EXPERIMENT NO.

1A
Bernoulli’s Theorem
Objective:
Verification of Bernoulli’s Theorem
Theory:
According to Bernoulli’s Theorem, in continuous liquid flow, the total head along the flow is the
same i.e. sum of datum head (Z), pressure head (P/W), and velocity head (V2/2g) is constant for
different points, where W is the specific weight of liquid. The theorem considers that the small
(frictional) losses between the various points are insignificant.
Mathematically we can write the Bernoulli’s theorem as,
Z1 + P1/W + V12/2g = Z2 + P2/W + V22/2g
Procedure:
- Measure the flow rate i.e. discharge (Q) from the measuring tank:
Area of measuring tank = A
Time for h cm/mm rise of water level in tank = t seconds
h
Q  A 
t
- Calculate velocity at each of seven points:
Q Q
V1  ; V2  etc.
a1 a2
- Calculate velocity head: V12/2g, V22/2g etc.
- Measure the pressure heads (P1/W) in the piezometer tubes for all the points.
- For horizontal flow, Z1 = Z2
- Apply Bernoulli’s Theorem.
- Repeat the experiments for 5 different discharges by controlling the valve opening.
Discussion & Conclusion:
- Discuss the results.
- State whether frictional loss is negligible or not.
- Comment upon the experiment.

CE233 – FM Lab Manual – Dept. Civil Engg., IIT Bombay Page 1

Table: Observations and calculations

Section of Duct (mm x

Pressure Head (mm)

Area of section (m2)

Piezometer Reading
Velocity head (mm)
Velocity head (m)
Discharge (m3/s)

Total head (mm)

Velocity (m/s)

Remarks
S. No.

(mm)
mm)

1 45 x 20
40 x 20
35 x 20
30 x 20
25 x 20
20 x 20
2 45 x 20
40 x 20
35 x 20
30 x 20
25 x 20
20 x 20
3 45 x 20
40 x 20
35 x 20
30 x 20
25 x 20
20 x 20
4 45 x 20
40 x 20
35 x 20
30 x 20
25 x 20
20 x 20
5 45 x 20
40 x 20
35 x 20
30 x 20
25 x 20
20 x 20

CE233 – FM Lab Manual – Dept. Civil Engg., IIT Bombay Page 2

 EXPERIMENT 1B

Determination of Coefficient of Discharge,

Coefficient of Velocity & Coefficient of Contraction of Orifice
Aim: To determine the coefficient of discharge, coefficient of velocity and coefficient of
contraction of orifice.

Principle: Orifice is a small opening of any cross section on the side or at the bottom of a tank
through which a fluid is flowing. Orifices are used for measuring the rate of flow of fluid.
Flow through an orifice:

Jet of Fluid

Vena Contracta

Applying Bernoulli’s equation between 1 and 2, we get an expression of the form,

P1 V12 P V2
  Z1  2  2  Z 2 (1)
 g 2g  g 2g
P P
Where, 1  H and 2  0 (Atmospheric pressure), also Z1  Z 2
g g
V1 is small in comparison to V2 , as area of the tank is very large as compared to the area of the
jet of liquid, it is neglected.
After substituting the values of these variables in Eq-1, the equation is written as
V2
H 00  0 2 0
2g
Therefore the final form of equation is, V2  2 gH , which is known as the theoretical velocity.
Hydraulic Coefficients:
V
1. Coefficient of velocity ( Cv ) =
2 gH
a
2. Coefficient of Contraction ( Cc ) = c , where, ac is the area of the jet at vena contracta and
a
a is the area of orifice.

CE233 – FM Lab Manual – Dept. Civil Engg., IIT Bombay Page 3

 Qa
3. Coefficient of discharge ( Cd ) = , also Cd = Cv * Cc where Qa and Qth are the actual
Qth
and theoretical discharges respectively.

Experimental Determination of Hydraulic Coefficients:

Volume
At a constant head H, the actual discharge is given by , and theoretical discharge is
Time
equal to area of the orifice * 2gH .
Q Qactual
1. Cd = a =
Qth a 2 gH
2. Section C-C is vena contracta of a jet of water coming out of orifice under constant head
H. Considering a liquid particle, which is at vena contracta at any time and takes the
position P along the jet in time t,
Vactual gx 2 1 x
Cv =  *  , Where x is the horizontal distance traveled by
Vtheoritical 2y 2 gH 4 yH
the particle in time t, y is the vertical distance between P and C and V is the actual
velocity of the jet at vena contracta.
3. Cd  Cv * Cc , therefore the coefficient of contraction can be calculated from this
expression.

Procedure:
Fix any one of the orifices in position and note down the diameter. Open the gate valve of the
supply pipe, and adjust the valve such that when a steady jet is issued from the Orifices as
constant level is maintained in the supply tank. This level can be seen from the glass tube and
provided in the tank with respect to the centre of the Orifices. The theoretical discharge is
calculated from the actual area of cross section of the orifices and the net head under which the
jet issued.

CE233 – FM Lab Manual – Dept. Civil Engg., IIT Bombay Page 4

 The actual discharge can be found by collecting the water from the orifice for a particular period
of time. Actual discharge = A x h/ t; where A = Area of measuring tank; h = rise of water level
(say 10cm) in meters; t = time in seconds for collecting a certain quantity of water in the
measuring tank. From the theoretical and actual discharge Cd can be calculated. To find Cv, x
and y can be measured using the hook gauge provided. Further Cc can be found.
Repeat the experiments for 6 different discharges by controlling the valve opening.

Results & Discussion

Time for rise in

S.No. H Qth Qac Cd x y Cv Cc Remarks
water level in sec
(t)
1

Diameter of the orifice = 10mm; Diameter of contraction = 8.06mm

Area of the measuring jar = 0.5X0.3 m2

Discussion & Conclusion

 In which conditions can we use orifice for flow measurement?

