (3.1).
3.4. Corollary. Let G be a group and H ⊆ G a non-empty subset. Then H is a sub-

group if and only if
(3.2) (a, b ∈ H) ⇒ (ab−1 ∈ H).
Proof. Assume H is a subgroup. Let a, b ∈ H. Then, by Theorem 3.3, b−1 ∈ H and

ab−1 ∈ H. On the other hand, assume (3.2) holds. In particular (for a = e) b ∈ H
implies b−1 ∈ H and hence (a, b ∈ H) ⇒ (a, b−1 ∈ H) ⇒ (ab ∈ H) by (3.2). Thus by
Theorem 3.3 H is a subgroup.
3.5. Theorem. Let G be a group and H ⊆ G a finite non-empty subset. Then H is a

subgroup if and only if
(3.3) (a, b ∈ H) ⇒ (ab ∈ H).
Proof. The first implication follows from the previous theorem. Hence assume (3.3)
holds. Since G is a group, for every fixed a ∈ G the map G → G, x 7→ ax, is
injective. If a ∈ H, then the restriction of this map to H yields, in view of (3.3), a the
map H → H, x 7→ ax, which is still injective. But since H is finite, injective implies
surjective and hence bijective. Hence if y = ax ∈ H, the inverse map is H → H,
12 COURSE NOTES
y 7→ x = a−1 y. The choice y = a implies e ∈ H and the choice y = e implies

a−1 ∈ H.
3.6. Example. Let G = {e, a, b, c} be the Klein four group as defined in 1.13. The
above theorem shows that {e, a}, {e, b}, {e, c} are subgroups of G.
3.7. Theorem. Consider the groups H1 ≤ G1 , H2 ≤ G2 and let ϕ : G1 → G2 be a

homomorphism. Then
(1) the image ϕ(H1 ) is a subgroup of G2 .
(2) the pre-image ϕ−1 (H2 ) is a subgroup of G1 .
Proof. (1) ϕ(H1 ) is evidently non-empty. We have for a, b ∈ H1 that ϕ(a)ϕ(b) =

ϕ(ab) ∈ ϕ(H1 ) and ϕ(a)−1 = ϕ(a−1 ) ∈ ϕ(H1 ). The claim follows from Theorem 3.3.
(2) Clearly e ∈ ϕ−1 (H2 ) and the latter is non-empty. a, b ∈ ϕ−1 (H2 ) implies
ϕ(a), ϕ(b) ∈ H2 and hence ϕ(ab) = ϕ(a)ϕ(b) ∈ H2 and ϕ(a)−1 = ϕ(a−1 ) ∈ H2 .
Therefore ab, a−1 ∈ ϕ−1 (H2 ), and claim (2) follows from Theorem 3.3.
3.8. Corollary. Let ϕ : G1 → G2 be a homomorphism.

(1) im ϕ is a subgroup of G2 .
(2) ker ϕ is a subgroup of G1 .
Proof. Apply Theorem 3.7 with H1 = G1 , H2 = {e}.
3.9. With the special choice ϕ = ϕg : x 7→ gxg−1 (the inner automorphism, 2.16) the
above shows that for every H ≤ G and g ∈ G we have gHg−1 ≤ G.
3.10. Definition. Two subgroups H1 , H2 ≤ G are called conjugate if there is a g ∈ G

such that H1 = gH2 g−1 .
3.11. Theorem. Let H1 , H2 ≤ G. Then the set
(3.4) H1 H2 = {ab : a ∈ H1 , b ∈ H2 }
is a subgroup if and only if H1 H2 = H2 H1 .
Proof. Suppose H1 H2 is a subgroup. Then, for all a ∈ H1 , b ∈ H2 , we have b−1 a−1 =

(ab)−1 ∈ H1 H2 , i.e., H2 H1 ⊆ H1 H2 . But also for h ∈ H1 H2 we find a ∈ H1 , b ∈ H2 such
that h−1 = ab, and then h = b−1 a−1 ∈ H2 H1 . So H1 H2 ⊆ H2 H1 , that is, H1 H2 = H2 H1 .
On the other hand, assume that H1 H2 = H2 H1 . Then, for all a, a 0 ∈ H1 , b, b 0 ∈ H2
we have aba 0 b 0 ∈ aH2 H1 b 0 = aH1 H2 b 0 = H1 H2 . Furthermore, for all a ∈ H1 , b ∈ H2
we have (ab)−1 = b−1 a−1 ∈ H2 H1 = H1 H2 .
3.12. Theorem. Let {Hα } be a (possibly uncountable) family of subgroups of G para-

metrized by α. Then
\
(3.5) H := Hα ≤ G.
α
Proof. If a, b ∈ H, so a, b ∈ Hα for all α. Then ab, a−1 ∈ Hα for all α and hence
ab, a−1 ∈ H.
3.13. Exercise. Show that if H1 , H2 < G then H1 ∪ H2 6= G.

14 COURSE NOTES
4. G ENERATORS
4.1. Definition. Let G be a group and S ⊆ G a subset. The group

\
(4.1) hSi := {H : H ≤ G such that S ⊆ H }
is called the group generated by S.
4.2. Definition. If G = hSi, then S is called a generating set of G. G is called finitely

generated if the set S is finite, i.e., S = {a1 , a2 , . . . , an }. In this case we write G =
ha1 , a2 , . . . , an i. The elements of S are called generators of G.
Note that, by definition, h{ }i = {e} and hGi = G.
4.3. Theorem. Let G be a group and S ⊆ G a non-empty subset. Then hSi consists of
all finite products of elements from S ∪ S−1 , where S−1 := {a−1 : a ∈ S}.
Proof. Let
(4.2) H = {h1 h2 · · · hn : hi ∈ S ∪ S−1 , n ∈ N}.
We want to show that H = hSi. Evidently, H ⊆ hSi. On the other hand, H is a

subgroup of G (why?). Since H contains S and H is a group, we have hSi ⊆ H, and
hence H = hSi.
4.4. Corollary. A homomorphism ϕ : hSi → H is uniquely determined by ϕ(S), i.e.,

the image of the map ϕ restricted to the set S.
Proof. By Theorem 4.3, we can write every a ∈ hSi as a = a1 a2 . . . an with ai ∈

S∪S−1 . Then ϕ(a) = ϕ(a1 )ϕ(a2 ) . . . ϕ(an ) where ϕ(ai ) ∈ ϕ(S) or ϕ(ai )−1 = ϕ(a−1
i ) ∈
ϕ(S).
4.5. Exercise. Let H < G. Show that G = hG \ Hi.
4.6. Exercise.
(1) Fix > 0. Show that (R, +) is generated by the set (0, ].
(2) Give an example of a generating set S 6= Q for (Q, +). Justify your answer.
4.7. Exercise. Let us define the special linear group over a field K by
(4.3) SL(2, K) := {A ∈ K2×2 : det A = 1}.
Show that
! !
1 x 0 −1
(4.4) SL(2, K) = :x∈K ∪ .
0 1 1 0
Hint: Verify that



   

1 a/c 0 −1 1 cd c 0 
! 

 (c 6= 0)
a b  0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1/c
(4.5) = 

 
c d 
 1 ab a 0

 (c = 0)

 0 1
  
0 1/a
and furthermore
! ! ! ! ! ! !
a 0 1 −a 0 −1 1 −1/a 0 −1 1 −a 0 −1
(4.6) = .
0 1/a 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
16 COURSE NOTES
5. C YCLIC GROUPS
5.1. Definition. A group G is called cyclic, if there is g ∈ G such that G = hgi. The
element g is called the generator of G.
Note that G = {gn : n ∈ Z}, and that every cyclic group is abelian (since gm gn =
gm+n = gn gm ).
5.2. Example.
(1) (Z, +) is generated by 1 and thus cyclic. The subgroups (nZ, +) for some fixed
n ∈ Z are generated by n and hence also cyclic.
(2) (Zn , +) is generated by 1 and thus cyclic.
5.3. Theorem. Every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.
Proof. Let G = hgi and H < G. Every h ∈ H can be expressed as h = gm for some
m ∈ Z. Since the trivial group H = {e} is cyclic we may exclude this case from now
on and assume h 6= e. Thus there exists an element gm ∈ H with m 6= 0. Since
inverse axiom gm ∈ H implies g−m ∈ H there is gm ∈ H with m > 0, and hence the
set I = {k ∈ N : gk ∈ H} is non-empty. Let s be the smallest element of I and gm
an arbitrary element of H. Let q, r ∈ Z be such that m = qs + r, 0 ≤ r < s. Now
gr = gm−qs = gm (gs )−q ∈ H. If r 6= 0 then r ∈ I and we have a contradiction with s
being minimal. If r = 0, then m = qs, so gm = (gs )q , that is, H ⊆ hgs i. Since gs ∈ H
we also have hgs i ⊆ H and thus H = hgs i.
Since Z is cyclic, we have the following classification of subgroups of Z.
5.4. Corollary. Every subgroup of Z is of the form sZ := {sm : m ∈ Z} with s ∈ Z≥0 .

This follows directly from the previous proof: recall that 1 is the generator of Z,
and our explicit construction of the cyclic subgroups H shows that H = sZ in the
present case.
Note that if s > 0 then s is the smallest integer > 0 in the subgroup.
5.5. Definition. Let G be a group. The order of a ∈ G is the order of the cyclic group
hai and is denoted by ord a := |hai|.
5.6. Theorem. The order of a ∈ G is either infinite or equal to the smallest integer
s > 0 such that as = e. In the latter case hai = {e, a, a2 , . . . , as−1 }.
Proof. If ai 6= aj for all i 6= j, then ord a = ∞. Otherwise there are i < j such that
ai = aj , and hence ak = e with k = j − i > 0. Let s > 0 be the smallest integer
such that as = e. Then all elements in the set H = {e, a, a2 , . . . , as−1 } are distinct
(otherwise there would be a smaller element k < s such that ak = e) and is closed
under multiplication since as = e. Since H is finite, this implies H is a group and thus
H = hai.
5.7. Corollary. Suppose ord a = s. Then ak = e if and only if k ∈ sZ.
Proof. If k = sm for some m ∈ Z then ak = (as )m = e. On the other hand, if ak = e

then H = {k ∈ Z : ak = e} is a subgroup of Z and hence H = s 0 Z for some integer
s 0 > 0 (Corollary 5.4). By Theorem 5.6 s is the smallest integer > 0 such that as = e
and so s = s 0 .
5.8. Theorem. Suppose ord a = n. Then for all m ∈ Z

n
(5.1) ord am = .
gcd(m, n)
Proof. Let d = gcd(m, n), m = dm 0 , n = dn 0 , with m 0 , n 0 coprime. Set r = ord am .

Since e = (am )r = amr we have by Corollary 5.7 mr = nt for some t ∈ Z. Divide by
d to obtain m 0 r = n 0 t. Since m 0 , n 0 are coprime n 0 divides r, so n 0 ≤ r. On the other
0 0 0
hand (am )n = (an )m = em = e so r ≤ n 0 . We conclude r = n 0 .
The following two corollaries follow directly from the above theorem.
5.9. Corollary. If ord a = n then hai = ham i if and only if m, n are coprime.
5.10. Corollary. A cyclic group of order n has ϕ(n) generators, where ϕ is Euler’s
ϕ function.
5.11. Theorem. If G is a cyclic group of order n, then for every divisor d of n there
exists precisely one subgroup of order d.
dm
Proof. Suppose G = hai, ord a = n = dm. So ord am = gcd(m,dm) = d and ham i has
order d. Suppose now there is a further subgroup H ≤ G of order d. By Theorem 5.3
H = hak i for some k ≥ 1. Now d = ord ak by assumption, which equals ord ak =
0
dm
gcd(k,n)
, so gcd(n, k) = m. This means m divides k, set k = mk 0 . Hence ak = (am )k ∈
ham i, i.e., H = hak i ≤ ham i. But since H has the same order as ham i, we in fact have
H = ham i.
Note that the above theorem in fact gives a complete classification of all subgroups
of a cyclic group G, since (a) every subgroup is cyclic (Theorem 5.3) and (b) the order
of every cyclic subgroup divides the order of G; this follows from Theorem 5.8.
5.12. Exercise. Let G be a group. Show that:

(1) If G is abelian, then the elements a ∈ G of finite order form a subgroup.
Provide a counter example that shows that this is not true in general.
(2) If for every a ∈ G, ord a ≤ 2, then G is abelian.
(3) If a is the only element of order 2 in G, then a ∈ Z(G).
18 COURSE NOTES
5.13. Exercise. Let G be a group, a, b ∈ G, ϕ ∈ Aut G. Show that:

(1) ord ϕ(a) = ord a.
(2) ord aba−1 = ord b.
(3) ord ab = ord ba.
(4) ord a−1 = ord a.
5.14. Exercise. Let G = hai be a cyclic group of order n. Show that:

(1) If ϕ ∈ Aut G then there exists k ∈ N with gcd(k, n) = 1 and ϕ(a) = ak .
(2) Aut G ' Z∗n .
6. C OSETS AND L AGRANGE ’ S T HEOREM
6.1. Definition. Given a subgroup H ≤ G we define the relation RH ⊆ G × G by
(6.1) (x, y) ∈ RH ⇔ xy−1 ∈ H.
Note that RG = G × G and R{e} = {(x, y) ∈ G × G : x = y}.
6.2. Example. For G = Z and H = nZ we have
(6.2) (x, y) ∈ RnZ ⇔ x − y ∈ nZ ⇔ x ≡ y mod n.
6.3. Theorem. For every H ≤ G the relation RH defines an equivalence relation

which is consistent with right multiplication, i.e., for all x, y, a ∈ G,
(6.3) (x, y) ∈ RH ⇔ (xa, ya) ∈ RH .
Proof. Clearly xx−1 ∈ H, so (x, x) ∈ RH . Secondly, if xy−1 ∈ H then (xy−1 )−1 =

yx−1 ∈ H, so (x, y) ∈ RH implies (y, x) ∈ RH . Thirdly, if xy−1 ∈ H, yz−1 ∈ H, then
xy−1 yz−1 = xz−1 ∈ H. So (x, y) ∈ RH , (y, z) ∈ RH implies (x, z) ∈ RH . We have shown
RH is an equivalence relation. To show the consistency with right multiplication, note
that
(6.4) xy−1 ∈ H ⇔ (xa)(ya)−1 ∈ H
since (xa)(ya)−1 = xaa−1 y−1 = xy−1 .
6.4. Let us consider the equivalence classes for the relation RH . The equivalence
class of g ∈ G is
[g]H = {x ∈ G : (x, g) ∈ RH } (by definition)
= {x ∈ G : xg−1 ∈ H}
(6.5)
= {yg ∈ G : y ∈ H} (y = xg−1 )
= Hg.
6.5. Definition. For a given subgroup H ≤ G the sets Hg, g ∈ G are called the right
cosets of H.
6.6. Example. In the case G = Z, H = nZ, the right cosets m + nZ are the residue
classes modulo n.
6.7. Theorem. Let H ≤ G. Then

S
(1) G = g∈G Hg ,
(2) for all a, b ∈ G: Ha ∩ Hb 6= ∅ ⇔ ab−1 ∈ H ⇔ Ha = Hb .
Proof. This is a direct consequence of elementary properties of equivalence relations.

20 COURSE NOTES
6.8. Lemma. The map Ha → Hb, g 7→ g 0 = ga−1 b, is a bijection.
Proof. The inverse image of g 0 ∈ Hb is g = g 0 b−1 a. So if g 0 ∈ Hb then g ∈ Ha hence

the map is surjective. The formula for the inverse image also implies that if g1 7→ g 0
and g2 7→ g 0 , then g1 = g2 and so the map is injective.
The lemma implies that |Ha| = |Hb| for all a, b ∈ G.
6.9. Definition. Let H ≤ G. The number of distinct right cosets is called the index
of H in G and denoted by |G : H|. [The index can be infinite.]
6.10. Lagrange’s Theorem. Let H ≤ G be finite groups. Then
(6.6) |G| = |G : H| |H|.
[Note that the statement also formally holds if |G| and |G : H| or |H| are infinite.]
Proof. We have G = g∈G Hg, which is a disjoint union of |G : H| cosets. Since |Hg| =
S
|H|, the result follows.
A direct consequence is:
6.11. Corollary. If G is a finite group, then the order of every subgroup divides |G|.
A special case of this for cyclic subgroups:
6.12. Corollary. If G is a finite group, then ord a divides |G| for every a ∈ G.
6.13. Exercise. Using Corollary 5.7, prove Fermat’s Little Theorem:
6.14. Corollary. (Fermat’s Little Theorem.) If G is a finite group, then a|G| = e for all
a ∈ G.
A special case of this is the following, which is due to Euler.
6.15. Corollary. Let n ∈ N and m ∈ Z with gcd(m, n) = 1. Then
(6.7) mϕ(n) ≡ 1 mod n.
Proof. Let Z∗n be the group of integers modulo n that are coprime to n. Since |Z∗n | =
ϕ(n) we have mϕ(n) = 1 by Fermat’s Little Theorem 6.14. Recall that mr = mr for
any r ∈ N, and so mϕ(n) ≡ 1 mod n.
6.16. A particularly important case is when n = p a prime number. Then ϕ(p) =

p − 1. If gcd(p, m) = 1 we have therefore mp−1 ≡ 1 mod p, i.e., mp ≡ m mod p. But
if gcd(p, m) 6= 1 then p divides m and the mp ≡ m mod p holds trivially. We have
proved a result by Fermat:
6.17. Corollary. Let p be prime and m ∈ Z. Then mp ≡ m mod p.

6.18. Corollary. Let G be a group of prime order. Then G is cyclic.
Proof. Prime order means that |G| is a prime number. So for a ∈ G \ {e} we have
ord a 6= 1. By Corollary 6.12 ord a divides |G| so ord a = |G| is the only possibility,
and hence hai = G since G is finite.
6.19. Corollary. Let H1 , H1 ≤ G be finite subgroups with coprime orders. Then H1 ∩

H2 = {e}.
Proof. H1 ∩ H2 is a subgroup of both H1 and H2 . By Corollary 6.11 |H1 ∩ H2 | divides

therefore both |H1 | and |H2 |, but since these are coprime we have |H1 ∩ H2 | = 1.
6.20. Definition. For a given subgroup H ≤ G the sets gH, g ∈ G are called the left
cosets of H.
One could of course repeat the above calculations for left cosets (and this is recom-
mended as an exercise), but the following theorem offers a shortcut.
6.21. Theorem. Let H ≤ G. Then there is a bijection from the set of right cosets to
the set of left cosets, defined by Hg 7→ g−1 H.
Proof. Let us first show the map is well defined. We have
(6.8) Ha = Hb ⇔ ab−1 ∈ H ⇔ (a−1 )−1 b−1 ∈ H ⇔ a−1 H = b−1 H.
Hence Ha = Hb implies a−1 H = b−1 H and so the map is well defined. The reverse
implication implies injectivity, and surjectivity is obvious (the inverse map is given
by gH 7→ Hg−1 ).
Here is a generalization of Lagrange’s Theorem, which provides information also

for infinite groups.
6.22. Theorem. Let K ≤ H ≤ G be groups. If two of the quantities |G : K|, |G : H|,

|H : K| are finite, so is the third, and
(6.9) |G : K| = |G : H| |H : K|.
Proof. Let
[ [
(6.10) G= gα H, H= hβ K
α∈I β∈J
be unions of distinct cosets, where I, J denote suitable index sets. We claim that
[
(6.11) G= gα hβ K
α∈I,β∈J
is a union of distinct cosets. To prove this claim, suppose that gα hβ K = gα̃ hβ̃ K. This
implies that
(6.12) gα hβ KH = gα̃ hβ̃ KH ⇒ gα hβ H = gα̃ hβ̃ H ⇒ gα H = gα̃ H

22 COURSE NOTES
since KH = H for K ≤ H and hβ H = H for hβ ∈ H (cf. Theorem 6.7). Since we have

chosen in the above union one representative gα for each coset gα G we have gα = gα̃ .
But then gα hβ K = gα̃ hβ̃ K implies hβ K = hβ̃ K, and by the same argument as before
hβ = hβ̃ . The claim is proved.
We have by definition |G : H| = |I| and |H : K| = |J|. In view of (6.11), we conclude
that |G : K| = |I| |J| and the theorem follows.
6.23. Lemma. Let K, H be subgroups of G. Then for every g ∈ G

(6.13) Kg ∩ Hg = (K ∩ H)g.
Proof. The inclusion (K ∩ H)g ⊆ Kg ∩ Hg is obvious. Let a ∈ Kg ∩ Hg, so a = kg = hg
for suitable k ∈ K, h ∈ H. Multiply by g−1 , and we have k = h, which is in K ∩ H.
Hence a ∈ (K ∩ H)g, i.e., Kg ∩ Hg ⊆ (K ∩ H)g.
6.24. Poincaré’s Subgroup Theorem. Let K, H be subgroups of G. Then

(1) |G : K ∩ H| ≤ |G : K| |G : H|,
(2) |G : K ∩ H| = |G : K| |G : H|, if the indices of K, H in G are finite and coprime.
Proof. (1) The coset (K ∩ H)g can be written Kg ∩ Hg (Lemma 6.23), and hence there
are at most |G : K| |G : H| such cosets.
(2) K ∩ H is a subgroup of both K and H. Applying Theorem 6.22, we have
(6.14) |G : K ∩ H| = |G : K| |K : K ∩ H|, |G : K ∩ H| = |G : H| |H : K ∩ H|.
Thus |G : K| and |G : H| divide |G : K ∩ H|; since they are coprime also |G : K| |G : H|
divide |G : K ∩ H|, and hence in particular |G : K| |G : H| ≤ |G : K ∩ H|. Together with
(1) this yields (2).
By induction we have:
6.25. Corollary. For subgroups Hi ≤ G, 1 ≤ i ≤ n, we have

n
\ Yn

(6.15) G : Hi ≤
G : Hi .
i=1 i=1
This says in particular that if the Hi have finite index in G, so does their intersec-
tion.
6.26. Exercise.
(1) Write down the decomposition of Z∗15 into left cosets with respect to the sub-
group h7i.
350 1000
(2) Calculate in Z∗15 : 7 , 2 .
7. N ORMAL SUBGROUPS AND QUOTIENT GROUPS
Recall the equivalence relation RH ⊆ G × G defined by
(7.1) (x, y) ∈ RH ⇔ xy−1 ∈ H
(recall 6.1), which, as we have shown, is compatible with right multiplication in G.
7.1. Theorem. Let H ≤ G. Then RH is compatible with multiplication in G, if and

only if
(7.2) aHa−1 ⊆ H for all a ∈ G.
Proof. Assume RH is compatible, then it is in particular left compatible, i.e.,
(7.3) (x, y) ∈ RH ⇔ (ax, ay) ∈ RH .
So axy−1 a−1 ∈ H. Since h ∈ H ⇔ (h, e) ∈ RH , we can choose x = h, y = e to obtain

aha−1 ∈ H for all a ∈ G.
On the other hand assume aHa−1 ⊆ H. If xy−1 ∈ H, then ax(ay)−1 = axy−1 a−1 ∈ H
and hence RH is left compatible. Since we already know it is right compatible, the
proof is complete.
Subgroups H for which RH is compatible with multiplication have a special name:
7.2. Definition. A subgroup H ≤ G for which aHa−1 ⊆ H for all a ∈ G is called

normal. We write H E G, and H C G if H 6= G.
7.3. Example.
(1) {e} E G and G E G.
(2) If H ≤ G and G is abelian, then H E G.
7.4. Exercise. Show that:

(1) H, K E G implies HK E G.
(2) If H ≤ G then the subgroup x∈G xHx−1 is normal in G.
T
7.5. Theorem. Let {Hα }α∈I be a family of normal subgroups in G. Then

\
(7.4) H := Hα E G.
α∈I
Proof. By Theorem 3.12, H is a subgroup. If a ∈ G and h ∈ H, then h ∈ Hα and

aha−1 ∈ Hα for all α ∈ I, and therefore aha−1 ∈ H.
24 COURSE NOTES
7.6. Theorem. Let ϕ : G1 → G2 a homomorphism.

(1) If H2 E G2 , then ϕ−1 (H2 ) E G1 .
(2) If H1 E G1 and ϕ is an epimorphism then ϕ(H1 ) E G2 .
Proof. For the subgroup properties recall Theorem 3.7.

(1) If x ∈ ϕ−1 (H2 ) and a ∈ G1 , then ϕ(x) ∈ H2 and so ϕ(axa−1 ) = ϕ(a)ϕ(x)ϕ(a)−1 ∈
H2 since H2 is normal. We conclude axa−1 ∈ ϕ−1 (H2 ).
(2) Since H1 is normal, we have ϕ(a)ϕ(H1 )ϕ(a)−1 ⊆ ϕ(H1 ). Since we assume ϕ is
surjective, every b ∈ G2 can be written as b = ϕ(a), a ∈ G1 . Therefore bϕ(H1 )b−1 ∈
ϕ(H1 ).
7.7. Note that with the choice H2 = {e} the theorem says that ker ϕ E G1 .
7.8. Definition. Let G be a group and X ⊆ G a subset. The set
(7.5) NG (X) := {g ∈ G : gX = Xg}
is called the normaliser of X in G.
7.9. Exercise. Prove that

(1) For every subset X ⊆ G, NG (X) ≤ G.
(2) H E G if and only if NG (H) = G.
(3) If H ≤ G then H E NG (H).
(4) If K E H then H ≤ NG (K).
7.10. Theorem. Let H E G. Then

(1) G/H := {aH : a ∈ G} with (aH)(bH) := (ab)H is a group (the quotient group
of G by H),
(2) |G/H| = |G : H|,
(3) The map π : G → G/H, g 7→ gH, is a homomorphism with kernel ker π = H.
[Quotient groups are also often referred to as factor groups.]
Proof. (1) Since H is normal, (aH)(bH) = a(bH)H ∈ G/H. The neutral element is
eH = H, and the inverse of aH is a−1 H.
(2) follows directly from the definitions.
(3) We have π(ab) = (ab)H = (aH)(bH) = π(a)π(b), so π is a homomorphism. As
to the kernel,
a ∈ ker π ⇔ π(a) = H (by definition, since H is the identity in G/H)
(7.6) ⇔ aH = H (by definition of π)
⇔a∈H (Theorem 6.7 (2))

7.11. Definition. The above map π is called the canonical epimorphism.

7.12. It is often convenient to use the notation G := G/H, and a := aH. The group
multiplication in G is then given by a b = ab, the identity is e, and the inverse of a
is given by a−1 .
7.13. Theorem. Let H ⊆ G be a non-empty subset. Then H E G, if and only if there

exists a homomorphism ϕ : G → G 0 with H = ker ϕ.
Proof. One implication follows from 7.7, and the reverse from 7.10 (3).
7.14. Example.
(1) Since Z is abelian, every subgroup nZ is normal. The quotient groups Z/nZ
are easily seen to be equal to Zn (the residue classes modulo n).
(2) The map GL(n, K) → K∗ = K \ {0}, A 7→ det A is a homomorphism since
det AB = det A det B. Its kernel is SL(n, K) := {A ∈ Kn×n : det A = 1} and we
have GL(n, K)/ SL(n, K) ' K∗ .
(3) For the trivial normal subgroup {e} E G we have G/{e} = {g{e} : g ∈ G} = {{g} :
g ∈ G} with composition {a}{b} = {ab}. Clearly G → G/{e} a 7→ {a} defines an
isomorphism. In the opposite extreme G E G, we have G/G = {G} and thus
G/G ' {e}.
26 COURSE NOTES
8. I SOMORPHISM T HEOREMS
8.1. The following theorems are useful in the classification of quotient groups of a
given group G, or (vice versa) its normal subgroups.
8.2. Homomorphism Theorem. If ϕ : G → G 0 is a homomorphism, then
(8.1) G/ ker ϕ ' ϕ(G).
Proof. Set K = ker ϕ. We know K E G. Define the map
(8.2) Φ : G/K → ϕ(G), gK 7→ ϕ(g).
The following proves the maps is well defined (⇒) and injective (⇐):
(8.3) aK = bK ⇔ b−1 a ∈ K ⇔ ϕ(b−1 a) = e 0 ⇔ ϕ(a) = ϕ(b) ⇔ Φ(aK) = Φ(bK).
Φ is trivially surjective (by construction), and it is a homomorphism because
(8.4) Φ((aK)(bK)) = Φ(abK) = ϕ(ab) = ϕ(a)ϕ(b) = Φ(aK)Φ(bK).
We conclude Φ is an isomorphism.
8.3. Example.
(1) The isomorphisms given in Example 7.14 follow directly from the homomor-
phism theorem.
(2) Recall the inner automorphism ϕx (g) = xgx−1 , and that the homomorphism
G → Aut G, x 7→ ϕx has as its kernel the center Z(G) of G. Its image I(G)
is called the group of inner automorphisms. The homomorphism theorem
shows that G/Z(G) ' I(G).
(3) For m, n ∈ N, the map ϕ : mZ → Zn , mr 7→ r, is an epimorphism with kernel
mnZ. The homomorphism theorem shows mZ/mnZ ' Z/nZ.
8.4. Corollary. If ϕ : G → G 0 is a monomorphism, then G ' ϕ(G).

This is a straightforward consequence of the above theorem. We also achieve a
classification of all cyclic groups:
8.5. Theorem. Every cyclic group of order n ∈ N is isomorphic to (Zn , +), and every
infinite cyclic group is isomorphic to (Z, +).
Proof. Let G = hai be cyclic. We have G = {am : m ∈ Z}. The map Z → G, m 7→ am

defines an epimorphism, with kernel sZ and s = 0 or the smallest positive integer
such that as = e (Corollary 5.4), i.e., s = ord a = |G|. The homomorphism theorem
implies that G ' Z/{0} ' Z if G is infinite and otherwise G ' Zs = Z/sZ with
s = |G|.
8.6. First Isomorphism Theorem. Let H ≤ G, N E G. Then HN ≤ G, (H ∩ N) E H

and
(8.5) HN/N ' H/(H ∩ N).
Proof. Since N is normal, aN = Na for all a ∈ G. So

[ [
(8.6) HN = hN = Nh = NH
h∈H h∈H
and by Theorem 3.11 HN is a subgroup. Note that N E HN, and consider the re-
striction of the canonical epimorphism π : G → G/N to H, which we denote by
π0 : H → G/N, h 7→ hN. For the image,
(8.7) π0 (H) = {hN : h ∈ H} = {hnN : hn ∈ HN} = HN/N.
Recall N is the identity in G/N, and aN = N if and only if a ∈ N. So
(8.8) ker π0 = {h ∈ H : hN = N} = {h ∈ H : h ∈ N} = H ∩ N.
Therefore H ∩ N is normal (Theorem 7.13), and the isomorphism follows from the
homomorphism theorem (take ϕ = π0 ).
8.7. Example. Isomorphism theorems are for instance useful in the calculation of
group orders, since isomorphic groups have the same order. If H ≤ G and K E G
so that HK is finite, then Lagrange’s Theorem with Theorem 7.10 (2) and the first
isomorphism theorem yield
|HK| |H|
(8.9) = |HK : K| = |HK/K| = |H/H ∩ K| = |H : H ∩ K| = ,
|K| |H ∩ K|
that is
|H| |K|
(8.10) |HK| = .
|H ∩ K|
8.8. Exercise. Prove formula (8.10) for general finite subgroups H, K ≤ G.
8.9. Second Isomorphism Theorem. Let K ≤ H E G, K E G. Then H/K E G/K and
(8.11) (G/K)/(H/K) ' G/H.
Proof. Let ϕ : G/K → G/H, gK 7→ gH. We have
(8.12) aK = bK ⇒ ab−1 ∈ K ⊆ H ⇒ aH = bH,
so the map is well defined. Evidently, ϕ is a homomorphism, with image ϕ(G/K) =

G/H and kernel
(8.13) ker ϕ = {gK : gH = H} = {gK : g ∈ H} = H/K.
The theorem now follows from the homomorphism theorem.

28 COURSE NOTES
8.10. Theorem. Let N E G and π : G → G/N the canonical epimorphism.

(1) If H ≤ G, then π(H) = HN/N ≤ G/N.
(2) If K ≤ G/N, then N ≤ π−1 (K) ≤ G and K = π−1 (K)/N.
(3) Let U = {H ≤ G : N ≤ H} (the set of subgroups of G that contain N) and
U = {K ≤ G/N} (the set of subgroups of G/N). Then the map
(8.14) U → U, H 7→ π(H)
is a bijection. Here π(H) E G/N if and only if H E G, and in this case |G : H| =
|G/N : π(H)|.
Proof. (1) and (2) follow from Theorem 3.7, with ϕ = π, G1 = G, H1 = H, G2 = G/N,
H2 = K. In particular, Theorem 3.7 (2) says that π−1 (K) ≤ G. The pre-image of the
identity in G/N is N and hence N ≤ π−1 (K). Therefore, K = π(π−1 (K)) = π−1 (K)/N.
To prove (3), note that in view of (1) and (2) we have N ≤ π−1 (π(H)) ≤ G. Obvi-
ously H ≤ π−1 (π(H)). Suppose there is an a ∈ π−1 (π(H)) with a ∈ / H. Then there
−1
exists b ∈ H such that π(a) = π(b), i.e., aN = bN, and so b a ∈ N. By assumption
N ≤ H so b−1 a ∈ H and hence a ∈ H, a contradiction. We conclude π−1 (π(H)) = H,
i.e., the map (8.14) is injective. As to the inverse, for K ≤ G/N we have K = π(π−1 (K)),
and so the map (8.14) is a bijection.
The statement “π(H) E G/N if and only if H E G” follows from Theorem 7.6, (1)
and (2). The last statement of the theorem follows from the second isomorphism
theorem, since |G : H| = |(G/N) : (H/N)| = |G/N : π(H)|.
8.11. Definition. A sequence of homomorphisms

ϕ ϕ ϕn−1
(8.15) G1 −→
1
G2 −→
2
· · · −−−→ Gn
is called exact if imϕi = ker ϕi+1 for all i = 1, . . . , n − 2.
8.12. Example. Consider the so-called short exact sequence

ϕ ψ
(8.16) {e} → H −
→G−
→ K → {e}.
The first homomorphism {e} → H can only be defined by e 7→ e. The same holds
for the last K → {e}. Assuming that the sequence is exact means that ker ϕ = {e},
im ψ = K and im ϕ = ker ψ. Thus ϕ is injective and ψ surjective. Corollary 8.4 then
says that ϕ(H) ' H, so H ' ker ψ. The homomorphism theorem on the other hand
yields K = ψ(G) ' G/ ker ψ = G/ϕ(H), i.e., K ' G/H.
The standard example of a short exact sequence is
ι π
(8.17) {e} → N −
→G−
→ G/N → {e}.
where N E G, π is the canonical epimorphism, and ι : g 7→ g the inclusion map.
9. D IRECT PRODUCTS
9.1. Definition. Let G1 , . . . , Gn be groups. We define their direct product (some-

times also referred to as outer direct product) as the set
(9.1) G = G1 × · · · × Gn = {(a1 , . . . , an ) : ai ∈ Gi (1 ≤ i ≤ n)}
with composition defined by
(9.2) (a1 , . . . , an ) ◦ (b1 , . . . , bn ) := (a1 b1 , . . . , an bn ).
9.2. Clearly the multiplication is associative, the identity is (e, . . . , e) and the inverse
(a−1 −1
1 , . . . , an ). Thus (G, ◦) is a group. We will also use the notations
Y
n
(9.3) G= Gi , Gn = G × G × · · · × G (n times).
i=1
If the group composition is addition, we write alternatively

n
M
(9.4) G= Gi = G1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Gn .
i=1
9.3. Theorem.
Q Q
(1) ni=1 Gi = ni=1 |Gi |.
Qn Qn
(2) Z i=1 Gi = i=1 Z(Gi ).
Qn
(3) i=1 Gi is abelian if and and only if every factor Gi is abelian.
Proof. (1) This is a standard result for products of sets.

Qn
(2) Set G = i=1 Gi . a = (a1 , . . . , an ) ∈ Z(G) is equivalent to ab = ba for all
b = (b1 , . . . , bn ) ∈ G, i.e., ai bi = bi ai for all i.
(3) This follows from (2), since G is abelian if and only if Z(G) = G.
9.4. Theorem. Let Gi (1 ≤ i ≤ n) be groups.

Q Q
(1) For every permutation π ∈ Sn , we have ni=1 Gi ' ni=1 Gπ(i) .
(2) Given integers 1 ≤ n1 < n2 < . . . < nr < n, we have
Q
(G1 × · · · × Gn1 ) × (Gn1 +1 × · · · × Gn2 ) × · · · (Gnr +1 · · · × Gn ) ' ni=1 Gi .
Q Q
(3) If there are groups G̃i such that G̃i ' Gi for all i, then ni=1 Gi ' ni=1 G̃i .
Proof. (1) The isomorphism is explicitly (a1 , . . . , an ) 7→ (aπ(1) , . . . , aπ(n) ).

(2) The relevant isomorphism is (a1 , . . . , an ) 7→ ((a1 , . . . , an1 ), . . . , (anr +1 , . . . , an )).
(3) Let ϕi : Gi → G̃i be the corresponding isomorphisms. Then (a1 , . . . , an ) 7→
(ϕ1 (a1 ), . . . , ϕn (an )) gives the desired isomorphism.
30 COURSE NOTES
Q
9.5. As before, consider G = i Gi . Let us denote by E = {e} the trivial group, and
set
(9.5) Gi0 = Ei−1 × Gi × En−i = {(e, . . . , e, ai , e, . . . , e) : ai ∈ Gi }.
The map ϕi : Gi → G, ai 7→ (e, . . . , e, ai , e, . . . , e) defines an isomorphism from Gi

to Gi0 . Clearly Gi0 is a subgroup of G. [This also follows abstractly from Theorem 3.7
(1).] In fact Gi0 E G, since g(e, . . . , e, ai , e, . . . , e)g−1 = (e, . . . , e, gi ai g−1 0
i , e, . . . , e) ∈ Gi
for all g = (g1 , . . . , gn ). Furthermore, (a1 , . . . , an ) = ϕ1 (a1 ) · · · ϕn (an ) and therefore
Y
(9.6) G = G10 G20 · · · Gn0 = Gi0 .
i
Q
[Note that here the symbol has a different meaning than in (9.3), but we will see
later that the two are essentially the same (Theorem 9.12).]
Because the elements of Gi0 are of the form (e, . . . , e, ai , e, . . . , e) and the elements
Q
of j6=i Gj0 are of the form (a1 , . . . , ai−1 , e, ai+1 , . . . , an ), we see that
Y
(9.7) Gi0 ∩ Gj0 = En = {e},
j6=i
i.e., the trivial subgroup in G.
9.6. Definition. A group G is called inner direct product of the normal subgroups
N1 , . . . , Nk E G if
(1) G = N1 N2 · · · Nk ,
Q
(2) Ni ∩ j6=i Nj = {e}.
9.7. Note that our analysis in 9.5 shows that the outer direct product G = G1 × · · · ×
Gn is in fact an inner direct product G = G10 · · · Gn0 with Gi0 ' Gi .
9.8. Example. The Klein four group {e, a, b, c} is an inner direct product of {e, a} and
{e, b} and hence isomorphic to Z2 × Z2 .
9.9. Theorem. Let G = N1 N2 · · · Nk be an inner direct product of the normal sub-

groups N1 , . . . , Nk . Then:
(1) If i 6= j then ab = ba for all a ∈ Ni , b ∈ Nj .
(2) Every a ∈ G has the unique factorization a = a1 · · · ak with ai ∈ Ni .
9.10. Exercise. Prove Theorem 9.9.