 What are the possible experimental errors?

CE233 – FM Lab Manual – Dept. Civil Engg., IIT Bombay Page 5

 EXPERIMENT No.-2A
Closed Circuit Reynolds Apparatus
Aim: To demonstrate Laminar and Turbulent flow through closed circuit conduit and to find the
Reynolds number and flow characteristics.
Theory: There are two different types of flow, viz laminar flow and turbulent flow.
 In closed conduits, when the diameter of the pipe is small and velocity relatively low,
flow is regular and smooth. Fluid particles move in layers or laminar, velocity at any
point remains constant in magnitude and direction, such a steady flow is termed as
streamline or Laminar flow.
 When the velocity exceeds a certain value, which depends on the size of the pipe and the
viscosity of the fluid, the motion is no longer steady. Eddy currents appear and the
velocity at any point varies both in magnitude and direction, from time to time. This
unsteady flow is known as Turbulent flow.
 The velocity at which the flow changes from laminar to turbulent is called the “Critical
Velocity”
Reynolds Number: It has been found from the experiments that the nature of flow in closed
conduit depends primarily upon the characteristic dimensions of the conduits, the velocity of the
fluid and kinematic viscosity of the fluid. It has been possible by use of the principle of
dimensional analysis to group these variables into a single non-dimensional factor, which will
completely determine the nature of flow. This ratio is known as Reynolds Number.
Reynolds had shown that for pipes,
Vd
Re  (1)

Where, V = Velocity of the fluid; d = Diameter of the pipe; ν = Kinematic viscosity of the fluid
Reynolds number determines whether any flow is laminar or turbulent. Reynold’s number
corresponding to transition from laminar to turbulent flow is about 2,100.
General Description
1. Supply tank is of suitable size with gauge glass and scale arrangement to measure the
head. This in turn is connected with the transparent conduit of rectangular cross section.
The other end of the conduit is connected to an outlet tank with a flow control valve,
which is situated at a level higher than that of the pipe so that the pipe always runs full.
2. A small tank is fitted at the inlet for injecting dye so that the nature of flow can be seen,
with the dye flowing along the water.
3. A measuring tank of suitable capacity to collect the discharge water is provided. This is
complete with gauge glass and scale arrangement, thus enabling to easily note the height
of water level in the measuring tank.
4. By noting the time taken for a particular rise of head (say 5 cm) with the measuring area
of the tank, one can easily find the actual discharge.
5. A sump is provided at the bottom of the unit, to store sufficient water for independent
circulation through the unit for experimentation.
6. A supply pump set is provided to circulate the water to the supply tank.
Procedure
1. Adjust the water inflow into the inlet tank and also the flow control valve such that the flow in the
pipe is slow.

CE233 – FM Lab Manual – Dept. Civil Engg., IIT Bombay Page 6

 2. Inject the filament of dye in to the water stream by opening the valve kept below the dye tank.
3. When the flow is laminar, the colored streak of dye does not mix with the stream of water and is
apparent along the whole length of pipe
4. Increase the velocity of stream gradually in steps by opening the flow control valve with
corresponding increase in flow, so that the inlet tank level is maintained for some time and flow
pattern remains unchanged, as seen by the pattern of the colored streak of dye as said above.
5. In each step, note that the rate of flow of water from the measuring tank and calculate the velocity
of flow of water in the pipe, knowing the cross sectional area of pipe. Also calculate the Reynolds
number taking the average of the width and height of the pipe for the diameter.
6. As the velocity of the stream gradually goes on increasing at a certain moment, a rapid change
takes place, when the streak of dye begins to oscillate and then diffuse into the water, with eddies
and rotational motion of the liquid being quite apparent. This means that turbulent flow has set in.
This velocity of water in the pipe is the “Critical Velocity”.
7. At the Critical Velocity, work out the Reynold’s Number using the formula given in Equation 1,
which is significant in determining the nature of flow in the pipe i.e. laminar or turbulent.
8. Increase the rate of flow in three more steps and note the nature of flow, also, calculate both the
velocity and the Reynold’s Number.
9. Afterwards start decreasing the flow in the pipe, and gradually take 3 readings above the critical
velocity and 3 readings below the critical velocity.
10. It will be found that the value of Reynold’s Number is higher as the flow rate is increased when
compared to the value when the flow rate is decreased.
11. For change from laminar to turbulent, the nature of flow tends to continue as turbulent for a
longer time. Similarly for change from turbulent to laminar also the nature of flow tends to
continue as laminar for a longer time.
Calculation
Vd
Reynolds’ Number Re 
r
Calculate V i.e. Velocity of water in pipe in (cm/sec) from the discharge measured; d = diameter
of pipe in cm (2.44 cm); ν = Kinematic Viscosity in cm2/sec (Stoke)
cm / sec/ cm
Thus Re  =Non-Dimensional Number
cm 2 / sec
The Kinematic viscosity is a function of temperature and its value for may be taken as 0.01 Stoke
(cm2sec-1).
Observation:
Sl. No. Discharge Velocity Reynolds Remarks
number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Discussion & Conclusion

 Discuss laminar, transition and turbulent flow regime in pipes.
 What are the sources of experimental errors?
 What is the uncertainty in your experimental results?
CE233 – FM Lab Manual – Dept. Civil Engg., IIT Bombay Page 7
 EXPERIMENT NO. 2B

Venturi Meter Apparatus

Aim: To calculate the values of theoretical and actual discharges and hence the value of
coefficient of discharge of a Venturi meter.
Apparatus: Venturi meter Experimental setup, stopwatch, scale etc.
Description of the Apparatus: A Venturi meter (Fig. 1) consists of a converging portion
followed by a throat portion of constant diameter and then a gradually diverging portion. It is
used to determine the rate of flow in a pipe. It uses the continuity equation and Bernoulli’s
equation.