Here is a reversal of the previous theorem.
9.11. Theorem. Let G1 , . . . , Gk ≤ G such that the following hold:

(1) If i 6= j then ab = ba for all a ∈ Gi , b ∈ Gj .
(2) Every a ∈ G has the unique factorization a = a1 · · · ak with ai ∈ Gi .
Then G1 , . . . , Gk E G and G is the inner direct product of the Gi .
Proof. Let a = a1 · · · ak be the unique factorization of a ∈ G. Due to the commu-

tativity in (1) we have for every b ∈ Gi that aba−1 = ai ba−1 i ∈ Gi . Hence Gi E G.
We also know (by assumption) that G = G1 · · · Gn . This proves condition 9.6 (1) is
Q
satisfied. Let g ∈ Gi ∩ j6=i Gj , i.e., we have both g = e · · · egi e · · · e for some gi ∈ Gi
and g = g1 · · · gi−1 gi+1 · · · gk , for gj ∈ Gj . The uniqueness of factorization assumed in
(2) implies that gi = e for all i and therefore g = e. This proves condition 9.6 (2) is
satisfied.
The following theorem says that the notion of an outer and inner direct product
are essentially (i.e., up to isomorphism) the same.
9.12. Theorem. If G = N1 N2 · · · Nk is an inner direct product and every normal sub-

group Ni are isomorphic to a group Gi , then G is isomorphic to the outer direct
Q
product ki=1 Gi .
Proof. Because the factorization a = a1 · · · ak ∈ G, ai ∈ Ni is unique, the map
(9.8) ϕ : G → N1 × N2 × · · · × Nk , a 7→ (a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ),
is well defined. To prove that ϕ is an isomorphism, note that for a = a1 · · · ak ∈ G,

b = b1 · · · bk ∈ G, ai , bi ∈ Ni ,
ϕ(ab) = ϕ(a1 · · · ak b1 · · · bk )
= ϕ(a1 b1 · · · ak bk ) (since ai bj = bj ai for i 6= j)
(9.9) = (a1 b1 , . . . , ak bk )
= (a1 , . . . , ak )(b1 , . . . , bk )
= ϕ(a)ϕ(b).
So ϕ is a homomorphism. Since it is obviously bijective (the inverse map is (a1 , . . . , ak ) 7→
(a1 · · · ak ), it is an isomorphism. Hence G ' N1 × · · · × Nk . By Theorem 9.4 (3)
N1 × · · · × Nk ' G1 × · · · × Gk , which proves G ' G1 × · · · × Gk .
9.13. Theorem. Let Ni E Gi for i = 1, . . . , k, and set

Y
k Y
k
(9.10) G= Gi , N= Ni .
i=1 i=1
Then N E G and
Y
k
(9.11) G/N ' Gi /Ni .
i=1
32 COURSE NOTES
Proof. Let πi : Gi → Gi /Ni be the canonical epimorphisms. Then

Y
k
(9.12) π:G→ Gi /Ni , (a1 , . . . , ak ) 7→ (π1 (a1 ), . . . , πk (ak )),
i=1
is homomorphism with kernel N. By Theorem 7.13, N is normal and the Theorem

follows from the Homomorphism Theorem.
9.14. Corollary. Let G = G1 × G2 . Then G1 ' G/(E × G2 ).
9.15. Theorem.
(1) The direct product of two cyclic groups with coprime order is cyclic.
(2) If a cyclic group has order mn, with m, n coprime, then it is isomorphic to the
direct product of two cyclic groups of order m and n, respectively.
We rewrite this theorem in following equivalent (by Theorem 8.5) form:
9.16. Theorem. If m, n ∈ N are coprime, then Zmn ' Zm × Zn .

Proof. Since Zmn has order mn, we know that (cf. Theorem 5.11 and its proof) hmi and
hni are cyclic subgroups of Zmn of order n and m respectively. Now by Corollary 6.19
hmi ∩ hni = {e}. Now since m, n are coprime, the Bézout’s theorem says that there
are integers k, l ∈ Z such that km + ln = 1. Hence hkm + hln = h for all h ∈ Z,
and, modulo mn, we have (hk)m + (hl)n = h. Therefore Zmn = hmi + hni, and,
by definition, Zmn is an inner direct product and hence isomorphic to an outer direct
product of hmi ' Zn and hni ' Zm .
9.17. Exercise. Prove the following corollary:
9.18. Corollary. Let p1 , . . . , pr be distinct primes. A group G of order pk1 1 · · · pkr r is

cyclic if and only if
(9.13) G ' Zpk1 × · · · × Zpkr r

1
9.19. Corollary. (Chinese Remainder Theorem.) Given m, n ∈ N coprime, and a, b ∈

Z, then there is x ∈ Z such that
(9.14) x ≡ a mod m, x ≡ b mod n.
Proof. The map ϕ : Z → Zm × Zn , x 7→ (x, x), is a homomorphism with kernel mnZ.

The homomorphism theorem and Theorem 9.16 imply that
(9.15) ϕ(Z) ' Z/mnZ = Zmn ' Zm × Zn .
This means ϕ is surjective, which proves the claim.
9.20. Definition. A function f : Z → C is called multiplicative, if for all coprime

m, n ∈ Z,
(9.16) f(m)f(n) = f(mn).

9.21. Corollary. Euler’s ϕ function is multiplicative.

Proof. a, b are generators of Zm , Zn respectively, if and only if (a, b) is a generator of
Zm × Zn . Because of Corollary 5.10 the number of generators is therefore ϕ(m)ϕ(n).
On the other hand, since Zm × Zn ' Zmn , the number of generators is ϕ(mn). We
conclude
(9.17) ϕ(m)ϕ(n) = ϕ(mn).

9.22. Exercise. Let H, K be normal subgroups of the finite group G, with gcd(|H|, |K|) =
1. Show that
(1) H ∩ K = {e}.
(2) hk = kh for all h ∈ H, k ∈ K.
(3) HK ' H × K.
34 COURSE NOTES
10. G ROUP ACTIONS
10.1. Definition. Let G be a group and X a non-empty set. We say G acts on X, if

there is a map · : G × X → X such that
(1) (gh) · x = g · (h · x),
(2) e · x = x,
for all g, h ∈ G, x ∈ X. The map · is called the group action, or G action.
In other words, the above conditions ensure that a group action is compatible with
group multiplication.
10.2. Theorem. Suppose G acts on X. Then
(10.1) R(G) = {(x, y) ∈ X × X : (∃g ∈ G)(g · x = y)}
is an equivalence relation.
Proof. Since e · x = x we have (x, x) ∈ R(G) for all x ∈ X. Next, if (x, y) ∈ R(G), i.e.,
g · x = y for some g ∈ G, then
(10.2) g−1 · y = g−1 · (g · x) = (g−1 g) · x = e · x = x,
and so (y, x) ∈ R(G). Finally if (x, y), (y, z) ∈ R(G), i.e., g · x = y, h · y = z for some
g, h ∈ G, then
(10.3) (hg) · x = h · (g · x) = h · y = z,
and so (x, z) ∈ R(G).
10.3. Theorem 10.2 implies that X can be written as a disjoint union of equivalence
classes with respect to R(G). The equivalence class of x ∈ X is explicitly
[x] = {y ∈ X : (x, y) ∈ R(G)} (by definition)
= {y ∈ X : (∃g ∈ G)(g · x = y)} (by definition of R(G))
(10.4)
= {g · x : g ∈ G}
= G · x.
Hence,
[
(10.5) X= G · x.
x∈X
and
(10.6) G·x=G·y ⇔ [(∃g ∈ G)(g · x = y)].
10.4. Definition. The equivalence classes G · x are called the orbits of G in X.
10.5. Definition. The set Gx := {g ∈ G : g · x = x} is called the stabiliser of x ∈ X in

G.
10.6. Theorem. Let G act on X. Then Gx ≤ G for every x ∈ X and
(10.7) |G · x| = |G : Gx |.
Proof. If h ∈ Gx then also h−1 ∈ Gx , since
(10.8) h−1 · x = h−1 · (h · x) = (h−1 h) · x = e · x = x.
If h, h 0 ∈ Gx , we have hh 0 ∈ Gx , since
(10.9) (hh 0 ) · x = h · (h 0 · x) = h · x = x.
Hence Gx ≤ G.
To prove (10.7), consider the map
(10.10) G · x → G/Gx , g · x 7→ gGx .
This map is a well-defined and bijective, since
(10.11) g · x = g 0 · x ⇔ g−1 g 0 ∈ Gx ⇔ gGx = g 0 Gx .
10.7. Corollary. If G is finite, then for every x ∈ X the number of elements in G · x

divides |G|.
Proof. Apply (10.7) and Lagrange’s Theorem.
10.8. Exercise. Prove that:

(1) For every g ∈ G, Gg·x = gGx g−1 .
(2) Gx E G if and only if Gx = Gy for all y ∈ G · x.
10.9. Definition. The subset V ⊆ X is called a representative set for the orbits G · x,
if
(1) For every x ∈ X there is a v ∈ V such that G · x = G · v,
6 b for a, b ∈ V then G · a 6= G · b.
(2) If a =
The elements of V are called representatives.
10.10. With this notion we have

[ X
(10.12) X= G · x (disjoint union), |X| = |G : Gx |.
x∈V x∈V
10.11. Definition. An element x ∈ X is called a fixed point of the G action, if g · x = x

for all g ∈ G. We denote by
(10.13) FixG (X) := {x ∈ X : g · x = x for all g ∈ G}
the fixed point set of the G action.

36 COURSE NOTES
10.12. Exercise. Let G = GL(2, R) and X = R2 .

(1) Show that the map
! !! !
a b x ax + by
(10.14) G × X → X, , 7→ ,
c d y cx + dy
defines a G action.
(2) What are the orbits and fixed point sets of this G action?
10.13. Exercise. Let H ≤ G, and define H action by restricting the map (10.14) to
H × X. Calculate the orbits and fixed point sets in the following cases:
(1) H =
SO(2). !
a 0
(2) H = : a ∈ R>0 .
0 a
!
a 0
(3) H = : a ∈ R>0 .
0 a−1
!
1 x
(4) H = :x∈R .
0 1
* !+
0 −1
(5) H = .
1 0
10.14. Note that x ∈ FixG (X) if and only if G · x = {x}, i.e., Gx = G, i.e., |G : Gx | = 1.
Therefore x ∈ V and we can write (10.12) as
[ X
(10.15) X = FixG (X) ∪ G · x, |X| = | FixG (X)| + |G : Gx |.
x∈V x∈V
|G:Gx |>1 |G:Gx |>1
10.15. Fixed Point Theorem. Let G be a group of order pr , p prime. If G acts on a

finite set X, then
(10.16) |X| ≡ | FixG (X)| mod p.
In particular, if p does not divide |X|, there is at least one fixed point.
Proof. (10.15) says that

X
(10.17) |X| − | FixG (X)| = |G : Gx |.
x∈V
|G:Gx |>1
By Lagrange’s Theorems every summand on the right hand side divides pr . Since
|G : Gx | > 1 we have |G : Gx | = pl for some l ≥ 1. Hence |G : Gx | is in particular
divisible by p.
10.16. Example. Let G be a group, X ⊆ G a subset and X = {gXg−1 : g ∈ G} the

family of subsets conjugate to X. The relation
(10.18) g · Y = gYg−1
defines an action of G on X. Note that there is only one orbit. In this case the stabiliser
of X equals the normaliser of X,
(10.19) GX = NG (X) = {g ∈ G : gX = Xg}.
Theorem 10.6 gives
(10.20) |X| = |G : NG (X)|.
If we choose X = H ≤ G is a subgroup, we have the following.
10.17. Theorem. The number of distinct subgroups conjugate to H in G is equal to

|G : NG (H)|.
10.18. Example. The inner automorphism g · x := ϕg (x) = gxg−1 (recall Definition

2.16) defines a G action on itself (i.e., G = X). In this case the stabiliser Gx is the
normalizer NG (x), and the fixed point set FixG (G) is the center Z(G). Equation (10.15)
translates to
X
(10.21) |G| = |Z(G)| + |G : NG (x)|.
x∈V
|G:NG (x)|>1
This in turn implies:
10.19. Theorem. If G is a group of order pr , p prime, then its center Z(G) is non-
trivial, i.e. Z(G) 6= {e}.
Proof. Z(G), NG (x) are subgroups of G. By Lagrange’s theorem, |Z(G)| = pk for some
k = 0, . . . , r, and also |G : NG (x)| = pl , for some l = 1, . . . , r. In view of (10.21), |Z(G)|
is therefore divisible by p, and hence k ≥ 1. That is, |Z(G)| > 1.
10.20. Definition. A G action on X is called transitive, if for every x, y ∈ X there is

g ∈ G such that g · x = y.
10.21. Example. The translations Rd × Rd → Rd , (a, x) 7→ (x + a) define a transitive

group action of G = (Rd , +) on X = Rd . This example is in fact a special case of the
following general observation:
10.22. Exercise. Let H ≤ G and X = G/H. Show that

(1) The map G × X → X, (g, aH) 7→ gaH, defines a G action on the left cosets
G/H.
(2) G acts transitively on G/H.
38 COURSE NOTES
11. S YLOW ’ S T HEOREMS
11.1. Lemma. Let n ∈ N and p prime such that n = pr m for some!m ∈ N with
n
gcd(m, p) = 1. Then, for every s = 1, . . . , r, pr−s+1 does not divide .
ps
Proof. We have
!
n n!
= (by definition)
ps ps !(n− ps )!
n(n − 1) · · · (n − ps + 1)
=
1 · 2 · · · ps
(11.1)
(n − 1) · · · (n − ps + 1)
= mpr−s
1 · 2 · · · (ps − 1)
!
n − 1
= mpr−s .
ps − 1
We thus need to show that the integer
Y mpr − i
! ps −1
n−1
(11.2) =
ps − 1 i=1
i
is not divisible by p. Let us write for each factor

mpr − i mpr−ti − ĩ
(11.3) =
i ĩ
where pti is the highest power with ti ≤ r that divides i, and i = pti ĩ. Since i ≤ ps −1,
we have in fact ti < s, so r − ti > 0, and gcd(ĩ, p) = 1.
If we assume that (11.2) is divisible by p, than at least one factor, say for i = j,
mpr − j mpr−tj − j̃
(11.4) =
j j̃
is divisible by p, and in particular p divides mpr−tj − j̃. Since r − tj > 0 (see above),
p divides j̃. But this contradicts gcd(j̃, p) = 1.
11.2. The First Sylow Theorem. Let G be a finite group of order n = pr m, with p
prime and gcd(m, p) = 1. Then, given any s = 1, . . . , r, there is a subgroup of order
ps .
Proof. Let
(11.5) Xs = {A ⊆ G : |A| = ps }
be the family of subsets of G, which

! have precisely ps elements. Elementary combi-
n
natorics tells us that |Xs | = . It is easy to check that A 7→ g · A := gA defines an
ps
action on the family X of subsets A of G. Since |gA| = |A|, it in fact defines an action
on Xs . We have therefore a decomposition into disjoint orbits,
[
(11.6) Xs = GA
A∈V
where V is a representative set. With Theorem 10.6 we have that

X X
!
n
(11.7) = |Xs | = |GA| = |G : GA |.
ps A∈V A∈V
By Lemma 11.1 the above is not divisible by pr−s+1 , hence at least one summand
|G : GA | is not divisible by pr−s+1 . Thus pr−s is the highest power of p that may divide
|G : GA |.
By assumption pr m = |G| = |G : GA | |GA |. We the previous observation this implies
that ps divides |GA |, and so |GA | ≥ ps .
Since GA is the stabilizer of A we have GA A = A, i.e., GA a ⊆ A for every a ∈ A.
Therefore |GA | = |GA a| ≤ |A| = ps .
Combining this with the above inequality yields |GA | = ps . This proves the exis-
tence of a subgroup of order ps .
11.3. Corollary. (Cauchy’s Theorem.) Let G be a finite group whose order is divisi-
ble by the prime p. Then G contains an element of order p.
Proof. By the First Sylow Theorem, G contains a subgroup H of order p. By Corollary

6.18 H is cyclic, and its generator thus has order p.
11.4. Definition. Let p be a prime. A group G is called p-group, if the order of every
element of G is a power of p.
k
That is, by Corollary 5.7, for every g ∈ G there is a k ≥ 0 such that gp = e.
11.5. Corollary. A finite group is a p-group, if and only if its order is a power of p.
Proof. If |G| = pl , then by Fermat’s Little Theorem 6.14, gp = e for all g, and hence
l
G is a p-group. If, on the other hand, |G| would be divisible by a prime q 6= p, then
(by the previous Theorem of Cauchy) G would have an element of order q, which
contradicts the assumption that G is a p-group.
11.6. Definition. Let G be a group. We say H is a p-subgroup of G if H ≤ G and H

is a p-group.
11.7. Definition. Let G be a group. A subgroup H ≤ G is called a p-Sylow group of

G, if
(1) H is a p-group.
(2) If K is is a p-subgroup of G such that H ⊆ K, then H = K.
40 COURSE NOTES
Note that (2) says that p-Sylow groups are maximal in the family of p-subgroup.
In particular, a p-group is equal to its (unique) p-Sylow group.
11.8. Theorem. Let G be a finite group of order n = pr m, with p prime and gcd(m, p) =
1. Then every subgroup of order pr is a p-Sylow group.
Proof. Let H ≤ G with |H| = pr . By Corollary 11.5 H is a p-group. Let K be a further

p-group with H ≤ K ≤ G . By Corollary 11.5 |K| = pl for some l. Since by Lagrange’s
Theorem |K| divides pr m, we have l ≤ r. Hence |K| ≤ |H| and thus K = H.
11.9. Corollary. Let G be a finite group of order n = pr m, with p prime and gcd(m, p) =
1. Then G contains at least one p-Sylow group of order pr .
Proof. The First Sylow Theorem shows that G contains a subgroup of order pr , which
by 11.8 is a p-Sylow group.
11.10. Lemma. If H ≤ G is a p-subgroup (resp. p-Sylow group), then, for any g ∈ G,

gHg−1 is a p-subgroup (resp. p-Sylow group).
Proof. Since x and gxg−1 have the same order, H is a p-subgroup if and only if gHg−1
is.
Let H be a p-Sylow group and assume gHg−1 < K for some p-subgroup K. Then
H < K 0 with the p-subgroup K 0 = g−1 Kg. But H < K 0 contradicts the assumption that
H is a p-Sylow group, cf. Definition 11.7 (2).
11.11. The Second Sylow Theorem. Let G be a finite group of order n = pr m, with p
prime and gcd(m, p) = 1, and let P be a p-Sylow group of G. Then, every p-subgroup
H of G is conjugate to a subgroup of P.
Proof. First assume P is a p-Sylow group of order pr . Consider the left cosets
(11.8) X := {gP : g ∈ G}.
Let H be a p-subgroup of G, and consider the H action
(11.9) H × X → X, (h, gP) 7→ (hg)P.
We decompose X into disjoint orbits,

[ X
(11.10) X= HgP, |X| = |HgP|.
g∈V g∈V
Now
|G| pr m
(11.11) |X| = |G : P| = = r = m,
|P| p
and thus p does not divide |X|. Therefore at least one of the summands in (11.10) is
not divisible by p, say |HaP|. On the other hand, by Corollary 10.7, |HaP| divides |H|,
but since |H| is a power of p, we find |HaP| = 1. We conclude from this that gP is a
fixed point under the H action, i.e., for all h ∈ H,
(11.12) haP = aP ⇔ a−1 haP = P ⇔ a−1 ha ∈ P ⇔ a−1 Ha ⊆ P,
and we have proved the Theorem for p-Sylow groups of order pr .