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of Venturi meter

Two different venturi meters are available with the pipe diameter and throat diameter as shown
in Table 1:
Table 1: Size of Venturi meter available in the laboratory
S. No Pipe diameter Throat diameter
1. 20 mm 11.83
2. 25 mm 14.79

Theoretical Background:

1) Coefficient of discharge, Cd = Actual discharge, Qa / Theoretical discharge, Qt

2) Actual discharge,
Qa = ( A x h / T ) x 60 x 1000 LPM
where A = area of the measuring tank in meters.
h = rise of water level in meters (say 10cm).
T = Time in seconds for a rise of water level (say 10cm).
3) Theoretical discharge, Qt = K H
where H = Differential head in manometer in m of water

CE233 – FM Lab Manual – Dept. Civil Engg., IIT Bombay Page 8

 a1a2 2 g
K a1 = area of the pipe, a2 = area of the Venturi throat
a12  a2 2

Experimental Procedure:
1. Close the stop cocks provided to the pressure tapping of the venturimeter. Open the inlet
valve gradually to allow the flow from the main pipe into the venturimeter.
2. Open the stop cocks of the pressure tappings. Air bubbles, if any, should be removed very
carefully.
3. First open the inlet value of the apparatus. Adjust the control value kept at the exit end of
the apparatus to a desired flow rate and maintain the flow steadily.
4. The actual discharge is measured with the help of the measuring tank. The differential
head is produced by the flow meter can be found from the manometer for any flow rate.
5. Repeat the experiment for at least seven values of different discharges
6. Repeat the experiment for second pipe also.

Observations and Calculation:

Area of a Collecting tank =
Specific gravity of mercury = 13.6
Coefficient of discharge Cd =
K=
Viscosity of water = 1 centistoke

Observation Table:
S.No Rise in Time Actual Differential head in Theoretical Cd
Water (sec) Discharge mm of mercury discharge Qt
level Qa
h1 h2 H

1
2
3

Calculation Procedure:
1. Calculate the volume of water collected.
2. Find discharge, Q = volume of water collected / time taken = V/ t
CE233 – FM Lab Manual – Dept. Civil Engg., IIT Bombay Page 9
 3. Equivalent pressure difference in terms of height of column of liquid flowing is obtained.
4. Find out the coefficient of discharge. Cd

Result: The value of Cd lies between ……………..

Discussions and Conclusions:

1. Plot the graph of discharge Q versus the differential pressure head on log-log graph paper
(or plot logQ versus log h on ordinary graph paper).
2. What are your observations and conclusions from the above plot?
3. What are the sources of experimental errors?
4. What is the uncertainty in your experimental results?

CE233 – FM Lab Manual – Dept. Civil Engg., IIT Bombay Page 10

 EXPERIMENT 3A
Electrical Analog Studies for potential flow
Aim: To plot the pattern of potential (ideal fluid) flow around a circular cylinder based on the
principles of electrical analogy.

Theory: The flow of current in an electrolytic medium follows the paths known as flow-
lines. Along these lines, the voltage continuously decreases. Hence, by joining points
having the same voltage across the flow-lines, we can draw a family of curves, known as
equipotential lines. It can be shown that these two families of curves, i.e. the flow-lines
and the equipotential lines are orthogonal to each other.

Analytically, either the family of flowlines or the family of equipotential lines can be obtained as
solutions of Laplace’s equation subject to the relevant boundary conditions. Thus, the exercise of
tracing either the streamlines or the equipotential lines based on observations can be described as
an experimental means of seeking the solution of Laplace’s equation. The advantage in the
experimentation is evident for very complex boundary configurations for which analytical
solution to Laplace’s equation will be difficult to find. In the theory of ideal fluid flow, it can be
shown that all streamlines and equipotential lines also satisfy Laplace’s equation. . .

Since the same law (Laplace’s eqn.) governs both the flows (viz. current and ideal fluid flow) by
simulating the boundary conditions in the two systems one can understand the nature of flow in
one system by observing that in the other.

Procedure:

1. Ascertain that the electrolytic tank is level and the electrolyte is free from air. Study the
connections as arranged in the experimental set up.
2. Apply a potential difference of about 10 volts AC. at suitable frequency (usually more
than 50 c/s) to the upstream and downstream tank electrodes. Potential distribution in the
flow region can be worked out by observing the voltage at known nodal· points, followed
by interpolation. Alternatively, the probe may be moved to yield equal voltage and the
co-ordinates of the probe recorded to obtain the equipotential lines in the flow region.
Take 0.5 V intervals in your experiment between 0 to 10V.
3. Plot the equipotential lines to scale.
4. By following the principles of orthogonality, construct the second set of family of curves
viz. the streamlines.

CE233 – FM Lab Manual – Dept. Civil Engg., IIT Bombay Page 11

Discussions:

1. Explain the fields of applications of the study to physically realistic cases.

2. Contrast the boundary conditions to be satisfied by ideal fluids and real fluids.
3. Any specific observations in the experiment.
4. Discuss the results pertaining to convergence and divergence of streamlines, changes in
velocity and pressure around the solid body.
5. Which combination of elementary flow patterns results in flow past a cylinder?
6. Comment on the drag and lift force experienced by the cylinder.
7. Measure the voltages at the centre and at the ends.
8. Plot the graph for equipotential lines.
9. Draw the streamlines (see the Fig. below) and get the flownet.

Precautions:

1. Don’t touch equipment during the experiment.

2. Check whether the equipment is leveled.

A typical flow pattern is shown in figure.

Figure: Equipotential lines and streamlines for flow around a circular cylinder.