To extend the statement to a p-Sylow groups P 0 of arbitrary order, choose in the
above H = P 0 . Then a−1 P 0 a ⊆ P. By Lemma 11.10 a−1 P 0 a is a p-Sylow group,
and hence by Definition 11.7 (2) a−1 P 0 a = P, which implies |P 0 | = pr . So the above
restriction to order pr was in fact already dealing with the most general case.
We highlight the last argument of the above proof in the following statement.
11.12. Corollary. Let G be a finite group of order n = pr m, with p prime and gcd(m, p) =
1. Then:
(1) Every p-Sylow group has order pr .
(2) Every pair of p-Sylow groups of G are conjugate (and thus isomorphic).
11.13. Corollary. A p-Sylow group of a group G is normal in G if and only if P is the

only p-Sylow group of G.
Proof. Suppose P E G and P 0 ≤ G are p-Sylow groups of G. By Corollary 11.12 there

is x ∈ G such that P 0 = xPx−1 , and this = P since P is normal.
On the other hand, if P is a p-Sylow group, then so is gPg−1 for any g ∈ G (recall
Lemma 11.10). Since we assume P is the unique p-Sylow group, we have P = gPg−1
for all g ∈ G.
Recall that the normaliser NG (H) = {x ∈ G : xH = Hx} of a subgroup H ≤ G is the

largest subgroup of G in which H is normal. Hence NG (H)/H is a quotient group.
11.14. Lemma. Let P be a p-Sylow group of G. If a ∈ NG (P)/P has order pl for some
l ≥ 0, then a is the identity in NG (P)/P (i.e., a ∈ P).
Proof. The cyclic group hai has order pl and hence is a p-group. By Theorem 8.10
(2) there is a subgroup H [namely H = π−1 (hai)] such that P ≤ H ≤ NG (P) and
hai = H/P. Now |H| = |H/P| |P| and so |H| is a power of p, hence H is a p-group.
Definition 11.7 (2) implies H = P and thus hai = P/P = {e}.
11.15. Lemma. Let P be a p-Sylow group of G. If a ∈ G with ord a a power of p, and

aPa−1 = P, then a ∈ P.
Proof. Since aP = Pa we have a ∈ NG (P). The image of a under the canonical

epimorphism in NG (P)/P is also a power of p. The previous Lemma 11.14 implies
a ∈ P.
42 COURSE NOTES
11.16. The Third Sylow Theorem. Let G be a finite group whose order is divisible
by p. Then the number of p-Sylow groups of G divides |G| and is of the form kp + 1
for some k ≥ 0.
Proof. Denote by
(11.13) X = {P0 , P1 , P2 , . . . , Pr }
the collection of p-Sylow groups Pi of G. By Corollary 11.12,
(11.14) X = {gP0 g−1 : g ∈ G},
and by Theorem 10.17, |X| = |G : NG (P0 )| = |G|/|NG (P0 )|. Hence |X| divides |G|.
To prove the second part of the statement, define the action
(11.15) P × X → X, (h, X) 7→ hXh−1 .
Equation (10.15) yields
X
(11.16) |X| = | FixP (X)| + |P : PX |.
X∈V
|P:PX |>1
Now
(11.17) FixP (X) = {X ∈ X : hXh−1 = X for all h ∈ P}.
Since X is a p-Sylow group, Lemma 11.15 says that the condition hXh−1 = X for all
h ∈ P implies P ⊆ X and hence P = X by Definition 11.7 (2). Therefore
(11.18) FixP (X) = {P}, | FixP (X)| = 1,
and (11.16) becomes
X
(11.19) |X| = 1 + |P : PX |.
X∈V
|P:PX |>1
Since |P : PX | = |P|/|PX | are of the form pj for some j ≥ 0, we conclude that the terms
corresponding to |P : PX | > 1 are divisible by p.
12. A PPLICATIONS OF S YLOW ’ S T HEOREMS
12.1. We will know discuss some applications of Sylow’s theorems to the classifica-
tion of groups G of order pr . The simplest case is r = 1. Then by Corollary 6.18 G is
cyclic, and by Theorem 8.5 it is isomorphic to (Zp , +).
In the case r = 2 we know from Theorem 10.19 that the center Z(G) is non-trivial,
i.e., |Z(G)| > 1 and hence |Z(G)| = p or |Z(G)| = p2 . In the latter case Z(G) = G
and G is abelian. In the former case G/Z(G) has order p and is thus cyclic (Corollary
6.18). This implies G is abelian (why?) and so Z(G) = G, which contradicts our
assumption |Z(G)| = p. We conclude that every group of order p2 is abelian. The
following theorem gives a complete classification:
12.2. Theorem. For every prime p there are, up to isomorphism, precisely two non-
isomorphic groups of order p2 ; these are Zp2 and Zp × Zp .
Proof. By Theorem 5.11, Zp2 has precisely one subgroup of order p, whereas Zp × Zp
has at least two: Zp × {0} and {0} × Zp . The two groups are therefore non-isomorphic.
Assume G has order p2 and is not isomorphic to Zp2 . This means G is not cyclic. By
Cauchy’s Theorem 11.3 there is a ∈ G with ord a = p. For b ∈ / hai we have ordb = p
2
or = p ; the latter is impossible since this would imply G is cyclic. So ord b = p and
|hbi| = p. Note that, since b ∈/ hai and any group of prime order cannot have non-
trivial subgroups, we have hai ∩ hbi = {e}. Clearly |haihbi| = |hai| |hbi| = p2 = |G| and
thus G = haihbi. By the first observation in 12.1 G is abelian, hence hai and hbi are
normal subgroups, and so Theorem 8.5 and Theorem 9.12 show that G ' Zp ×Zp .
The case r > 2 is harder; we have the following general theorem, which allows a
reduction to smaller r.
12.3. Theorem. Every group of order pr , p prime, has a normal subgroup of order
pr−1 .
Proof. Proof by induction. For r = 1 the statement is trivial. By Theorem 10.19, Z(G)
is non-trivial, i.e., |Z(G)| = pl , for l ≥ 1. The First Sylow Theorem guarantees the
existence of a subgroup N ≤ Z(G) of order p, which (as a subgroup of the center) is
normal. Then |G/N| = |G|/|N| = pr−1 . By assumption, the group G/N has a normal
subgroup K of order pr−2 . By Theorem 8.10 (2) there is a subgroup K with N ≤ K E G,
such that K = K/N. Finally, pr−2 = |K| = |K|/|N| = |K|/p implies |K| = pr−1 .
Iterated application of the above theorem proves:
12.4. Corollary. Let G be a finite group of order pr , p prime. Then there are groups
Gi (i = 0, . . . , r) of order pi such that
(12.1) {e} = G0 E G1 E G2 E . . . E Gr−1 E Gr = G.

44 COURSE NOTES
12.5. Theorem. Let G be a finite group of order pq, with p < q both prime. Then
(1) G contains precisely one q-Sylow group of order q.
(2) If q 6= kp + 1 for all k ≥ 0, then G is cyclic.
Proof. (1) Corollary 11.9 shows that there is at least one q-Sylow group. Furthermore,
any such group has of order q (cf. Theorem 11.8). Let sq be the number of the q-Sylow
groups of G. By the Third Sylow Theorem, sq divides |G|, so sq ∈ {1, p, q, pq}, and
furthermore is of the form sq = kq + 1, for some k ≥ 0. The only consistent choice
is sq = 1, since p = kq + 1 implies p > q (contradicting our assumption p < q),
q = kq + 1 implies q > q, and pq = kq + 1 implies that q divides 1, which is false.
(2) The plan is to prove G ' Zp × Zq , which, by Theorem 9.16 is equivalent to
G ' Zpq , and thus establishes that G is cyclic. Let sp be the number of the p-Sylow
groups of G. Again, by the Third Sylow Theorem, sp divides |G|, so sp ∈ {1, p, q, pq},
and in addition is of the form sp = kp + 1, for some k ≥ 0. And again, sp = 1 is the
only possibility, since sp = p, pq are ruled out since p does not divide 1, and sp = q
violates the assumption of (2). Hence we have precisely one subgroup Hp of order p
and precisely one subgroup Hq of order q. By Corollary 6.19 Hp ∩ Hq = {e}. Therefore
Theorem 8.5 and Theorem 9.12 imply that G ' Zp × Zq (cf. the proof of Theorem
12.2).
12.6. Corollary. There are precisely two (up to isomorphism) groups of order 2p, p
prime; these are Z2p and the dihedral group Dp .
Proof. Let G be a group of order 2p. The statement for p = 2 follows from Theorem
12.2. For p > 2 we now from the previous proof that sp = 1 and s2 = 1 or s2 = p.
We have seen that s2 = 1 implies G is cyclic, i.e., G ' Z2p . If s2 = p, then we have p-
subgroups of order 2. Let P be the unique p-Sylow group of order p. P is then normal
(Corollary 11.13) and cyclic, say P = hai. We have the coset decomposition G = P∪bP
with b ∈ G \ P. There are three possibilities: ord b = 2, p, 2p. If ord b = p, then |hbi| =
p which implies hbi = P by the uniqueness of P—a contradiction. If ord b = 2p
then G is cyclic and there is precisely one 2-Sylow-group—a contradiction. Hence
ord b = 2. Since also G = P ∪ abP, by the same reasoning ord(ab) = 2. We conclude
(12.2) G = {e, a, a2 , . . . , ap−1 , b, ba, ba2 , . . . , bap−1 }
with ord a = p, ord b = ord(ab) = 2, and so G = Dp in this case.
12.7. Lemma. If P is a p-Sylow group of the finite group G, then NG (NG (P)) =
NG (P).
Proof. By Corollary 11.13, P is the unique p-Sylow group of NG (P). If x ∈ NG (NG (P))
then xNG (P)x−1 ⊆ NG (P), and (because P ⊆ NG (P)) we have xPx−1 ⊆ NG (P). Since
also xPx−1 is p-Sylow, we have by uniqueness xPx−1 = P. So x ∈ NG (P) and so
NG (NG (P)) ⊆ NG (P). Recall NG (P) ⊆ NG (NG (P)) by definition.
12.8. Definition. We say a group G satisfies the normaliser condition if H < G im-
plies H < NG (H).
12.9. Lemma. Assume the finite group G satisfies the normaliser condition. Then
for every prime p dividing |G| there is precisely one p-Sylow group of G.
Proof. Let P be a p-Sylow group of G. By the previous lemma NG (NG (P)) = NG (P),
and so the normaliser condition rules NG (P) < G out, i.e., we have in fact NG (P) = G.
Hence P E G, and Corollary 11.13 completes the proof.
12.10. Theorem. Assume the finite group G satisfies the normaliser condition, and
let p1 , . . . , pr be the primes dividing |G|. Then
(12.3) G = Gp1 · · · Gpr
with the p-Sylow groups
(12.4) Gp := {x ∈ G : ord x = pk for some k ≥ 0}.
Proof. hxi is a p-group, and so hxi ≤ Hp , where Hp is the unique p-Sylow group of G
constructed in Lemma 12.9. Hence Gp ≤ Hp . Trivially, Hp ≤ Gp . Exercise 9.17 yields
that
(12.5) Gp1 · · · Gpr ' Gp1 × · · · × Gpr .
Since the outer direct product has the same order as G, it is isomorphic to G, and the
proof is complete.
12.11. Exercise. Let G be a group of order 12, and s2 and s3 the number of 2- resp.
3-Sylow groups in G.
(1) Which numbers are possible for s2 and s3 ? Justify your answer.
(2) Show that it is not possible to have s2 = 3 and s3 = 4 simultaneously.
(3) Show that, if s2 = s3 = 1, then G is abelian and there are two possible choices
of G.
12.12. Exercise. Determine all groups of order 8 (up to isomorphism).

46 COURSE NOTES
13. F INITELY GENERATED ABELIAN GROUPS
13.1. It is no surprise that the structure of abelian groups is easier to analyze than
that of more general groups. It is traditional to use the symbol + for the group com-
position “addition”), ) for the neutral element, −g for the inverse of g, and call the
direct product × of abelian groups the direct sum, denoted by ⊕.
13.2. A finitely generated abelian group G = hg1 , . . . , gn i then consists of all linear
combinations of the form m1 g1 +. . . mn gn with mi ∈ Z. Note that a finitely generated
abelian group is not necessarily finite; one example of an infinite, finitely generated
abelian group is Z.
13.3. The abelian group G is the direct sum of the subgroups G1 , . . . , Gn , if and only
if (1) every g ∈ G can be written g = g1 + . . . + gn with gi ∈ Gi and (2) g1 + . . . + gn = 0
implies gi = 0 for all i.
13.4. The p-Sylow groups of a finite abelian group G are easily described: Let p be
a prime dividing |G|. Then
(13.1) Gp = {x ∈ G : pk x = 0 for some k ≥ 0}
is the unique p-Sylow group of G, cf. Lemma 12.9 (note that every abelian group
satisfies the normaliser condition). Theorem 12.10 furthermore shows:
13.5. Corollary. Every finite abelian group is the direct sum of its p-Sylow groups.
The following provides a complete description of all finitely generated abelian
groups.
13.6. Theorem. An abelian group is finitely generated, if and only if it is the direct
sum of finitely many cyclic groups. In this case
(13.2) G ' Zpk1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Zprkr ⊕ Z ⊕ · · · ⊕ Z,

1
with (not necessarily distinct) primes p1 , . . . , pr .

(The numbers pk1 1 , . . . , pkr r and the number of Z factors are in fact uniquely deter-
mined by G, but we will not prove this here.)
Proof. Assume G is the direct sum of finitely many cyclic groups. Then the generators
of the cyclic groups form a finite generating set for G.
On the other hand, assume G is generated by n elements, a1 , . . . , an , with n mini-
mal (i.e., there is no generating set with less than n elements). We proceed by induc-
tion on n. If n = 1, then G is cyclic.
If in the case of general n, for any minimal set of generators a1 , . . . , an we have
that m1 a1 + . . . + mn an = 0 implies mi ai = 0 for all i, then by 13.3
(13.3) G = ha1 i ⊕ · · · ⊕ han i.

Suppose this is not the case, i.e., there is a minimal set of generators such that m1 a1 +
. . . + mn an = 0 has a solution with at least one mi ai 6= 0. What we will show is that
G can still be written as a direct product of cyclic groups.
Assume without loss of generality that all mi ≥ 0 (replace ai by −ai if necessary,
−ai will still be a generator). Let m > 0 be the smallest non-zero coefficient that
can appear for any choice of generators. Without loss of generality, we may assume
m = m1 (if necessary, relabel the ai in different order).
Let us prove the following:
Claim 1. If m10 a1 + . . . + mn0 an = 0 for some mi0 ∈ Z≥0 , then m divides m10 .
Claim 2. m divides mi for all i.
Proof of Claim 1. Write m10 = hm + r with 0 ≤ r < m. Then

X n X
n Xn
0
(13.4) 0= m i ai − h mi ai = ra1 + (mi0 − hmi )ai .
i=1 i=1 i=2
Because m is smallest possible positive coefficient and r < m, we find that r = 0.
Proof of Claim 2. Write m2 = s2 m + r with 0 ≤ r < m. Then

X
n X
n X
n
(13.5) 0= mi ai = ma1 + ms2 a2 + ra2 + m i ai = ma10 + ra2 + m i ai
i=1 i=3 i=3
with a10 = a1 + s2 a2 . Now {a10 , a2 , . . . , an } is a minimal generating set. As above,

Because m is smallest possible positive coefficient and r < m, we find that r = 0.
This proves the claim for m2 . The same argument of course also yields the claim for
m3 , m4 , . . . , mn .
Let mi = si m1 and set
(13.6) a∗1 := a1 + s2 a2 + . . . + sn an .
Then
X
n
(13.7) m1 a∗1 = m1 a1 + m1 s2 a2 + . . . + m1 sn an = mi ai = 0.
i=1
Let us now show

Claim 3.
(13.8) G = ha∗1 i ⊕ ha2 , . . . , an i.
Proof. Note that G = ha∗1 , a2 , . . . , an i, and for g ∈ ha∗1 i ∩ ha2 , . . . , an i we have
(13.9) g = k1 a∗1 = k2 a2 + . . . + kn an ,
i.e.,
k1 a∗1 − k2 a2 + . . . + kn an = 0.

(13.10)
48 COURSE NOTES
Using (13.6),
(13.11) k1 a1 + (k1 s1 − k2 )a2 + . . . . . . + (k1 sn − kn )an = 0.
Claim 1 now implies k1 = hm1 and so g = k1 a∗1 = hm1 a∗1 = 0 (since m1 a∗1 = 0). So
g = 0 and Claim 3 is proved.
By the induction hypothesis, ha2 , . . . , an i is the direct sum of finitely many cyclic
groups. Claim 3 thus concludes the proof of the first part of the Theorem.
The isomorphism (13.2) follows from the facts that every cyclic group is isomor-
phic to Z or Zn (for some n ∈ N), and that Zn can be written as a direct sum of groups
of the form Zpk (Corollary 9.18).
13.7. Exercise. Let G be a finitely generated abelian group. Prove that, if every g ∈ G
has finite order, then G is finite.
14. T HE SYMMETRIC GROUP
14.1. Definition. Let X be a set and consider the set S(X) of bijective maps f : X → X,
and denote by ◦ the usual composition of maps. Then (S(X), ◦), or S(X) for short, is
called the symmetric group of X (often also the group of permutations of X).
14.2. Exercise. Prove that the symmetric group is indeed a group.
14.3. An important example is the symmetric group of N, S(N), and the group of
permutations of n elements, Sn := S({1, 2, . . . , n}), which we view as a subgroup of
Sn+1 and of S(N). It follows from elementary combinatorics that |Sn | = n!.
14.4. An element f ∈ Sn is often represented as

!
1 2 ··· n
(14.1) .
f(1) f(2) · · · f(n)
For the product f ◦ g we have

! !
1 2 ··· n 1 2 ··· n
(14.2)
f(1) f(2) · · · f(n) g(1) g(2) · · · g(n)
!
1 2 ··· n
=
f(g(1)) f(g(2)) · · · f(g(n)).
For example (n = 5):

! ! !
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
(14.3) = .
3 1 5 4 2 5 4 1 2 3 2 4 3 1 5
The inverse of f is calculated by swapping top and bottom rows,

!
f(1) f(2) · · · f(n)
(14.4)
1 2 ··· n
and re-arranging the columns in such a way that the top row appears in the correct
order. For example
!−1 !
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
(14.5) = .
3 1 5 4 2 2 5 1 4 3
14.5. Example. The Klein four group can be realized as the following subgroup of
S4 :
! ! !
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
(14.6) V4 = e = id, a = , b= , c= .
2 1 4 3 3 4 1 2 4 3 2 1
50 COURSE NOTES
14.6. It is convenient to reduce the notation by ignoring those elements that remain
unchanged, e.g.,
! !
1 2 3 5 1 2 3 4 5
(14.7) := .
3 1 5 2 3 1 5 4 2
The above transformation corresponds to the substitutions
(14.8) 1 7→ 3 7→ 5 7→ 2 7→ 1, 4 7→ 4,
and is in fact completely characterized by the notation (1, 3, 5, 2) (or any cyclic per-
mutation thereof). This motivates the following:
14.7. Definition. A permutation f ∈ Sn is called r-cycle, if there is a (not necessarily

ordered) subset
(14.9) I = {i1 , . . . , ir } ⊆ {1, . . . , n}
such that
(14.10) f(ik ) = ik+1 (1 ≤ k < r), f(ir ) = i1 , f(m) = (m) (m ∈

/ I).
We use the notation
(14.11) f = (i1 , . . . , ir ).
A two-cycle is also called a transposition.
14.8. Note that the condition f(ir ) = i1 is superfluous; it is implied by the other
assumptions. The only one-cycle is the identity id = (i), for any i ∈ N. It is customary
to use (1). Here are a few calculation rules for the cycle notation:
14.9. Theorem.
(1) (i1 , i2 , . . . , ir ) = (im+1 mod r , . . . , im+r mod r ) for all m ∈ Z (i.e., a cycle is invariant
under cyclic permutations).
(2) (i1 , . . . , ir ) = (i1 , . . . , ij )(ij , . . . , ir ) (2 ≤ j ≤ r − 1).
(3) (i1 , . . . , ir ) = (i1 , i2 )(i2 , i3 ) · · · (ir−2 , ir−1 )(ir−1
! , ir ).
i1 ... ir
(4) (i1 , . . . , ir )m = .
im+1 mod r . . . im+r mod r
(5) ord(i1 , . . . , ir ) = r.
(6) (i1 , . . . , ir )−1 = (ir , ir−1 , . . . , i1 ).
(7) f(i1 , . . . , ir )f−1 = (f(i1 ), . . . , f(ir )).
Proof. (1)–(6) are left as exercises. As to (7), since g 7→ fgf−1 is an automorphism,

it is in view of (3) sufficient to prove the claim for transpositions. We have for the
permutation f(i, j)f−1 of the element k



 / {i, j},
if f−1 (k) ∈


k
(14.12) f(i, j)f−1 (k) = f(i) if f−1 (k) = j,



f(j) if f−1 (k) = i.
Thus f(i, j)f−1 = (f(i), f(j)).
14.10. Theorem. Let n ∈ N, and set


(l) (l = n + 1)
(14.13) fl =
(l, n + 1) (1 ≤ l ≤ n).
Then we have the decomposition

n+1
[
(14.14) Sn+1 = fl Sn
l=1
into disjoint cosets fl Sn .
Proof. Let f ∈ Sn+1 . If f(n + 1) = n + 1 then f ∈ Sn = fn+1 Sn . If f(n + 1) = l for some

l ≤ n, then fl f(n + 1) = fl (l) = n + 1, so fl f ∈ Sn . Since fl = f−1
l we have f ∈ fl Sn .
Hence (14.14) is proved. To show the cosets are disjoint, note that
fk Sn = fl Sn ⇔ f−1
l fk Sn = Sn
⇔ f−1
l fk (n + 1) = n + 1
(14.15)
⇔ fk (n + 1) = fl (n + 1)
⇔k=l
since fl (n + 1) = l for 1 ≤ l ≤ n + 1.
14.11. The above theorem implies that |Sn+1 : Sn | = n + 1. Thus, via Lagrange’s
Theorem, |Sn+1 | = (n + 1)|Sn |, and we recover (by induction on n) the classical com-
binatorial result |Sn | = n!.
14.12. Corollary. Every permutation f ∈ Sn (n ≥ 2) can be represented as a product

of transpositions. (That is, Sn is generated by its transpositions.)
Proof by induction. For n = 2, S2 is the group of 2! = 2 elements {(1), (1, 2)}, where
(1) = (1, 2)(1, 2). Hence S2 = h(1, 2)i. If f ∈ Sn+1 , then Theorem 14.10 says that
f = fl g where fl is a transposition (or the identity) and g ∈ Sn . By the induction
hypothesis g is a product of transpositions, and therefore the same is true for f.
52 COURSE NOTES
14.13. Note that in fact Sn = h(1, 2), (1, 3), . . . , (1, n)i, since (i, j) = (1, i)(1, j)(1, i):
1 i j
i 1 j
i j 1
1 j i
14.14. Definition. Two cycles f = (i1 , . . . , ir ) and g = (j1 , . . . , js ) are called disjoint,
if {i1 , . . . , ir } ∩ {j1 , . . . , js } = ∅.
14.15. Theorem. Disjoint cycles commute.
Proof. We have fg(m) = m = gf(m) if m ∈ / {i1 , . . . , ir } ∪ {j1 , . . . , js }. Furthermore for

m ∈ {i1 , . . . , ir } (and thus by assumption m ∈ / {j1 , . . . , js }) we have fg(m) = f(m) =
gf(m), since f(m) ∈ {i1 , . . . , ir } and thus f(m) ∈/ {j1 , . . . , js }. The analogous argument
applies when m ∈ {j1 , . . . , js }.
14.16. Theorem. Every permutation f ∈ Sn can be expressed as a unique product of

disjoint cycles (up to ordering). [This product is called the canonical factorisation of
f.]
Proof. Let X = {1, 2, . . . , n}, and

[ t
[
(14.16) X= hfix = Xi
x i=1
the decomposition of X into disjoint orbits of the action of the cyclic subgroup hfi ≤
Sn . Define

f(j) (j ∈ X )
i
(14.17) fi (j) :=
j (j ∈
/ Xi ).
If Xi comprises only one element, then fi = id. If, say, X1 , . . . , Xk are orbits with more
than one element, then f1 , . . . , fk are disjoint cycles, since fi (jl ) = f(jl ) = jl+1 for all
jl ∈ {j1 , . . . , jm } = Xi ; this is a consequence of the fact that Xi is an orbit of the cyclic
group hfi. We therefore have f = f1 · · · fk . Note that Xi is the only non-trivial orbit
(i.e., it has more than one element) of the action of hfi i.
To show uniqueness, suppose f = g1 . . . gl is a different factorisation into disjoint
cycles, and let Yi be the non-trivial orbit of hgi i. Since the action of hfi and hgi i on Yi
are the same, Yi is also an orbit of hfi. If x ∈ X is not changed by at least one gi , then
f(x) = x. Hence hfi has no further non-trivial orbits than Y1 , . . . , Yl . But this implies
k = l, X1 = Y1 , X2 = Y2 , etc. (after suitably relabeling the Yi ). Now gi |Xi = f|Xi = fi |Xi ,
and one the complement gi |Xci = id = fi |Xci , and hence fi = gi .
14.17. Definition. The signature (f) of a permutation f ∈ Sn is defined as
(14.18) (f) = (−1)s ,
where s is the minimal number of transpositions f1 , . . . , fs such that f = f1 · · · fs .

The following theorem shows that in fact formula (14.18) is valid even if f = f1 · · · fs
is a not a minimal factorisation, and furthermore provides an explicit formula for
(s).
14.18. Theorem. For n ≥ 2, the map
(14.19) : Sn → {−1, 1}, f 7→ (f),
is a homomorphism from Sn to the multiplicative group {−1, 1}. Furthermore

(1) (f) = (−1)s if f is a product of s transpositions;
Q
(2) (f) = 1≤i<j≤n f(i)−f(j)
i−j
.
Proof. Let us take (2) as the definition of and then show the remaining statements,
including (14.18). For f, g ∈ Sn we have
Y f(g(i)) − f(g(j))
(fg) =
1≤i<j≤n
i−j
Y f(g(i)) − f(g(j)) Y g(i) − g(j)
=
1≤i<j≤n
g(i) − g(j) 1≤i<j≤n i−j
Y f(i) − f(j) Y g(i) − g(j)
(14.20) =
i − j 1≤i<j≤n i−j
1≤g−1 (i)<g−1 (j)≤n
Y f(i) − f(j) Y g(i) − g(j)
=
1≤i<j≤n
i − j 1≤i<j≤n i−j
= (f)(g).
The equality before last follows from the fact that f(i)−f(j)
i−j
is invariant under the ex-
change of i and j.
To prove (1) (and thus in particular the original definition (14.18)) let (i, j) be a
transposition. By Theorem 14.9 (7) (i, j) = (g(1), g(2)) = g(1, 2)g−1 for any g such
that g(1) = i, g(2) = j. Because of (14.20), ((i, j)) = (g)((1, 2))(g)−1 = ((1, 2)).
Finally
Y f(1) − f(j) Y f(2) − f(j) Y f(i) − f(j)
((1, 2)) =
1<j≤n
1 − j 2<j≤n 2 − j 3≤i<j≤n i − j
(14.21) 2−1 Y 2−j Y 1−j Y i−j

=
1 − 2 2<j≤n 1 − j 2<j≤n 2 − j 3≤i<j≤n i − j
= −1.
Hence if f = f1 · · · fs with transpositions fi , we have (f) = (f1 ) · · · (fs ) = (−1)s .
54 COURSE NOTES
14.19. Note that the definition of is in fact independent of n. For f ∈ Sn−1 ≤ Sn (so
f(n) = n) we have
Y f(i) − f(j)
(f) =
1≤i<j≤n
i−j
Y f(i) − f(j) Y f(i) − f(n)
(14.22) =
1≤i<j≤n−1
i − j 1≤i<n i − n
Y f(i) − f(j)
= ,
1≤i<j≤n−1
i − j
since
Y f(i) − f(n) Y f(i) − n Qn−1 Qn−1
i=1 (f(i) − n) (i − n)
(14.23) = = Qn−1 = Qi=1
n−1
= 1.
1≤i<n
i−n 1≤i<n
i−n i=1 (i − n) i=1 (i − n)
By induction, we can apply this to f ∈ S2 ≤ Sn . In particular, for f = (1, 2)

f(1) − f(2) 2−1
(14.24) (f) = = = −1,
1−2 1−2
which short-cuts the calculation (14.21).
14.20. Corollary. The number of transpositions that can appear in the factorisation
of a given permutation f is always either even or odd.
Proof. f = f1 · · · fs = g1 · · · gr implies (f) = (−1)s = (−1)r .
14.21. Definition. A permutation is called even if (f) = 1, and odd if (f) = −1.
14.22. Example.
(1) The identity is even since (1) = (i, j)(j, i).
(2) All transpositions are odd.
(3) 3-cycles are even, since (i, j, k) = (i, j)(j, k).
(4) Theorem 14.9 shows that an r-cycle is even or odd, if r is odd or even, respec-
tively.
14.23. Consider the set of even permutations, An ⊆ Sn . For n ≥ 2
(14.25) f ∈ An ⇔ (f) = 1 ⇔ f ∈ ker
and hence An = ker . So An is a normal subgroup of Sn , called the alternating group

of degree n.
14.24. Example. A1 = A2 = {(1)}, A3 = {(1), (1, 2, 3), (1, 3, 2)}.
14.25. Theorem. For n ≥ 2, |An | = 21 n!.
Proof. The Homomorphism Theorem shows Sn /An ' {−1, 1} and so 2 = |{−1, 1}| =
|Sn /An | = |Sn |/|An | = n!/2.
14.26. Since An is the group of even permutations, every element in An can be rep-
resented as an even product of transpositions (assume n ≥ 3). Hence
(14.26) An = h{(i, j)(k, l) : 1 ≤ i < j ≤ n, 1 ≤ k < l ≤ n}.
The following is more useful.
14.27. Theorem. For n ≥ 3, An is generated by 3-cycles.

Proof. We have seen that 3-cycles are even and thus in An . Because of (14.26) is suf-
fices to show that every product of two transpositions can be written as a product of
3-cycles. We distinguish three cases (recall (i, j) = (j, i)):
(1) i, j, k, l distinct: (i, j)(k, l) = (i, j)(j, k)(j, k)(k, l) = (i, j, k)(j, k, l).
6 l, j = k: (i, j)(j, l) = (i, j, l).
(2) i =
(3) i = l, j = k: (i, j)(j, i) = (1).

14.28. Lemma. If n ≥ 5, then all 3-cycles are pairwise conjugate in An .

Proof. Since conjugacy is an equivalence relation, it is sufficient to show that any
cycle (i, j, k) is conjugate to (1, 2, 3). Since n ≥ 5 there are integers l, m ≤ n so that
i, j, k, l, m are distinct. Then one of
! !
1 2 3 4 5 6 ··· n 1 2 3 4 5 6 ··· n
(14.27) f = , g=
i j k l m 6 ··· n i j k m l 6 ··· n
is in An , since f and g differ by a transposition. By Theorem 14.9 (7)
(14.28) f(1, 2, 3)f−1 = (i, j, k), g(1, 2, 3)g−1 = (i, j, k),
and so (i, j, k) is conjugate to (1, 2, 3) in An .
14.29. Definition. A group G is called simple if G 6= {e} and {e} and G are the only
normal subgroups.
14.30. Theorem. (Jordan) An is simple if and only if n 6= 1, 2, 4.

Proof. The statement is obvious for n = 1, 2, 3.
A4 is not simple since
(14.29) {(1), (1, 2)(3, 4), (1, 3)(2, 4), (1, 4)(2, 3)}
forms a normal subgroup. (Exercise.) Assume n ≥ 5 in the following.
Let N 6= {e} be a normal subgroup of An . We will show below that N contains a 3-
cycle g. Then, since N is assumed normal, fgf−1 ∈ N for all f ∈ An . By Lemma 14.28,
every 3-cycle can be represented in this way and hence N contains every 3-cycle. But
this implies N = An in view of Theorem 14.27.
To prove that N contains a 3-cycle g, let a ∈ N, and a = a1 · · · at a canonical
factorisation into disjoint cycles.
56 COURSE NOTES
Case 1: Suppose the canonical factorisation contains one r-cycle with r ≥ 4. Since
ai commute, we may assume that this is the first cycle a1 = (i1 , i2 , i3 , . . . , ir ). Since N
is normal, we have for b = (i1 , i2 , i3 ) ∈ An that the following element is in N:
N 3 a(ba−1 b−1 ) = (aba−1 )b−1
= (a1 ba−1
1 )b
−1
= [(i1 , i2 , i3 , . . . , ir )(i1 , i2 , i3 )(i1 , i2 , i3 , . . . , ir )−1 ](i3 , i2 , i1 )

(14.30)
= (i2 , i3 , i4 )(i3 , i2 , i1 ) (Theorem 14.9 (7))
= (i4 , i2 , i3 )(i3 , i2 , i1 )
= (i4 , i2 , i1 ).
This yields the desired 3-cycle.
Case 2: Suppose the canonical factorisation of a contains only transpositions and
exactly one 3-cycle, i.e., a = (i1 , i2 , i3 )(i4 , i5 )a3 · · · ar . For b = (i1 , i2 , i4 ) ∈ An
N 3 a(ba−1 b−1 ) = [(i1 , i2 , i3 )(i4 , i5 )](i1 , i2 , i4 )[(i1 , i2 , i3 )(i4 , i5 )]−1 (i4 , i2 , i1 )

= (i2 , i3 , i5 )(i4 , i2 , i1 )
(14.31)
= (i3 , i5 , i2 )(i2 , i1 , i4 )
= (i3 , i5 , i2 , i1 , i4 )
which is a 5-cycle, so we have reduced the problem to Case 1.
Case 3. Suppose the canonical factorisation of a contains more than one 3-cycle,
i.e., a = (i1 , i2 , i3 )(i4 , i5 , i6 )a3 · · · ar . For b = (i1 , i2 , i4 ) ∈ An
(14.32)
N 3 a(ba−1 b−1 ) = [(i1 , i2 , i3 )(i4 , i5 , i6 )](i1 , i2 , i4 )[(i1 , i2 , i3 )(i4 , i5 , i6 )]−1 (i4 , i2 , i1 )

= (i2 , i3 , i5 )(i4 , i2 , i1 )
and we conclude as in Case 2.
Case 4: Suppose the canonical factorisation of a contains only transpositions, a =
(i1 , i2 )(i3 , i4 )a3 · · · ar . Choose i5 6= i1 , i2 , i3 , i4 , and let b = (i1 , i3 , i5 ).
N 3 a(ba−1 b−1 ) = [a(i1 , i3 , i5 )a−1 ](i5 , i3 , i1 )
(14.33)
= (i2 , i4 , a(i5 ))(i5 , i3 , i1 ).
If a(i5 ) = i5 then we obtain a 5-cycle and hence Case 1, if a(i5 ) 6= i5 it follows
(i2 , i4 , a(i5 )) = (a(i1 ), a(i3 ), a(i5 )) and (i5 , i3 , i1 ) are disjoint (since a is bijective),
which yields Case 3.
14.31. Exercise. Write

!
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
(14.34) π=
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 1 3 5 7 9 11 13
(1) as a product of disjoint cycles,
(2) as a product of transpositions.
14.32. Exercise. Calculate the conjugates πσπ−1 for

(1) π = (1, 2), σ = (2, 3)(1, 4);
(2) π = (2, 3)(3, 4), σ = (1, 2, 3);
(3) π = (1, 3)(2, 4, 1), σ = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5);
(4) π = (1, 2, 3), σ = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5).
14.33. Exercise. Let r ≥ 1. Show that in Sn all r-cycles are conjugate.
14.34. Exercise. Show that Sn is generated by {(1, 2), (1, 3), . . . , (1, n)}.
58 COURSE NOTES
15. T HE J ORDAN -H ÖLDER T HEOREM
15.1. Definition. A nested sequence of groups {Gi }i∈N
(15.1) G = G1 ≥ G2 ≥ G3 ≥ . . .
is called a descending chain of G. The chain is finite, if there is i0 such that Gi+1 = Gi
for all i ≥ i0 .
A descending chain is called a normal chain, if Gi+1 E Gi for all i ∈ N, and Gi /Gi+i
are called the factors of the normal chain. (Note: Gi is not necessarily normal in G,
which is why one often finds the notion of a subnormal chain in the literature.)
A normal chain is called a cyclic chain or abelian chain, if all factors are cyclic or
abelian, respectively.
A finite normal chain
(15.2) G = G1 ≥ G2 ≥ . . . ≥ Gm = N
is called a normal series from G to N, if N E G. (Again, the notion of subnormal

series is often used in the literature instead.) If N = {e} and Gi 6= Gi+1 , the normal
series is said to have length m − 1.
Two normal series
(15.3) G1 ≥ G2 ≥ . . . ≥ Gm , H1 ≥ H2 ≥ . . . ≥ Hn ,
are called equivalent if m = n and if there is a permutation i 7→ π(i) such that

Gi /Gi+1 ' Hπ(i) /Hπ(i)+1 .
15.2. Example. Z > pZ > p2 Z > . . . is an infinite normal chain. Since pi Z/pi+1 Z '
Zp (Example 8.3) the chain is abelian.
15.3. Theorem. Let N E G. A normal series from G to N is equivalent to a normal

series of G/N to E = {e}.
Proof. Let G = G1 ≥ G2 ≥ . . . ≥ Gm = N be the normal series from G to N, then

N E Gi (1 ≤ i ≤ m). The second isomorphism theorem states that Gi+1 /N E Gi /N
and
(15.4) (Gi /N)/(Gi+1 /N) ' Gi /Gi+1 .
Hence the normal series under consideration is equivalent to G/N = G1 /N ≥ G2 /N ≥

G3 /N ≥ . . . ≥ Gm /N = E.
15.4. Definition. The normal series G1 ≥ G2 ≥ . . . ≥ Gm is called a refinement of

the normal series G1 = H1 ≥ H2 ≥ . . . ≥ Hk if
(15.5) {H1 , H2 , . . . , Hk } ⊆ {G1 , G2 , . . . , Gm }.