CE233 – FM Lab Manual – Dept. Civil Engg., IIT Bombay Page 12

 EXPERIMENT 3B
Coefficient of discharge for the Triangular (V) Notch
Aim: To determine the coefficient of discharge for the Triangular (V) Notch.

Principle: A notch is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a liquid through a small
channel or a tank. It may be defined as an opening in the side of a tank or a small channel in such
a way that the liquid surface in the tank or channel is below the top edge of the opening.

From the above given figure of the triangular notch the following equations are derived as
follows:
 AB AC
tan  
2 OC ( H  h)

AC  ( H  h) * tan
2

Width of strip AB=2AC=2* ( H  h) * tan
2

Area of the strip dA=2* ( H  h) * tan
*dh
2
Discharge, dQ = Cd*Area of strip*Velocity (theo)

= Cd * 2( H  h) * tan * dh * 2 gh
2
H

Total discharge, Qth   2Cd * H  h) * tan * 2 gh * dh
0
2
8  5
Qth  tan * 2 g * H 2
15 2
Qac = Volume/time
Q
Therefore, Cd = a
Qth

CE233 – FM Lab Manual – Dept. Civil Engg., IIT Bombay Page 13

 Experiment
The apparatus is primarily designed to conduct experiments on the coefficient of discharge of
different type of notch plates.

The actual discharge can be found by collecting the water in a tank and by noting the time for a
definite rise of water level in the tank. Actual discharge = A x h/ t; where A = Area of measuring
tank; h = rise of water level (say 10cm) in meters; t = time in seconds for collecting a certain
quantity of water in the measuring tank. The theoretical discharge is calculated by noting the
head (H) over the notch plate, measured with the help of a hook gauge.

Results and Discussion:

Hook gauge reading Time for rise

S.No. Qth in water level Qac Cd=Qac/Qth Remarks
Initial Final H
in sec (t)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Repeat the experiments for 7 different discharges by controlling the valve opening.

Discussion & Conclusion

 What are the possible sources of errors?
 Where can we use V-notch for flow measurement?

CE233 – FM Lab Manual – Dept. Civil Engg., IIT Bombay Page 14

 EXPERIMENT 4A

Frictional Losses in Pipelines

Aim:
The aim of the experiment is to find the friction factor for two pipes of different sizes over a
range of discharges.

Theory:
The dissipation of energy by fluid friction results in a fall of piezometric head in the direction of
flow and if the pipe is of uniform cross-section and the flow is ‘fully developed’, i.e. if it is
sufficiently far from the inlet of the pipe for conditions to have settled, the piezometric head falls
uniformly. For many practical engineering problems, these frictional losses are very important.
For example, in long pipelines booster pumps may be required to add energy to the water to
make up for the frictional losses.

A uniform turbulent flow is considered in a conduit of uniform cross-section. The wall shear
stress  0 can be expressed in terms of the square of the average velocity, V, as follows,
1
 0  c f ( V 2 ) …………………………(1)
2

V2/2g E.L. hf

H.G.L.
2 p2/ γ
p1/γ
L

1
V Z2

Z1 Datum
α

Fig. (1) Head loss in a pipe between two sections

In Eq. (1) cf is the coefficient of skin friction, and ρ is the mass density of the fluid flowing. The
pressures at section 1 and 2 are p1 and p2 respectively, and A is the area of flow. For equilibrium
in steady flow, the summation of forces acting on any fluid element must be equal be zero. Thus
in the direction of flow,
p1 A1  p2 A2   LA sin    0 ( PL)  0 ……………………….. (2)

The above equation can be simplified as

CE233 – FM Lab Manual – Dept. Civil Engg., IIT Bombay Page 15

 p1 p2 PL
  z2  z1   0 …………………………….. (3)
  A
For a uniform pipe V1 being equal to V2, the head loss due to friction can be given as,
p1 p2
hf  (  z1 )  (  z2 ) …………………………….. (4)
 
Hence from equation (3) and (4), one can write
L
hf   0 ……………………………… (5)
R
Where the hydraulic radius R is equal to the ratio A/P. Using Eq. (1), the above equation can be
rewritten as
1 L
h f  V 2c f ………………………………(6)
2 R
Further, for a circular pipe of diameter D, the hydraulic radius R=D/4 and the Darcy’s friction
factor is considered to be equal to 4cf. Thus, the head loss due to friction can be written in the
popular form as,
fLV 2
hf  ……………………………….. (7)
2 gD
Eq. (7) is known as Darcy-Weisbach formula for pipe friction.
The co-efficient f is usually known as the friction factor. Comparison of dimensional formulae
of the two sides of Eq. (7) shows that f is simply a numeric without units. Based on theoretical
as well as dimensional analysis, the friction factor f can be shown to be a function of the
Reynold’s number, Re, and the relative roughness height  , where ε is the mean height of
D
roughness of the pipe.

Reynold’s number is a dimensionless parameter (=VD/ν) and may be considered as the ratio of
the inertia forces and the shear forces due to viscosity.

One feature that may be expected to influence the flow appreciably is the average height of the
‘bumps’ on the surface. However, it is not the absolute size of the bumps that would be
significant, but their size in relation to some other characteristic length of the system, considering
the spatial distribution of bumps also. It is to be expected, then, that it is the relative roughness
that affects the flow.
Based on Nikuradse’s experiments, Sir Thomas E. Stanton, along with J.R. Pannell, were one the
first to present graphically the relation between friction factor, Reynold’s number, and relative
roughness. In Nikuradse’s experiments, grains of sand of uniform size were glued to the walls of
pipes of various diameters which were initially very smooth. The same graphical presentation for
commercial pipes is given by Moody’s diagram.
However it is to be remembered that Moody’s diagram is at best an approximation as there are
other factors like presence of transverse ridges on a larger scale than the normal roughness,
ageing of the pipe and presence of dirt and corrosion that might also affect the flow.