15.5. Third Isomorphism Theorem (Zassenhaus Lemma). Let A1 E A ≤ G, B1 E B ≤

G. Then:
(1) A1 (A ∩ B1 ) E A1 (A ∩ B).
(2) B1 (A1 ∩ B) E B1 (A ∩ B).
(3) A1 (A ∩ B)/A1 (A ∩ B1 ) ' B1 (A ∩ B)/B1 (A1 ∩ B).
Proof. Claim (3) follows directly from
(15.6) A1 (A ∩ B)/A1 (A ∩ B1 ) ' (A ∩ B)/(A ∩ B1 )(A1 ∩ B)
since the right hand side is invariant under A ↔ B, A1 ↔ B1 .

To prove (1) and (15.6) set H = A ∩ B, K = A ∩ B1 , L = A1 ∩ B. Then (15.6) becomes
(15.7) A1 H/A1 K ' H/KL.
We will construct an epimorphism
(15.8) ϕ : A1 H/A1 → H/KL
with kernel ker ϕ = A1 K/A1 . The homomorphism theorem then yields
(15.9) (A1 H/A1 )/(A1 K/A1 ) ' H/KL
and since the kernel A1 K/A1 is normal, we have KA1 = A1 K is normal in A1 H (Theo-
rem 8.10 (3)). This proves (1) and thus (2).
To construct ϕ, note that H ≤ A and A1 E A implies A1 H = HA1 and thus A1 E A1 H ≤
A. The First Isomorphism Theorem shows that
(15.10) ψ1 : A1 H/A1 → H/A1 ∩ H = H/L, hA1 7→ hL,
is an isomorphism. Since K, L E H we have KL = LK E H. The Second Isomorphism

Theorem (and its proof) shows
(15.11) ψ2 : H/L → H/KL, hL 7→ hKL,
is an epimorphism with ker ψ2 = KL/L. Set
(15.12) ϕ = ψ2 ◦ ψ1 : A1 H/A1 → H/KL.
This is precisely the epimorphism needed, since hA1 ∈ ker ϕ if and only if ψ1 (hA1 ) =
hL ∈ ker ψ2 = KL/L. This is the case if and only if h ∈ K, i.e.,
(15.13) ker ϕ = {hA1 : h ∈ K} = KA1 /A1 .

60 COURSE NOTES
15.6. Schreier’s Theorem. Any two normal series of a group G possess equivalent
refinements.
Proof. Let
(15.14) G = G1 ≥ G2 ≥ . . . ≥ Gm = E, G = H1 ≥ H2 ≥ . . . ≥ Hn = E
be two normal series of G. For 1 ≤ i ≤ m − 1 and 1 ≤ j ≤ n set
(15.15) Gi,j := Gi+1 (Gi ∩ Hj ).
Note that Gi,1 = Gi , Gi,n = Gi+1 . The Zassenhaus lemma (1) shows Gi,j+1 E Gi,j . We
thus obtain a refinement of the normal series,
(15.16) G = G1,1 ≥ G1,2 ≥ . . . ≥ G1,n = G2,1 ≥ G2,2 ≥ . . . ≥ Gm−1,n = Gm = E
which has length (m − 1)(n − 1).

For 1 ≤ j ≤ n − 1 and 1 ≤ i ≤ m we make the analogous construction for Hj ,
(15.17) Hj,i := Hj+1 (Gi ∩ Hj ),
which leads to the refinement
(15.18) G = H1,1 ≥ H1,2 ≥ . . . ≥ H1,m = H2,1 ≥ H2,2 ≥ . . . ≥ Hn−1,m = Hn = E,
again of length (m − 1)(n − 1). The Zassenhaus lemma, applied with A = Gi , B = Hj ,

A1 = Gi+1 , B1 = Hj+1 , proves the isomorphism Gi,j /Gi,j+1 ' Hj,i /Hj,i+1 .
15.7. Example. Z > 2Z > 10Z > 30Z > {0} and Z > 3Z > 24Z > {0} are normal
series of Z. The refinements gained from the procedure in the above proof are here
(ignore repetitions)
(15.19) Z > 2Z > 10Z > 30Z > 120Z > {0} (with factors Z2 , Z5 , Z3 , Z4 , Z)
(15.20) Z > 3Z > 6Z > 24Z > 120Z > {0} (with factors Z3 , Z2 , Z4 , Z5 , Z).
15.8. Exercise. As in Example 15.7, work out the equivalent refinements of the nor-
mal series
(15.21) Z > 15Z > 60Z > {0}, Z > 12Z > {0},
and write down the corresponding factors.
15.9. Definition. N E G is called maximal, if N 6= G and if N ≤ M E G implies

M = N or M = G.
15.10. Lemma. N E G is maximal if and only if G/N is simple.
Proof. N 6= G is equivalent to G/N 6= E. The rest of the statement follows from

Theorem 8.10 (3).
15.11. Definition. A normal series G = G1 ≥ G2 ≥ . . . ≥ Gm = E is called a com-

position series of G, if Gi+1 E Gi is maximal for all 1 ≤ i < m (or, equivalently, if the
quotients Gi /Gi+1 are simple). The quotient groups (or factor groups) of a composi-
tion series are called composition factors.
15.12. Note that every finite group possesses a composition series, since the process
of refining the series G ≥ {e} must terminate after finitely many steps. On the other
hand, the infinite group (Z, +) is an example of a group that does not possess a
composition series.
15.13. Example.
(1) Consider the inner direct product G = N1 N2 · · · Nk of simple normal sub-
groups Ni . Then G = N1 N1 N2 · · · Nk > N2 · · · Nk > N3 · · · Nk > . . . > Nk > E
is a composition series with factors N1 , N2 , . . . , Nk .
(2) Z24 > Z8 > Z4 > Z2 > {0}, Z24 > Z12 > Z4 > Z2 > {0}, Z24 > Z12 > Z6 > Z2 >
{0} are composition series since its factors have prime order.
(3) Z4 > Z2 > {0} and Z2 × Z2 > Z2 > {0} have the same factors, Z2 . This illustrates
that non-isomorphic groups can have equivalent composition series.
15.14. The Jordan-Hölder Theorem. If a group possesses composition series, then

any two composition series are equivalent.
Proof. Let
(15.22) G = G1 ≥ G2 ≥ . . . ≥ Gm = E, G = H1 ≥ H2 ≥ . . . ≥ Hn = E
be two composition series of G. These are by definition without repetition. If we
refine them via Schreier’s Theorem to equivalent normal series, then we must intro-
duce repetitions (since there are no normal subgroups inbetween Gi and Gi+1 , and
inbetween Hi and Hi+1 ). If we delete repetitions, the series remain equivalent—and
we are back to our original composition series (15.22).
15.15. Exercise. Show that every abelian group with a composition series is finite.
15.16. Exercise. Write down all possible composition series of Z24 with correspond-
ing factors.
62 COURSE NOTES
16. S OLUBLE GROUPS
16.1. In Section 13 we have given a complete classification of all finitely generated

abelian groups. Soluble groups (to be defined below) may be viewed the simplest
non-abelian generalization, and allow a similar analysis as for the abelian case. The
following defines a measure of the “degree of commutativity” of a group:
16.2. Definition. Let G be a group. For a, b ∈ G the product
(16.1) [a, b] := aba−1 b−1
is called the commutator of a and b. The group
(16.2) K(G) := h{[a, b] : a, b ∈ G}i
is called the commutator group of G.
16.3. Since [a, b]−1 = [b, a], K(G) comprises all finite products of commutators.
Note however that a product of commutators is not necessarily a commutator! It
is evident that [a, b] = e if and only if a, b commute. Hence G is abelian if and only
if K(G) = {e}, and the larger K(G), the higher the degree of non-commutativity in G.
16.4. Theorem. K(G) E G.
Proof. For every homomorphism ϕ of G we have
(16.3) ϕ([a, b]) = ϕ(aba−1 b−1 ) = ϕ(a)ϕ(b)ϕ(a−1 )ϕ(b−1 ) = [ϕ(a), ϕ(b)].
Hence for the inner automorphism ϕx : G → G, g 7→ xgx−1 , we have x[a, b]x−1 =

ϕx ([a, b]) = [ϕx (a), ϕx (b)] ∈ G for every x ∈ G. Thus if h = [a1 , b1 ] · · · [ar , br ] ∈ K(G)
is a product of commutators, then so is
(16.4) xhx−1 = ϕx (h) = [ϕx (a1 ), ϕx (b1 )] · · · [ϕx (ar ), ϕx (br )].
This proves xhx−1 ∈ K(G) for all h ∈ K(G), x ∈ G.
16.5. Theorem. Let N E G. Then G/N is abelian if and only if K(G) ≤ N.
Proof. G/N is abelian if and only if abN = aNbN = bNaN = baN for all a, b ∈ G.
This is equivalent to a−1 b−1 abN = N for all a, b ∈ G, i.e., [a−1 , b−1 ] ∈ N for all
a, b ∈ G. But this is the same as saying [a, b] ∈ N for all a, b ∈ G, i.e., K(G) ⊆ N
(since N is closed under multiplication).
16.6. Corollary. G/K(G) is abelian.
16.7. Example. K(S3 ) = A3 , K(A3 ) = {(1)}, K(A4 ) = V4 , K(V4 ) = {(1)}.

16.8. Theorem.
(1) K(Sn ) = An if n ≥ 2.
(2) K(An ) = An if n ≥ 5.
Proof. (1) S2 is abelian and A2 = {(1)}, so the case n = 2 is proved. Assume n ≥ 3. We
have for 3-cycles
(16.5)
(i, j, k) = (i, k, j)2 = (i, k)(k, j)(i, k)(k, j) = (i, k)(k, j)(i, k)−1 (k, j)−1 = [(i, k), (k, j)]
and so all 3-cycles are in K(Sn ). Since the 3-cycles generate An (Theorem 14.27), we
have An ≤ K(Sn ). But since Sn /An ' {1, −1} is abelian (cf. 14.23), and, by Theorem
16.5, this implies K(Sn ) ≤ An .
(2) This follows directly from Theorem 14.30. We give a more elementary proof:
If (i, j, k) is a 3-cycle as above, and l, m ∈ N \ {i, j, k} (these exist since n ≥ 5) we
have (as above)
(16.6) (i, j, k) = (i, k, j)2 = [(i, k), (k, j)] = [(i, k)(l, m), (l, m)(k, j)]
since (l, m) commutes with (i, k) and (k, j). This shows (again by Theorem 14.27)
An ≤ K(An ), and thus An = K(An ).
16.9. Definition. The nth commutator group of G is defined inductively by

(16.7) Kn (G) := K(Kn−1 (G)), K0 (G) := G.
16.10. Example. K3 (S4 ) = K(K(K(S4 ))) = K(K(A4 )) = K(V4 ) = {(1)}.
16.11. Theorem. Let G, G 0 be groups, and H ≤ G, N E G. Then, for all n ≥ 0,

(1) Kn (H) ≤ Kn (G),
(2) Kn (G/N) = Kn (G)N/N ' Kn (G)/(Kn (G) ∩ N),
(3) Kn (G × G 0 ) = Kn (G) × Kn (G 0 ).
Proof (by induction). (1) is evident.
(2) n = 0 is trivial, since K0 (G) = G.

Kn+1 (G/N) = K Kn (G/N) (by definition)

= K Kn (G)N/N) (by induction hypothesis)
−1 −1
= {k1 k2 k1 k2 : k1 , k2 ∈ Kn (G)N/N}

(by definition)
= {k1 Nk2 Nk−1 −1

(16.8) 1 Nk2 N : k1 , k2 ∈ Kn (G)}
= {[k1 , k2 ]N : k1 , k2 ∈ Kn (G)}

(since N is normal)
= {[k1 , k2 ] : k1 , k2 ∈ Kn (G)} N/N

= Kn+1 (G)N/N (by definition).

The isomorphism in (2) follows from the first isomorphism theorem.
(3) is left as an exercise.
64 COURSE NOTES
16.12. Exercise. Prove Theorem 16.11 (3).
16.13. Definition. A group G is called soluble if Km (G) = {e} for some m ∈ N.
16.14. Note that every abelian group is soluble, since K(G) = {e}. Hence soluble
groups may be viewed as a natural generalization of abelian groups. An example of
a non-abelian group that is soluble is S4 ; recall 16.10.
16.15. Theorem. If n ≥ 5, then Sn is not soluble.
Proof. By Theorem 16.8, K(Sn ) = An and Km (Sn ) = Km−1 (An ) = An for all m ≥ 2. So
Km (Sn ) 6= {e} for all m ≥ 0.
16.16. Theorem.
(1) Every subgroup of a soluble group is soluble.
(2) Every quotient group of a soluble group is soluble.
(3) Every finite direct product of soluble groups is soluble.
Proof. Note that Km (G) = {e} implies via Theorem 16.11 that Km (H) = {e} for every
H ≤ G and Km (G/N) = {e} for every N E G.
16.17. Theorem. Let N E G such that N and G/N are soluble, then G is soluble.
Proof. Since G/N is soluble there is m ∈ N such that Km (G/N) = {N}. From Theorem
16.11 (2), Km (G)N = N, i.e., Km (G) ≤ N. Since N is soluble, Kl (N) = {e} for some l ∈
N. Now Kl+m (G) = Kl (Km (G)) ≤ Kl (N) (by Theorem 16.11 (1)) = {e}. So Kl+m (G) =
{e} and G is soluble.
16.18. If G is a soluble group with Km (G) = {e}, then the series
(16.9) G = K0 (G) ≥ K1 (G) ≥ . . . ≥ Km (G) = {e}
is an abelian normal series, since Ki+1 (G) = K(Ki (G)) E Ki (G) (Theorem 16.4) and
Ki (G)/Ki+1 (G) are abelian groups (Corollary 16.6). We have in fact:
16.19. Theorem. A group is soluble, if and only if it possesses an abelian normal

series.
Proof. We have already seen that the series of commutator groups (16.9) yields the
required abelian normal series. For the inverse direction, we use induction on the
length of the series.
Length 1: If G = G1 ≥ G2 = {e} is an abelian normal series, then G ' G/{e} =
G1 /G2 is abelian (by definition), so G is abelian and hence soluble.
Length < n: The induction hypothesis is that all groups with abelian normal series
of length < n are soluble. Let
(16.10) G = G1 ≥ G2 ≥ . . . ≥ Gn+1 = {e}

be an abelian normal series of length n. Then
(16.11) G2 ≥ G3 ≥ . . . ≥ Gn+1 = {e}
is an abelian normal series of length n − 1, so by the induction hypothesis G2 is

soluble. We have assumed that the series (16.10) is abelian normal, so G2 E G with
G/G2 abelian (and hence soluble). In view of Theorem 16.17, this means G is soluble.

16.20. Lemma. Every refinement of an abelian normal series is an abelian normal

series.
Proof. Let
(16.12) G = G1 ≥ G2 ≥ . . . ≥ Gr = {e}
be an abelian normal series. Consider the (one-step) refinement
(16.13) G = G1 ≥ G2 ≥ . . . ≥ Gi ≥ H ≥ Gi+1 ≥ . . . ≥ Gr = {e}.
Then H/Gi+1 is abelian since it is a subgroup of the abelian group Gi /Gi+1 . By the
second isomorphism theorem Gi /H is isomorphic to (Gi /Gi+1 )/(H/Gi+1 ) which is
abelian, and therefore Gi /H is abelian. A general refinement of (16.12) is obtained by
iterating the above process finitely many times.
16.21. Theorem. Let G be a group with composition series. G is soluble, if and only
if the composition factors of G have prime order.
Proof. If G is soluble, then Theorem 16.19 guarantees the existence of an abelian nor-
mal series. We use Schreier’s Theorem to show that the composition series and the
abelian normal series can both be refined, so that they become equivalent normal
series. These are abelian by Lemma 16.20. But since a refinement of a composition
series is only achieved by repetition, the composition series itself is already abelian.
Hence the composition factors are simple abelian groups, and are therefore cyclic
and have prime order.
16.22. Corollary. A soluble group G possesses a composition series, if and only if G

is finite.
Proof. We have already noted in 15.12 that every finite group has a composition se-
ries. If on the other hand G possesses the composition series
(16.14) G = G1 ≥ G2 ≥ . . . ≥ Gm = {e},
then, by Theorem 16.21 we have |Gi | = |Gi /Gi+1 | |Gi+1 | = pi |Gi+1 | for some prime pi
(1 ≤ i < m). Hence |G| = p1 |G2 | = p1 p2 |G3 | = . . . = p1 p2 · · · pm−1 < ∞.
66 COURSE NOTES
16.23. Theorem. Every finite p-group (p prime) is soluble.

Proof. A finite p-group has order pn for some n ≥ 0. The case n = 0 is trivial. We
proceed by induction on n. The induction hypothesis is that for any m < n, every
finite group of order pm is soluble. For n ≥ 1, Theorem 10.19 says the center Z(G) is
nontrivial, i.e., |Z(G)| = pr , r ≥ 1. Since |G/Z(G)| = pn−r and n − r < n, the induction
hypothesis shows G/Z(G) is soluble. Z(G) is abelian and thus also soluble. Therefore
G is soluble (by Theorem 16.17).
A famous theorem whose proof goes far beyond the scope of this course is:
16.24. Feit-Thomson Theorem (1963). Every finite group of odd order is soluble.
16.25. Exercise. Show that for any m ∈ N

(16.15) Gm := {g ∈ G : gm ∈ K(G)}
is a subgroup of G.
16.26. Exercise. For H, K ≤ G define [H, K] = h{[h, k] : h ∈ H, k ∈ K}i. Show that

N ≤ G is normal if and only if [G, N] ⊆ N.
17. S OLUTIONS TO EXERCISES
Exercise 1.4.
(1) Note that if a 0 a = e (as in the inverse axiom) then (aa 0 )(aa 0 ) = a(a 0 a)a 0 =
aa 0 , and by Lemma 1.3 aa 0 = e.
(2) We have a = ea (identity axiom) = aa 0 a (as shown in (1)) = ae (inverse
axiom).
(3) Suppose there are two identities, e, ẽ. Then ea = ae = a = ẽa = aẽ for all
a ∈ G (by the identity axiom and (2)). In particular for a = e: e = ẽe, and for
a = ẽ: ẽe = ẽ. Hence ẽ = e.
(4) Suppose there are two inverses a 0 , ã 0 of a, i.e., a 0 a = ã 0 a = e. This implies
a 0 aa 0 = ã 0 aa 0 ⇒ a 0 e = ã 0 e (by (3)) ⇒ a 0 = ã 0 .
(5) By definition, (a−1 )−1 a−1 = e ⇒ (a−1 )−1 a−1 a = ea ⇒ (a−1 )−1 e = a ⇒
(a−1 )−1 = a.
(6) By definition, (ab)−1 (ab) = e ⇒ (ab)−1 (ab)b−1 = eb−1 ⇒ (ab)−1 a = b−1 ⇒
(ab)−1 aa−1 = b−1 a−1 ⇒ (ab)−1 = b−1 a−1 .
Exercise 1.9. Associativity is a well known property of matrix multiplication. The

rest follows from straightforward calculations.
Exercise 1.14. Tedious but straightforward.
Exercise 1.15. The symmetries of an n-gon are reflections σ0 , . . . , σn−1 at the n di-
agonals (which are lines through the origin that meet the horizontal axis at angles
πm/n, m = 0, . . . , n − 1 mod n) and rotations ρm by an angle 2πm/n, m = 0, . . . , n −
1 mod n.
Existence of identity and inverse: m = 0 corresponds to the identity element. The
inverse of a reflection is the reflection itself, σ−1 = σ, and the inverse of the rotation
by 2πm/n is −2πm/n, i.e., ρ−1 m = ρn−m .
Closure under multiplication: The product of two rotations 2πm/n, 2πm 0 /n is evi-
dently a rotation by 2π(m + m 0 )/n, i.e., ρm ρm 0 = ρm+m 0 . Any reflection σm can be
written as σm = ρm/2 σ0 ρ−1m/2 . Note that for any rotation about the origin by and an-
gle α, we have ρα σ0 = σ0 ρ−1 α . This an the previous relation yields σm = ρm σ0 , and
σm σm 0 = ρm σ0 ρm 0 σ0 = ρm−m 0 σ0 σ0 = ρm−m 0 . Hence the product of two reflections is a
rotation. Similarly ρm σm 0 = ρm+m 0 σ0 = σm + m 0 and σm ρm 0 = ρm−m 0 σ0 = σm − m 0 ,
so the product of a reflection and rotation are a reflection.
Exercise 1.16. Assume K is a finite field with q elements. Let M ∈ Kn×n and consider
the system of equations Mx = 0 with x ∈ K. We know from linear algebra that x = 0
is the unique solution of Mx = 0, if and only if det M 6= 0. So if det M 6= 0, the
column vectors of M must be linearly independent over K, i.e., form a basis of the
vector space Kn . In other words, the order of GL(n, K) is the number of different
68 COURSE NOTES
bases of Kn . To see how many there are, note that there are qn − 1 choice of the first
basis vector (anything but the zero vector), qn − q (anything but a multiple of the
previously chosen vector), qn − q2 (anything but a linear combination of the previous
two), . . . , qn −qn−1 (anything but a linear combination of the previous (n−1) choices).
Hence the total is
Yn Y
n Y
n Y
n
(17.1) (qn − qj−1 ) = qj−1 (qn−j+1 − 1) = qn(n−1)/2 (qj − 1).
j=1 j=1 j=1 j=1
Exercise 2.3. This follows from a straightforward calculation.
Exercise 2.6. It is easy to see that ϕ : Z → 2Z, m 7→ 2m defines a homomorphism

(since 2(m + n) = 2m + 2n). The inverse map ϕ : 2Z → Z, m 7→ m/2 shows that ϕ is
bijective.
Exercise 2.7.
(1) Clearly none of the maps is surjective, since both miss a good part of T . Since
! ! ! !
1 t 1 u 1 t−u 1 0
(17.2) = ⇔ = ⇔ t = u,
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
ϕ1 is injective, and hence a monomorphism. The analogous argument shows
ϕ2 is a monomorphism.
(2) Since ϕ3 (t) = ϕ3 (t + 2π), the map is not injective. But since for every x, y ∈ R
with x2 + y2 = 1 we find a t ∈ R such that x = cos(t), y = sin(t), the map is
surjective. Hence ϕ3 is an epimorphism.
Exercise 2.10. Straightforward application of the definitions.
Exercise 2.17. ϕe (a) = eae−1 = a, and so a ∼ a. a ∼ b means there is a g: ϕg (a) =

gag−1 = b; now ϕg−1 (b) = g−1 bg = g−1 gag−1 g = a, and so a ∼ b implies b ∼ a. If
a ∼ b and b ∼ c, then there are g, h: ϕg (a) = gag−1 = b, ϕh (b) = hbh−1 = c; now
ϕhg (a) = hga(hg)−1 = hgag−1 h−1 = hbh−1 = c, and so a ∼ c.
Exercise 2.18. This follows from ϕb (ab) = b(ab)b−1 = ba.
Exercise 2.22. Recall that the elements of the Klein four group satisfy a2 = b2 =
c2 = e (and hence every element equals its inverse), ab = ba = c, bc = cb = a,
ca = ac = b. Besides the trivial automorphism ϕ0 = id we find the following:
(17.3) ϕ1 (a) = b, ϕ1 (b) = a, ϕ1 (c) = c;
(17.4) ϕ2 (a) = a, ϕ2 (b) = c, ϕ1 (c) = b;
(17.5) ϕ3 (a) = c, ϕ3 (b) = b, ϕ3 (c) = a;
(17.6) ϕ4 (a) = b, ϕ4 (b) = c, ϕ4 (c) = a
since ϕ4 (a)ϕ4 (b) = bc = a = ϕ4 (c) = ϕ4 (ab), etc.;
(17.7) ϕ5 (a) = c, ϕ5 (b) = a, ϕ5 (c) = b.
Note that ϕ−1 −1

i = ϕi (i = 1, 2, 3) and ϕ4 = ϕ5 . The automorphism group of the Klein
four group has thus order 6.
Exercise 2.23. Clear—recall the relations between rotations and reflections discussed
in Exercise 1.15.
70 COURSE NOTES
Exercise 2.24.
(1) Clear.
(2) ker ϕ = {m ∈ Z : ζm = 1} = nZ.
Exercise 2.25.
(1) If Aut G = {id} then ϕg = id for all g ∈ G, and hence ϕg (a) = gag−1 = a, i.e.,
ag = ga for all a, g ∈ G. (Alternatively, note that Aut G = {id} implies that
Z(G) := ker Φ = G, which also says that G is abelian.)
(2) If x → x2 is a homomorphism, then (ab)2 = a2 b2 ⇒ abab = aabb ⇒ ba =
ab.
(3) If x → x−1 is a homomorphism, then (ab)−1 = a−1 b−1 ⇒ b−1 a−1 = a−1 b−1 .
Hence all inverses commute, and so all elements commute.
Exercise 3.13. We need to show H1 ∪ H2 = G implies H1 = G or H2 = G. Assuming

H1 ∪ H2 = G and furthermore H1 6= H1 ∩ H2 6= H2 (i.e., H1 is not contained in H2 and
vice versa), we have for all h1 ∈ H1 \ H2 , h2 ∈ H2 \ H1 that h1 h2 ∈ H1 or h1 h2 ∈ H2
(since G = H1 ∪ H2 is a group). In the first case we find h2 ∈ H1 , which contradicts
our assumption h2 ∈ H2 \ H1 . In the second case we find h1 ∈ H2 , which contradicts
our assumption h1 ∈ H1 \ H2 . We conclude that either H1 ⊆ H2 or H2 ⊆ H1 ; but then
H2 = G or H1 = G, respectively.
Exercise 4.5. Suppose there is K ≤ G such that G \ H ⊆ K. For every h ∈ H, g ∈ / H

we have gh ∈ / H since H is a group. This means gh ∈ K, and, since also g ∈ K and K
is a group, we have h = g−1 gh ∈ K. This holds for every h ∈ H and so H ⊆ K. With
this we have G ⊆ K and hence G = K. The claim now follows from Definition 4.1.
Exercise 4.6.
(1) Since 0 is the neutral element of R and {0} ≤ h(0, ]i by definition, we may
assume x ∈ R \ {0}. Choose n ∈ Z such that x0 := x/n ∈ (0, ] (this is always
possible by the Archimedian principle). Hence x = nx0 with x0 ∈ (0, ] and
the claim is proved.
(2) The set S = { q1 : q ∈ N} generates Q, since every x ∈ Q can be expressed as
x = n q1 for n ∈ Z, q ∈ N.
Exercise 4.7. The relations given in the hint follow from direct computation. They!
1 x
imply that every g ∈ SL(2, R) can be represented as a product of the matrices
0 1
!
0 −1
and . The claim now follows from Theorem 4.3.
1 0
Exercise 5.12.
(1) For element of an abelian group (ab)r = ar br . Hence, if ord a = m and ordb =
n, then ord ab ≤ mn. That is, every product of finite-order elements has finite
order. Since the inverse of a group element has the same order the first claim
is proved.
A counter example for the case of a non-abelian group is the following.
Consider the group of maps R → R generated by the reflections R0 : x 7→ −x
(reflection at x = 0) and R1 : x 7→ 1 − x (reflection at x = 1/2). We have R20 =
id = R21 , i.e., both elements have order 2. However, R1 ◦R0 (x) = R1 (−x) = 1+x,
i.e., T1 = R1 ◦ R0 : x 7→ x + 1 is a translation by 1. Clearly T n 6= id for any
n ∈ Z \ {0}, and therefore T1 has infinite order. !
0 −1
A second counter example is given by the following matrices: S =
1 0
!
1 −1
and T = satisfy the relations S2 = −e and T 3 = −e, and have there-
1 0
!
1 1
fore order 4 and 6, respectively. For the product, TS = − , which has
0 1
!
1 n
infinite order since (TS)n = (−1)n 6= e for any n ∈ Z \ {0}.
0 1
(2) We have (ab)2 = e, and hence ab = b−1 a−1 . But since a2 = e, b2 = e, we have
a−1 = a and b−1 = b, so ab = ba and the claim follows.
(3) Suppose a is the only element in G of order 2. Given g ∈ G, et b = gag−1 .
Then 6= e and b2 = gag−1 gag−1 = ga2 g−1 = e. Hence b has order 2 and thus
by assumption a = b. So a = gag−1 , i.e., ag = ga for all g ∈ G.
Exercise 5.13.
(1) ϕ(a)s = ϕ(as ) since ϕ is a homomorphism. Because it is an automorphism
ϕ(as ) = e if and only if as = e. Since the order of an element g is either infinite
or the smallest integer s > 0 such that gs = e, the claim is proved.
(2) Apply (1) with the inner automorphism ϕ = ϕb .
(3) Let a, c ∈ G. Applying (2) with the choice b = ca yields ord ac = ord aba−1 =
ord b = ord ca which proves the claim.
(4) We have as = e if and only if (a−1 )s = e. Since the order of an element g
is either infinite or the smallest integer s > 0 such that gs = e, the claim is
proved.
Exercise 5.14.
(1) Every g ∈ G = hai is of the form g = ak , 0 ≤ k ≤ n − 1. Hence ϕ(a) = ak
for some k in the above range. By Exercise 5.13 (1), ord ak = ord a = n, and
72 COURSE NOTES
so Theorem 5.8 implies that gcd(k, n) = 1. [Note that ϕ(a) = ak implies

ϕ(am ) = ϕ(a)m = (ak )m = (am )k and thus ϕ(g) = gk for all g ∈ G.]
(2) By (2), every ϕ ∈ Aut G is of the form ϕ(g) = gk , for some k ∈ {0, . . . , n − 1}
with gcd(k, n) = 1. On the other hand, for every such k the map ϕk : g 7→ gk
defines an automorphism: it is clearly a homomorphism since G is abelian,
k0
k = ϕk 0 : g 7→ g , where k is the inverse of
0
and bijective with the inverse ϕ−1
k in Z∗n , i.e., k 0 k = 1 mod n. The preceding discussion shows that the map
(17.8) Φ : Z∗n → Aut G, k 7→ ϕk .
is a bijection. To prove that it is a homomorphism (and thus an isomorphism),
we need to show Φ(km) = ϕkm = ϕk ◦ ϕm = Φ(k) ◦ Φ(m) for all k, m ∈ Z∗n ;
this however follows from ϕkm (g) = gkm = (gm )k = ϕk (ϕm (g)) = ϕk ◦ ϕm (g).
Exercise 6.13. By Corollary 6.12, s = ord a divides |G|, i.e., |G| ∈ sZ. Hence Corollary
5.7 implies a|G| = e.
Exercise 6.26.
(1) We have Z∗15 = {1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14} and hence |Z∗15 | = ϕ(15) = 8. Further-
more h7i = {1, 4, 7, 13} since
2
(a) 7 = 49 = 4,
3
(b) 7 = 4 · 7 = 28 = 13,
4
(c) 7 = 13 · 7 = −2 · 7 = −14 = 1.
By Lagrange’s Theorem, |Z∗15 : h7i| = 8/4 = 2, and so we have two left cosets
Z∗15 = h7i ∩ 2h7i. [Instead of 2 any element not in h7i can be used.]
350 352 −2 −2
(2) 7 = 7 7 = 7 (since 352 = 8 · 44, apply Fermat’s little theorem with
2 2
|G| = 8) = 13 = (−2) = 4.
1000
2 = 1 since 1000 = 8 · 125 and by Fermat’s little theorem.
Exercise 7.4.
(1) Since H, K are normal in G, we have HK = KH and hence HK is a subgroup of
G (Theorem 3.11). To show HK is normal, note that for any g ∈ G: gHKg−1 =
gHg−1 gKg−1 ⊆ HK, since by normality of H, K we have gHg−1 ⊆ H, gKg−1 ⊆
K.
(2) Set N = x∈G xHx−1 . This means that if a ∈ N we have that a ∈ xHx−1 for all
T
x ∈ G. For any g ∈ G we have gag−1 ∈ yHy−1 with y = gx ∈ G, and hence

gag−1 ∈ yHy−1 for all y ∈ G. That is, gag−1 ∈ N, i.e., gNg−1 ⊆ N and so N is
normal.
Exercise 7.9.
(1) Suppose a, b ∈ NG (X), i.e., aX = Xa, bX = Xb. Then Xa−1 = a−1 X and so
a−1 ∈ NG (X). Furthermore, abX = aXb = Xab and thus ab ∈ NG (X).
(2) If H E G then by definition aHa−1 ⊆ H for all a ∈ G. Since this implies that
H ⊆ a−1 Ha, we have in fact H ⊆ aHa−1 for all a ∈ G and hence aH = Ha for
all a ∈ G. Therefore NG (H) = G.
If on the other hand NG (H) = G, we have xH = Hx for all x ∈ G and hence
xHx−1 ⊆ H for all x ∈ G. Hence H E G.
(3) We have for all g ∈ NG (H): gHg−1 = (gH)g−1 = (Hg)g−1 = H, and so
H E NG (H).
(4) Problem (2) says that K E H implies NH (K) = H. The statement follows from
the observation that NH (K) = {h ∈ H : hK = Kh} ⊆ NG (K).
Exercise 8.8. The idea of proof is similar as in Lagrange’s theorem. Consider the
union
[
(17.9) HK = hK.
h∈H
Let us calculate the number of disjoint cosets hK, h ∈ H. hK = K implies h ∈ K and

thus h ∈ H ∩ K. hK = h 0 K implies that h 0 h−1 ∈ H ∩ K, i.e., h 0 ∈ h(H ∩ K). Hence
each coset in {hK : h ∈ H} corresponds exactly to a coset h(H ∩ K) with h ∈ H. Since
H ∩ Kis a subgroup of H there are |H : H ∩ K| = |H|/|H ∩ K| such cosets. So the union
(17.9) is a disjoint union of |H|/|H ∩ K| sets, each with |K| elements. This proves the
claim.
74 COURSE NOTES
Exercise 9.10.
(1) The normal subgroup property implies that bab−1 ∈ Ni and aba−1 ∈ Nj .
Hence for i 6= j we have
Y
(17.10) aba−1 b−1 ∈ Ni Ni ∩ Nj Nj = Ni ∩ Nj ⊆ Ni ∩ Nj = {e},
j6=i
and so aba−1 b−1 = e, i.e., ab = ba.

(2) Because of Definition 9.6 (1) the decomposition a = a1 · · · ak with ai ∈ Ni
exists. It remains to show uniqueness. First consider the special case e =
a1 · · · ak . Then, for every i, we have using (1)
Y
(17.11) a−1
i = a 1 · · · a i−1 a i+1 · · · a n ∈ Ni ∩ Nj = {e}
j6=i
and hence ai = e for every i. As to the general case, suppose we have two
decompositions a = a1 · · · ak and a = b1 · · · bk , then, using again (1), we see
that (a1 b−1 −1
1 ) · · · (ak bk ) = e, which, in view of the special case considered
before, implies that ai b−1 i = e, i.e., ai = bi .
Exercise 9.17. Theorem 8.5 shows that G is cyclic if and only if G ' Zn with n =
pk1 1 . . . pkr r . Using Theorem 9.16, we have Zn = Zpk1 ···pkr−1 × Zpkr r . Hence, by induction
1 r−1
on r, Zn = Zpk1 × · · · × Zpkr r .
1
Exercise 9.22.
(1) (We have already proved this; cf. Corollary 6.19.) The group L = H ∩ K is a
subgroup of both H and K. Hence, by Lagrange’s Theorem, |L| divides both
|H| and |K|. But since the latter a coprime, the only possibility is |L| = 1 and
hence L = {e}. (Note: We have not used the fact that H, K are normal.)
(2) Since H E G we have gH = Hg for all g ∈ G. Hence in particular (for g ∈ K) we
have HK = KH, and hence G 0 := HK is a group (by Theorem 3.11); note that
this fact was already proved in Exercise 7.4. Part (1) of the present exercise
shows that G 0 is an inner direct product of H and K, and so, by Theorem 9.9,
hk = kh for all h ∈ H, k ∈ K.
(3) We have shown in (2) that HK is an inner direct product. By Theorem 9.12 this
inner direct product is isomorphic to the outer direct product H × K.
Exercise 10.8.
(1) We have by definition of the stabiliser Gg·x = {h ∈ G : h · (g · x) = g · x}, which

equals {h ∈ G : (g−1 hg) · x = x} = {gkg−1 : k ∈ G, k · x = x} = g{k ∈ G : k · x =
x}g−1 = gGx g−1 , with k = g−1 hg.
(2) The statement (Gx = Gy for all y ∈ G · x) is, by item (1) of this exercise,
equivalent to (Gx = Gg·x = gGx g−1 for all g ∈ G), which in turn is equivalent
to Gx E G.
Exercise 10.12.
(1) This can be either checked by a direct computation (recommended), or by the