CE233 – FM Lab Manual – Dept. Civil Engg., IIT Bombay Page 16

When the Reynold’s number is less than 2300, the flow takes place without much diffusion and
is considered as laminar flow. Hagen showed experimentally and Poiseuille proved theoretically
that for laminar flow
32 LV
hf  …………………………. (8)
gD2
From Eq. (7) and (8), it is possible to show that for laminar flows the friction factor is as follows,
64
f  ………………………….. (9)
Re
Here the relative roughness has no role on the head loss. For Reynold’s number exceeding 4000
the flow in the pipe becomes turbulent resulting in intense mixing of tracers due to diffusion.
However, for lower values of Re and  the relative roughness is irrelevant and the curves
D
coincide for different pipes. If this occurs we speak of hydraulically smooth flow. In contrast, for
relatively high values of Reynold’s number, viscous effects are negligible and f depends only
on the relative roughness,  . This is hydraulically rough flow (horizontal lines in Moody’s
D
diagram).

Experimental set-up:
The set-up consists of a single-pipeline system consisting of two pipes of size 20mm and 25mm
dia. With tappings at 2m distance and a flow control valve to control the discharge through each
pipe. Supply pump set is rigidly fixed on the sump which is provided to store sufficient waters
for independent circulation through the unit for experimentation and arranged within the floor
space of the main unit. Each individual pipe can be connected to the manometer through the
pressure feed pipes having individual quick operating cocks. The discharge is measured by the
help of measuring tank fitted with scale.

Procedure:
a) Gradually open the inlet to let water into the pipe to build up sufficient pressure. The
manometer should be properly primed. Priming is the operation of filling the manometer upper
part and the connecting pipes with water venting the air from the pipes.
b) Record the size of pipes, length between the pressure tappings, and the temperature of the
water flowing through the pipe.
c) Allow the flow to continue for some time and on attaining a steady state condition, note down
the manometer readings.
d) For the selected discharge, close the outlet of the collecting tank and allow the water to rise by
some suitable height. The time taken for the level to rise is also to be noted by a stopwatch. The
discharge can be found by dividing the volume of the water collected by the time of collection.
e) Reset the control valve and repeat the experiment for at least ten different discharges for the
pipe.
f) Turn the pressure tappings off for the pipe and open it for the other pipe.
g) Repeat the steps c) to e) for the second pipe also.
Maintain different tables for each of the pipes used.
Results:
From the head loss equation, compute values of f for all the runs. Corresponding Reynold’s
numbers are also to be computed.

CE233 – FM Lab Manual – Dept. Civil Engg., IIT Bombay Page 17

Plot f vs Re on the Moody diagram (refer books on Fluid Mechanics). Distinguish the plots of
different pipes by varying dashed lines.
Discussions:
i) Give one empirical relation of f with Re for the turbulent flow in smooth pipes.
ii) Can flow through ordinary commercial pipes be laminar? If so, under what conditions?
iii) Compare the ε values obtained in your test with the published values.
iv) List the possible sources of error in the experiment.
v) Explain the meaning of equivalent sand grain roughness for pipes.
OBSERVATION
TABLE
L= 2 m Plan area of
ν = 1 centistoke collecting tank = 0.3 m x 0.4 m

Sl Depth of Time Discharge Velocity Head loss Head loss f Re

No. water of flow as hf
collected
mm of
mm sec m3/sec m/sec mm of Hg H2O
Pipe 1 ( 20 mm diameter)

Pipe 2 ( 25 mm diameter)

CE233 – FM Lab Manual – Dept. Civil Engg., IIT Bombay Page 18

 EXPERIMENT No. 4B
Impact of Jet Experiment
Aim: To determine the force generated by a cylindrical water jet as it strikes a flat plate or a
hemispherical cup and to compare with the force predicted using the principle of linear
momentum

Apparatus: (1) Jet nozzle (2) Deflectors (Plate, Slope, Hemisphere) (3) Lever Mechanism (4)
Loading Weights (5) Collecting Tank (6) Sump

Theory: Mechanical work can be produced by allowing fluid under pressure to strike the vanes
of a turbine wheel. Rotational motion is then produced by the force generated as the jet strikes
the vanes, and then the energy of the jet is transferred to turbine shaft. In order to estimate the
energy obtained by the rotor shaft, it is required to undertake a detailed study of action of jet on
vanes of different shape, size and geometry.

CE233 – FM Lab Manual – Dept. Civil Engg., IIT Bombay Page 19

 Fig. 1: Typical sketch of setup

Fig. 2: Plate

Fig. 3: Slope

Fig. 4: Hemisphere

If a vertical water jet is moving with certain velocity is made to strike a target, which is free to
move in vertical direction then a force will be exerted on the target by the impact of jet,
according to momentum equation, this force (which is also equal to the force required to bring
back in its original position) must be equal to the rate of change of momentum of the jet flow in
that direction.

CE233 – FM Lab Manual – Dept. Civil Engg., IIT Bombay Page 20

Impact on Plate
Let a jet of water of cross-sectional area A(m2) strike with a velocity v1(m/sec) on fixed plate as
shown in Fig. 2. The weight W (kg) of water striking against plane surface per second is ρAv1,
where ρ is density of water (kg/m3). The force on the surface is equal to mass times change in jet
velocity per second. It is equal to (W/g) x (v1 - 0), since final velocity in original direction is
zero.

The force on the surface, (kg) = (N) (1)

Impact on Slope
If the surface is inclined at an angle ϴ to the jet, the jet velocity can be resolved into two
components, one normal to the surface and other parallel to it. Since water leaves the surface
tangentially, there is no component of force in that direction after striking. From Fig. 3, keeping
in mind the direction of coordinate axis,

The force on the surface,

(kg) = (N) (2)

Impact on Hemisphere
In this case, if jet strikes at the centre of hemisphere with a velocity v1(m/sec), after striking, the
jet gets divided and glides over the surface and leaves with same velocity v2 = - v1 (m/sec)
(Fig. 4).