observation that the action can be represented as (M, ξ) 7→ Mξ, where Mξ
is the standard matrix product of a 2 × 2 with a 2 × 1 matrix. Axiom (1) for
group actions follows then from the associativity of matrix multiplication, and
axiom (2) from Eξ = ξ, where E is the identity matrix.
(2) We have G · 0 = {0}, so the origin 0 ∈ R2!is a fixed point and orbit of the
x
G action. Furthermore, given a point 6= 0, there is a matrix M ∈ G
y
! ! !
x 1 x 0
such that =M ; this matrix is given by M = if x 6= 0 and
y 0 y 1
! !
x 1 1
M= if y 6= 0. Hence R2 \ {0} = G · is the only other orbit of the
y 0 0
G action, and 0 is the only fixed point.
Exercise 10.13.
! !
r r cos φ
(1) The orbits are H · = : φ ∈ [0, 2π) for r ≥ 0, i.e., the origin
0 r sin φ
{0} (r = 0) and all circles of radius r > 0 centered at the origin. 0 is thus the
only fixed point. ! !
cos φ a cos φ
(2) The orbits are H · 0 = {0}, and the rays H · = : a ∈ R>0
sin φ a sin φ
for φ ∈ [0, 2π). 0 is therefore again ! theonly fixed
! point.
r ra
(3) The orbits are H · 0 = {0}, H · = : a ∈ R>0 for r ∈ R \ {0} (i.e.,
r ra−1
the branches of hyperbolas satisfying the equation xy = r2 , where r values
with the!same modulus ! but opposite
sign correspond to different orbits) and
r ra
H· = : a ∈ R>0 for r ∈ R \ {0} (the branches of hyperbolas
−r −ra−1
satisfying the equation xy = −r2 ). 0 is the only fixed point.
76 COURSE NOTES
! !
r r
(4) The orbits are the one-element sets H · = for r ∈ R, and the
0 0
! !
0 x
straight lines H · = : x ∈ R for r ∈ R \ {0}. Hence FixH (R2 ) =
r r
!
r
:r∈R .
0
! !
1 0 0 −1
(5) We have H = ± ,± . The H action yields π/2 rotations in
0 1 1 0
! ! !
x x y
R2 about the origin. The orbits are H · 0 = {0}, H · = ± ,± ,
y y −x
which are disjoint for x > 0, y ≥ 0, say. 0 is the only fixed point.
Exercise 10.22.
(1) We have (gh)(aH) = g(haH) by the associativity of group composition, and
e(aH) = aH by the identity axiom.
(2) Let x = aH, y = bH ∈ X = G/H. Then g = ba−1 ∈ G satisfies g · x =
(ba−1 )(aH) = bH = y.
Exercise 12.11.
(1) By the Third Sylow Theorem s2 divides 12 and is of the form 2k + 1 for some
k ≥ 0. Hence s2 ∈ {1, 3}. Similarly, s3 divides 12 and is of the form 3k + 1 for
some k ≥ 0. Hence s3 ∈ {1, 4}.
(2) Suppose s3 = 4, i.e., there are four distinct 3-Sylow groups P1 , P2 , P3 , P4 of G,
each with 3 elements. Then for i 6= j, Pi ∩ Pj < Pi and thus |Pi ∩ Pj | < 3. Hence
|Pi ∩ Pj | = 1 (since 2 does not divide 3) and so Pi ∩ Pj = {e}. Therefore G has 8
elements of order 3 (2 from each Pi ), and the identity.
The set S of three remaining elements in G is the set of elements which
order is not equal to 3. This follows from the fact that if ord g = 3, then hgi
is a 3-Sylow group and hence is equal to one of P1 , P2 , P3 , P4 . So G has only 8
elements of order 3. Thus
4
[
Pi = {g ∈ G : ord g = 3} ∪ {e}
i=1
and hence
4
[
S := G \ Pi = {g ∈ G : g 6= e, ord g 6= 3}.
i=1
We note that every 2-Sylow group in G (which has order 12) has order 4. Since
4 and 3 are coprime, it is clear that every 2-Sylow group has a trivial intersec-
tion with any Pi and is therefore contained in S ∪ {e}. But |S ∪ {e}| = 4. This
implies that S ∪ {e} is a 2-Sylow group (in particular a group). Moreover, any
2-Sylow group is equal to S ∪ {e}. Hence, there can be only one 2-Sylow group.
(3) Since there is a unique 2-Sylow group P2 and a unique 3-Sylow group P3 , by
Corollary 11.13 both are normal in G. Now P2 ∩ P3 < P3 and so, by the same
argument as in (2), P2 ∩ P3 = {e}. Therefore, and since |P2 | = 4, |P3 | = 3, we
have |P2 P3 | = 12 and thus G = P2 P3 . G is hence an inner direct product of
P2 and P3 . By 12.1 P3 ' Z3 , and by Theorem 12.2 P2 ' Z4 or ' Z2 × Z2 . We
conclude
(17.12) G ' Z3 × Z4 , or G ' Z2 × Z2 × Z3 .
Exercise 12.12. By Theorem 12.3, a group G of order 8 = 23 has a normal subgroup

N of order 4 = 22 . N can only be isomorphic to Z2 × Z2 or Z4 (Theorem 12.2). That
is, (Case 1) N = ha1 iha2 i with a1 a2 = a2 a1 , ord a1 = ord a2 = 2, or (Case 2) N = hai
with ord a = 4. Since |G : N| = 2 we have G = N ∪ bN, with b ∈ G \ N.
Furthermore |G : N| = 2 implies G/N ' Z2 , and hence b2 ∈ N. There are now three
possibilities: ord b = 2, 4, 8.
• If ord b = 8, then G = hbi ' Z8 .
78 COURSE NOTES
• If ord b = 4, then b2 6= e and so hbi ∩ N is a non-trivial subgroup of G.

For Case 1: Then b2 = a1 (or b2 = a2 , which we ignore in the following since
it will lead to an isomorphic group). The coset decomposition with respect to
hbi yields
(17.13) G = {e, b, b2 , b3 , a2 , a2 b, a2 b2 , a2 b3 }.
If a2 and b commute, we have G = hbiha2 i ' Z4 ×Z2 . If they do not, ba2 6= a2 b.

The cases ba2 = e, b, b2 , b3 are easily ruled out (the latter would for instance
imply a2 = a1 ). Now ba2 = a2 b2 = a2 a1 = a1 a2 which implies b = a1 , a
contradiction. ba2 = a2 b3 is thus the only possibility. This relation can be
written ba2 ba2 = e, i.e., ord(ba2 ) = 2. Hence we obtain the dihedral group
G = D4 , cf. (12.2); recall also Exercise 1.15.
For Case 2: Then b2 = a2 , and the coset decomposition with respect to
N = hai yields
(17.14) G = {e, a, a2 , a3 , b, ba, ba2 , ba3 }.
If G abelian then G ' Z4 × Z2 as above. So we assume G is not abelian. Since

hai is normal, bab−1 ∈ hai. Then bab−1 = a2 or bab−1 = a3 are the only pos-
sibilities. The former becomes bab−1 = b2 , i.e., a = b2 = a2 , a contradiction.
The latter becomes bab−1 = a3 = b2 a, i.e., ab−1 = ba. (The corresponding
group is called Hamilton’s quaternion group.)
• If ord b = 2, i.e., b2 = e, then hbi ∩ N = {e} (otherwise b ∈ N, contradicting
the above).
For Case 1:
(17.15) G = {e, a1 , a2 , a1 a2 , b, ba1 , ba2 , ba1 a2 }.
If ord(ba1 ) = 4 or 8, then G contains an element b̃ = ba1 ∈ / N of order 4 or

8, respectively. We have already dealt with these cases above. Hence we may
assume ord(ba1 ) = 2, that is, ba1 ba1 = e, i.e., a1 b = ba1 . We infer similarly
that a2 b = ba2 . Therefore G = hbiha1 iha2 i ' Z2 × Z2 × Z2 .
For Case 2:
(17.16) G = {e, a, a2 , a3 , b, ba, ba2 , ba3 }.
As in Case 1, we may assume ord(ba) = 2, hence ba = a−1 b. This implies

ord(ba3 ) = 2, and
(17.17) (ba)(ba3 ) = a2 = (ba3 )(ba).
Then H = hbaihba3 i = hba3 ihbai = {e, ba, a2 , ba3 } is a group by Theorem

3.11. [Note that although the element ba2 has also order 2, neither hbaihba2 i
nor hba2 ihba3 i give us a group.]
It follows from (17.17) that H is abelian, and so we have hbai E H and

hba3 i E H. Hence the group H is an inner direct product and isomorphic to
Z2 × Z2 . [This follows also from Theorem 9.11.] Since aHa−1 ⊆ H, bHb−1 ⊆ H
(check!), H is normal in G. Note that a ∈ / H. So with a assuming the role
of b above, and H assuming the role of N above, the present case actually
corresponds to the situation ord b = 4, Case 1.
In conclusion, the above shows that the only groups of order 8 are the cyclic groups
Z8 , Z4 × Z2 , Z2 × Z2 × Z2 , the dihedral group D4 in (12.2), and Hamilton’s quaternion
group, which is generated by a, b subject to the relations a4 = e, b2 = a2 , ab−1 = ba.
80 COURSE NOTES
Exercise 13.7. Since G is finitely generated, it is by Theorem 13.6 the direct product
of finitely many cyclic groups ha1 i × · · · × har i. If G is infinite then at least one of
these, say ha1 i, must be infinite. This in turn implies that G contains an element of
infinite order, namely (a1 , e, e, . . . , e), contradicting our assumption.
Exercise 14.2. It is well known that the composition of two bijective maps is bijective.
The composition of maps is furthermore associative. The existence of the identity and
inverse is evident.
Exercise 14.31.
(1) π = (1, 2, 4, 8)(3, 6, 12, 9)(5, 10)(7, 14, 13, 11).

(2) Use Theorem 14.9 (3): π = (1, 2)(2, 4)(4, 8)(3, 6)(6, 12)(12, 9)(5, 10)(7, 14)(14, 13)(13, 11).
Exercise 14.32. Use Theorem 14.9 (7), i.e., π(i1 , . . . , lr )π−1 = (π(i1 ), . . . , π(ir )).
(1) π(2, 3)(1, 4)π−1 = π(2, 3)π−1 π(1, 4)π−1 = (1, 3)(2, 4).
(2) π = (2, 3, 4), so π(1, 2, 3)π−1 = (1, 3, 4).
(3) π(1, 2, 3, 4, 5)π−1 = (1, 3)(2, 4, 1)(1, 2, 3, 4, 5)(2, 4, 1)−1 (1, 3)−1 = (1, 3)(2, 4, 3, 1, 5)(1, 3)−1 =
(2, 4, 1, 3, 5).
(4) π(1, 2, 3, 4, 5)π−1 = (1, 2, 3)(1, 2, 3, 4, 5)(1, 2, 3)−1 = (2, 3, 1, 4, 5).
!
1 2 ··· r
Exercise 14.33. For f = we have by Theorem 14.9 (7): f(1, 2, . . . , r)f−1 =
i1 i2 · · · ir
(i1 , i2 , . . . , ir ). Hence the r-cycle (i1 , i2 , . . . , ir ) is conjugate to (1, 2, . . . , r), and so all
r-cycles are conjugate.
Exercise 14.34. As shown in 14.13, any transposition can be written as (i, j) = (1, i)(1, j)(1, i).
Since Sn is generated by transpositions (Corollary 14.12), it is also generated by the
transpositions (1, i), i = 2, . . . , n.
Exercise 15.8. Let G1 = H1 = Z, G2 = 15Z, G3 = 60Z, H2 = 12Z, G4 = H3 = {0}. Then
G1,2 = G2 (G1 ∩ H2 ) = 15Z + 12Z = 3Z,

G1,3 = G2 (G1 ∩ H3 ) = 15Z + {0} = 15Z,
G2,1 = G3 (G2 ∩ H1 ) = 60Z + 15Z = 15Z,
G2,3 = G3 (G2 ∩ H2 ) = 60Z + (15Z ∩ 12Z) = 60Z,
G3,1 = G4 (G3 ∩ H1 ) = 60Z,
G3,2 = G4 (G3 ∩ H2 ) = 60Z ∩ 12Z = 60Z,
(17.18)
H1,2 = H2 (G2 ∩ H1 ) = 12Z + 15Z = 3Z,
H1,3 = H2 (G3 ∩ H1 ) = 12Z + 60Z = 12Z,
H1,4 = H2 (G4 ∩ H1 ) = 12Z,
H2,1 = H3 (G1 ∩ H2 ) = 12Z,
H2,3 = H3 (G3 ∩ H2 ) = 60Z ∩ 12Z = 60Z,
H2,4 = H3 (G4 ∩ H2 ) = {0}.
We thus obtain the refinements (ignoring repetitions)
(17.19) Z > 3Z > 15Z > 60Z > {0} (with factors Z3 , Z5 , Z4 , Z)
(17.20) Z > 3Z > 12Z > 60Z > {0} (with factors Z3 , Z4 , Z5 , Z).
Exercise 15.15. Let G = G1 ≥ . . . ≥ Gr = {e} be the composition series of the

abelian group G. Then Gi /Gi+1 is simple and abelian. Because every subgroup
of an abelian group is normal, being simple means in this case that Gi /Gi+1 goes
not contain any proper non-trivial subgroup. This is only possible if Gi /Gi+1 is
cyclic (if there was more than one generator we would have non-trivial subgroups)
and finite (any infinite cyclic group is isomorphic to Z which has non-trivial sub-
groups). Therefore Gi /Gi+1 is finite for all i. Now by Lagrange’s Theorem |G| =
|G1 /G2 | |G2 /G3 | · · · |Gr−2 /Gr−1 | |Gr−1 /Gr |, which is finite since every factor is. Hence G
is finite.
Exercise 15.16. Recall that very subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic. So the subgroups
of Z24 are of the form mZ24 ' Z24/m for every integer m that divides 24. The factors of
any normal series of Z24 are thus Z24/m /Z24/n ' Zn/m where m, n|24 and m|n. Zn/m is
simple if and only if n/m is a prime. The following are therefore composition series
82 COURSE NOTES
of Z24 :
Z24 > Z8 > Z4 > Z2 > {0} with factors Z3 , Z2 , Z2 , Z2 ;
(17.21)
Z24 > Z12 > Z6 > Z3 > {0} with factors Z2 , Z2 , Z2 , Z3 .
The Jordan-Hölder Theorem implies (in view of the above factors) that these are in
fact all composition series.
Exercise 16.12. For (a, a 0 ), (b, b 0 ) ∈ G × G 0 we have

[(a, a 0 ), (b, b 0 )] = (a, a 0 )(b, b 0 )(a, a 0 )−1 (b, b 0 )−1
−1 −1
(17.22) = (aba−1 b−1 , a 0 b 0 a 0 b 0 )
= ([a, b], [a 0 , b 0 ]).
This proves that K(G × G 0 ) = K(G) × K(G 0 ) and hence by induction Km (G × G 0 ) =
Km (G) × Km (G 0 ).
Exercise 16.25. Let N = K(G). Consider the map ϕ : G → G/N, a 7→ am N. Since

G/N is abelian (by Corollary 16.6), we have (ab)m N = (aNbN)m = (aN)m (bN)m =
am bm N. Thus ϕ(ab) = ϕ(a)ϕ(b) and hence ϕ is a homomorphism. The kernel of ϕ
is
(17.23) ker ϕ = {a ∈ G : am N = N} = {a ∈ G : am ∈ N} = Gm ,
which implies that Gm is a normal subgroup of G.
Exercise 16.26. If N E G, then for n ∈ N, g ∈ G we have [g, n] = gng−1 n−1 =

n 0 gg−1 n−1 = n 0 n−1 for some n 0 ∈ N, and so [g, n] ∈ N for all n ∈ N, g ∈ G. This
implies [G, N] ⊆ N.
To prove the reverse implication, assume [G, N] ⊆ N. Hence in particular [g, n] =
gng−1 n−1 ∈ N for all n ∈ N, g ∈ G. Thus gng−1 ∈ N for all n ∈ N, g ∈ G, i.e.,
gNg−1 ⊆ N for all g ∈ G.

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What are the main topics covered in the notes?

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What is the definition of a group?

What is the definition of a group?

GROUP THEORY (MATH 33300)

Recommended text to complement these notes: J.F. Humphreys, A Course in Group

Date: January 11, 2010.

1.2. Example. The simplest examples of groups are:

1.3. Lemma. Let a be an element of the group G such that a2 = a. Then a = e.

1.4. Exercise. Show that

1.7. Definition. A group G is called abelian (or commutative), if ab = ba for all

1.9. Exercise. Prove the following:

1.10. The easiest description of a finite group G = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn } of order n (i.e.,

The group table completely specifies the group.

1.12. Example. Consider a finite group G = {e, a, b} of order 3. If e is the identity,

Again ? must be c, and thus

(2.1) ϕ(a ◦ b) = ϕ(a) ∗ ϕ(b).

2.3. Exercise. Show that

2.4. Definition. A homomorphism ϕ : G → H is called

2.5. Definition. Two groups G, H are called isomorphic, if there is an isomorphism

2.6. Exercise. Show that (Z, +) ' (2Z, +).

2.8. Lemma. Let ϕ : G → H be a homomorphism, and let e, e 0 denote the identity

is called the image of ϕ, and

(2.6) ker ϕ = {a ∈ G : ϕ(a) = e 0 } ⊆ G

2.10. Exercise. Prove that (im ϕ, ∗) and (ker ϕ, ◦) are groups.

2.11. Theorem. ϕ is a monomorphism if and only if ker ϕ = {e}.

Proof. Assume ϕ is injective. If a ∈ ker ϕ, then ϕ(a) = e 0 = ϕ(e) and hence by

Proof. (1) We have

(2) In view of (1) it remains to be shown that ψ ◦ ϕ is bijective—this is evident and

(4) This is evident.

2.14. Let Aut G be the set of automorphisms ϕ : G → G. Because of Theorem 2.12

2.15. Lemma. Given g ∈ G, define the map ϕg : G → G by ϕg (a) = gag−1 . Then

Proof. ϕg is a homomorphism since

(2.10) ϕg (ab) = gabg−1 = gag−1 gbg−1 = ϕg (a)ϕg (b).

since ϕg ◦ ϕg−1 (a) = g(g−1 ag)g−1 = a, and so ϕg is bijective.

2.16. Definition. ϕ ∈ Aut G is called an inner automorphism if there is a g ∈ G

2.17. Exercise. Show that ∼ is an equivalence relation.

2.19. Theorem. The map Φ : G → Aut G, a 7→ ϕa , is a homomorphism.

2.21. We have Z(G) = G if and only if G is abelian.

2.22. Exercise. Determine all automorphisms of the Klein four group.

2.25. Exercise. Let G be a group. Show that:

3.1. Definition. A non-empty subset H ⊆ G is called a subgroup, if H is a group

3.3. Theorem. Let G be a group and H ⊆ G a non-empty subset. Then H is a sub-

(3.1) (a, b ∈ H) ⇒ (ab ∈ H and a−1 ∈ H).

Proof. Assume H is a subgroup. Then the image of H × H under the composition

3.4. Corollary. Let G be a group and H ⊆ G a non-empty subset. Then H is a sub-

(3.2) (a, b ∈ H) ⇒ (ab−1 ∈ H).

Proof. Assume H is a subgroup. Let a, b ∈ H. Then, by Theorem 3.3, b−1 ∈ H and

3.5. Theorem. Let G be a group and H ⊆ G a finite non-empty subset. Then H is a

(3.3) (a, b ∈ H) ⇒ (ab ∈ H).

y 7→ x = a−1 y. The choice y = a implies e ∈ H and the choice y = e implies

3.7. Theorem. Consider the groups H1 ≤ G1 , H2 ≤ G2 and let ϕ : G1 → G2 be a

Proof. (1) ϕ(H1 ) is evidently non-empty. We have for a, b ∈ H1 that ϕ(a)ϕ(b) =

3.8. Corollary. Let ϕ : G1 → G2 be a homomorphism.

Proof. Apply Theorem 3.7 with H1 = G1 , H2 = {e}.

3.10. Definition. Two subgroups H1 , H2 ≤ G are called conjugate if there is a g ∈ G

3.11. Theorem. Let H1 , H2 ≤ G. Then the set

is a subgroup if and only if H1 H2 = H2 H1 .

Proof. Suppose H1 H2 is a subgroup. Then, for all a ∈ H1 , b ∈ H2 , we have b−1 a−1 =