The force on the surface, (kg) = (N) (3)

Procedure
1. After attaching a deflector, use the lever mechanism to set the pointer in balanced position.
2. Open the valve and balance the pointer by loading weights.
3. Record the time, t required to fill up the tank from 10 to 20 liters.
4. Increase the flow rate of water, repeat this procedure for a series of FIVE different flow rates
and record the corresponding values
4. Obtain measurements for both the Flat plate, Slope and Hemisphere.

CE233 – FM Lab Manual – Dept. Civil Engg., IIT Bombay Page 21

Observations

Diameter of nozzle = 10 mm
Cross-sectional area of Jet =
Density of water =

S.No Measured Force Time Flow rate Velocity Calculated Force

(N) (sec) (lit/sec) (m/sec) Fth (N)
1
2
3
4
5

Calculations:

1) Flow rate, Q= Vol/ t (m3/sec)

Where, Vol= Volume of water collected (say 10 lit); t =Time in seconds

2) Velocity (v1) = Q/A

Where, Q=Flow rate m3/sec; A = cross-sectional area (m2) of jet

3) Coefficient = Measured Force/ Calculated Force

Discussions & Conclusions

1. Discuss why the magnitude of the measured force is different from the theoretical value for
the same mass flow rate.
2. Compare the results of different deflectors and comment on its efficiency
3. Derive the expression for force of jet on a curved surface
4. If the distance between the vane and the nozzle changes, how do you expect force to be
influenced by this change and why?

CE233 – FM Lab Manual – Dept. Civil Engg., IIT Bombay Page 22

 EXPERIMENT 5A

Calibration of Rotameter
Aim: To calibrate the rotameter for discharge measurement.

Apparatus:Rotameter; Piping system; Supply Pump set; Measuring tank; Sump.

Theory:
A Rotameter is a device that measures the flow rate of liquid or gas in a closed tube. It belongs to
the class of meters called variable area meters which measure flow rate by allowing the cross
sectional area the fluid travels through to vary, causing some measurable effect. In a rotameter
the area through which fluid passes increases. Pressure drop over the meter is constant. The
calibration consists of flow rate versus area.

Fig 1: Typical sketch of a Rotameter

Principle of operation:
The rotameter's operation is based on the variable area principle: fluid flow raises a float in a
tapered tube, increasing the area for passage of the fluid. The greater the flow, the higher the
float is raised. The height of the float is directly proportional to the flowrate. With liquids, the
float is raised by a combination of the buoyancy of the liquid and the velocity head of the fluid.
The float moves up or down in the tube in proportion to the fluid flowrate and the annular area
between the float and the tube wall. The float reaches a stable position in the tube when the
upward force exerted by the flowing fluid equals the downward gravitational force exerted by the
weight of the float. A change in flowrate upsets this balance of forces. The float then moves up
or down, changing the annular area until it again reaches a position where the forces are in
equilibrium. To satisfy the force equation, the rotameter float assumes a distinct position for
every constant flowrate.

A rotameter is mounted vertically with the narrow end at the bottom and the tube tapers into a
wider top. The flow comes from the bottom and pushes the float inside the rotameter up to a
point that the weight of the float is in balance with the force exerted by the flow. Here the
incompressible Bernoulli equation applies:

CE233 – FM Lab Manual – Dept. Civil Engg., IIT Bombay Page 23

 (1)
2 2
where,g is the gravity acceleration constant (9.81 m/s or 32.2 ft/s ), V is the velocity of the fluid,
and z is the height above an arbitrary datum. Applying this equation to a streamline traveling up
the axis of the vertical tube gives,

(2)
where, subscript a represents the position right below the float, b is the balanced point of the
float, usually the top of the float, V is the flow velocity, p is pressure, and is the density. A
shorter form of the above equation is

(3)
where,hf is the height of the float or the distance from the bottom to the indicator of the float that
depends on the float design.
From continuity, the volume flow rate at a is the same as the volume flow rate at b,
i.e., which implies

(4)
Please note that is the annular area between the float and the tube wall, not the
whole cross section area at b. Hence, the velocity Vb can be substituted out of the Bernoulli's
equation to give,

(5)

Experimental Procedure
1. Open the inlet gate valve of the apparatus and adjust the control valve kept at the exit end
of the apparatus to a desired flow rate and maintain the flow steadily. Find the reading on
the scale attached with the Rotameter.
2. The actual discharge is measured with the help of measuring tank.
3. Calibrate the rotameter with the discharge range obtained from measuring tank.
4. Repeat the experiment for 10 readings.
5. Repeat the experiment for the 2nd rawRotameter. But first set the discharge in the
measuring tank same as measured for 1st set for calibration and then read the height of
float in the raw Rotameter.
6. Find a relationship between the discharge and the height of float in the raw Rotameter.

CE233 – FM Lab Manual – Dept. Civil Engg., IIT Bombay Page 24

Observation table:

Area of measuring tank,A = 25cm x 25cm

S.No. Depth of Time for Volume of Actual Discharge Discharge Height of

water in rise of water in discharge (Qr, from Coefficient float in
measuring water tank (Qa=V/T) the meter (Cd= raw
tank, h level,T (V=Ah) (lit/sec) in lph) Qr/Qa) rotameter
(cm) (sec) (cm3/s) (cm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Calculations:
1)Actual discharge, Qa =Ah/T
Where A =Area of the measuring tank in meters
h= Rise of water level in meters (say 5 cm)
T= Time in seconds for raise of water level

2) Discharge obtained from scale= Direct reading from the Rotameter

3) Plot a graph with X- axis: the reading obtained for the raw rotameter in cm and Y – axis:
Q in lit/sec.
Discussions:
1) What would be the change in the discharge if in case:
a) air is being used as a fluid instead of water
b) the rotameter is tilted to a certain angle
2) What are the advantages of a rotameter over other flow measuring devices?
3) State the sources of error between the computed and theoretical values of coefficient of
discharge.

CE233 – FM Lab Manual – Dept. Civil Engg., IIT Bombay Page 25

 EXPERIMENT No.- 5B

Determination of losses in pipe lines due to sudden contraction,

enlargement, bends and elbows
Aim: To determine frictional losses in pipes due to sudden contraction, enlargement, bends
and elbows.

Apparatus:
General Description
Closed Circuit Apparatus is primarily designed for conducting experiments on the loss of
head due to sudden enlargement, contraction, bends and elbows of different sizes. The unit
mainly consists of (1) Piping System; (2) Measuring Tank; (3) Differential manometer; (4)
Supply pump set and (5) Sump.

Piping System
It consists of two G.I. pipes of size 20 mm and 25 mm fitted with G.I. Bends, Elbows,
Sudden Enlargement and sudden contraction with separate flow control valves, pressure
tapings at appropriate section mounted on a suitable stand. Separate up-stream and down-
stream pressure feed pipes are provided for the measurement of pressure heads with control
situated at the common place for easy operation.

Measuring tank
Measuring tank is provided to measure the discharge of water from the unit arranged with
overflow arrangement and provided with a gauge glass, scale arrangement and a drain valve.

Differential manometer
It is of 0.5 m range with 1 mm scale graduation to measure the loss of head in the pipelines

Supply Pump set

Supply Pump set is rigidly fixed on the sump. The pump set is mono-block pump with 0.5HP
motor operating on single phase 220 volts 50Hz AC supply. Prime the pump before starting.

Sump
Sump is provided to store sufficient waters for independent circulation through the unit for
experimentation and arranged within the floor space of the main unit.

Experimental procedure
 The apparatus is designed for conducting experiments on the losses in pipe lines
due to sudden contraction, sudden enlargement, bends and elbows. Two different
size of the pipe fittings are provided for experiments. Each individual pipe fittings

CE233 – FM Lab Manual – Dept. Civil Engg., IIT Bombay Page 26

 are already connected to the manometer through the pressure feed pipes having
individual quick operating cocks.
 While taking readings close all the cocks in the pressure feed pipes except the two
(Down stream and up stream) cocks which directly connected the manometer to
the required pipe fittings, for which the loss in head has to be determined (make
sure while taking readings that the manometer upper part and the connected pipes
with water and venting the air from the pipes)
 First open the inlet gate valve of the apparatus. Adjust the control valve kept at
the exit end of the apparatus to a desired flow rate and maintain the flow steadily.
 The actual discharge is measured with the help of measuring tank. For each size
of the pipe the area of cross section of flow rate and can be calculated from
known diameter of the pipe. From these two valves the average ‘velocity of flow’
through the pipe can be calculated.
 The actual loss of head is determined from the manometer readings. From the
‘velocity of flow’ the ‘velocity head’ can be calculated by using the relation
V2/2g.
 Actual loss of head/Velocity Head can be determined (1) for the different pipe
fittings in the same size and varying the flow through wide range and (2) for the
different pipe diameters repeating the above experiment.
 Do the experiments for sudden enlargement, sudden contraction and change in
direction for atleast 3 different discharges.

A typical tabular form is given below for the convenience during experiments

Tabular Form
S.No Dia- Area Dia- Area Time H- Q- V1 V2 he hf K=he/ Rema
. d1 C.S d2 C.S for ht. Dis Vel Vel hf rks
a1 a2 Collect
T

Calculations
1) Loss of head due to sudden enlargement,
(V1  V2 ) 2
he  meter of water (1.1)
2g
Q
V1  m/sec (1.2)
a1

CE233 – FM Lab Manual – Dept. Civil Engg., IIT Bombay Page 27

 Q
V 2 m/sec (1.3)
a2
AH 3
Q m /sec (1.4)
T
d 2
a1  1 m2 (1.5)
4
g = Acceleration due to gravity

2) Loss of head due to change of direction

v 2
hd  (2.1)
2g

Where,   Sin 2 (2.2)

 =Change of direction
Q
v (2.3)
a
AH 3
Q m /sec (2.4)
T
d 2
a1  (2.5)
4
d = Diameter of pipe.

3) Loss of head due to sudden Contraction

2
V2  1 
hc  2   1 (3.1)
2 g  Cc 

Cc = 0.62
Q
V2  m/sec (3.2)
a2
AH 3
Q m /sec (3.3)
T
d 2
a2  2 (3.4)
4
d 2 = Reduced Diameter of pipe.

Discussion and Conclusion

 Discuss various losses in pipes.
 What are the possible errors and uncertainties in the experiment?

CE233 – FM Lab Manual – Dept. Civil Engg., IIT Bombay Page 28

 EXPERIMENT 6A
Drag Force on an Airfoil Shaped Body
Aim: To determine and compare the drag force on an airfoil shaped body.

Theoretical Background: Drag force is the force that resists the movement of a solid object
through a fluid. The drag force is made up of frictional force and pressure force components
acting along the direction of flow, integrated all over the surface of the body. The drag force is
very much dependent on the shape of the body that results in very complicated formulae for drag
force. Hence, the drag force equation is developed using the ‘drag coefficient’ approach. In this
1
approach, the drag force is related to the stagnation pressure U 2 and exposed area A D. The
2
exposed area is taken as projected area parallel to the fluid flow for convenience. The
relationship is expressed by
U2
FD  CD AD  (1)
2
Where, C D is the ‘drag coefficient’, which needs to be established by theoretical experiment, 
is the density of fluid. In the laboratory, air is used as fluid and density of air at 20° C can be
assumed as 1.2 kg/m3.
Apparatus: The apparatus consists of Airflow bench as shown in Fig.

Procedure:
1. Select a resistance body (wing profile) and insert it in the 0° angle in the housing.
2. Move the pitot tube at a position where the measurement opening is not influenced by the
resistance of the body (2-3mm from the tunnel wall).
3. Switch on the wind channel, and set a mid range of wind speed using precision
potentiometer.
4. Measure the pressure downstream of the wing profile with the Pitot tube.
a. Shift the Pitot tube transverse to the flow, referred to the axis and record a
measured value every 1mm; above 10 mm, a measured value every 5 mm is
sufficient.

40
 5. Determine the drag force FD by counterbalancing the balance bar with weights and the
calculations given below.
6. Calculate the Coefficient of drag.
7. Repeat the experiment for 7 different flow speeds.

Calculations:
2 p dyn
The wind speed produced in the housing is given by U  m/s.

Where pdyn is the pressure reading on the Pitot tube in Pascals; ρ is density of air (1.2 kg/m3).
FD
The coefficient of drag C D is obtained from C D  , where FD is obtained from the
U2
AD 
2
experimental setup by balancing the moments on the apparatus and carrying out calculations
below.
Here AD = 45cm2.

The air resistance of the axis of the resistance body must also be taken into account. The drag
force of the axis, where CD,axis = 0.7 and AD,axis =4x2.5 mm2, is produced on each side as,

41
 1
 CD ,axis AD ,axisU 2 .
FD ,axis 
2
By way of balance of moments, the drag force of the body can be calculated (ID = 75mm):

( FD  2.FD ,axis ).I D  FG I G

Where FG is the weight = mg (m is the mass added to counter balance the bar; g is the
acceleration due to gravity); IG is the lever arm reading for the weight.

The following table shows typical reading and calculations required.

Sl Pitot tube Velocity Mass FG IG FD,axis FD CD

. Reading (pdyn ) U in m/s added for
N in Pascals. Counter
o. balancing
min gm

Discussion & Conclusions

 What is the possible value of CD for airfoils?

 What will be the effect, is axis is changed?
 What are the possible experimental errors?
 Comment on the results.

42
 6B
EXPERIMENT 8B

Vortex Flow Experiment

AIM: To study Forced Vortex Flow.

APPARATUS:

Figure 1 shows the typical sketch of the apparatus. A cylindrical vessel is rotated at a desired
speed about its vertical axis by a low voltage motor. There is a hole in the base, which may be
closed by a plug, so that fixed amount of water may be retained in the vessel. After a period of
steady rotation, a forced vortex is produced. The surface profile is measured by traversing a
probe across the diameter of the rotating fluid, and the distribution of total head by traversing a
pitot tube.
Applications: Study of fluid motion in pumps, turbine etc.

THEORY:

CE233 – FM Lab Manual – Dept. Civil Engg., IIT Bombay Page 46

Bernoulli’s equation states that the total head, H, is constant along the streamline of an
incompressible and inviscid fluid. The variation of H across the streamline is closely related to
the rotation of the flow. If H varies from one streamline to another, then the rotation is present
and the flow is referred to as rotational. When the flow is about a centre, then it is known as
vortex flows.
As per Bernoulli’s theorem, the total head at any point along a streamline is given by,
u2 p
H  z (1)
2 g g
By equating force to mass x acceleration, it can be shown that
d  p  u2
  z   (2)
dr  g  gr
Differentiating eqn. (1) with respect to r, we get,
dH u  du u 
    (3)
dr g  dr r 
For forced vortex, if Ω is the angular velocity,
du
u  r and therefore 
dr
Hence,
dH r 2 2 r
     
dr g g
2r 2
H C (4)
g
Putting H=0, where r=0, C=0
2r 2
H (5)
g
Eqn. (5) gives the variation of total head with radius.

Integrating Eqn. (2) after substituting u  r ,

CE233 – FM Lab Manual – Dept. Civil Engg., IIT Bombay Page 47

 p 2r 2
z C (6)
g 2g
For the case of a liquid rotating about a vertical axis, as indicated in Fig. 3, it is convenient to
choose atmospheric pressure as the datum, and the surface elevation at the centre as the datum
for z. Thus, in Eqn. (2), where r=0, p=0 and z=0, then C=0 also. Therefore,
2r 2
z (7)
2g

PROCEDURE

 To produce a forced vortex, the centre plug is inserted and the perforated cylinder
removed. Switch on the controller, ensuring that the variable knob is set fully
anticlockwise.
 Slowly increase the speed of rotation by turning the knob clockwise until the vessel is
rotating at around 30 rev/min and then slowly fill the vessel to approx. half depth.
 After a few minutes, when vortex produced is constant, the surface profile may be plotted
by raising the pointer through discrete steps and moving the cross slide horizontally away
from zero datum. 10 recordings should be taken.
 Rotational speed is also recorded by counting the number of revolutions over a period of
around one minute.
 Total head can also be recorded by replacing the pointer with the open end opposing the
flow.
 The distribution of total head may be observed by replacing the probe with Pitot tube. It
should be inserted just sufficiently for the end of the tube to be completely immersed, and
then open end should face the direction of flow.
 The water level in the tube should be noted at several radii.

Measurements

Table 1: Measurement of surface profile of forced vortex

Vertical scale Horizontal scale reading

z Mean r r2
No. reading
(cm) r1 (cm) rr (cm) (cm) (cm)
(cm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

CE233 – FM Lab Manual – Dept. Civil Engg., IIT Bombay Page 48

Table 2: Measurement of Total Head in a Forced Vortex
.
Pitot tube Mean Theo.
Horizontal scale reading Mean r r2 readings H H
No.
(cm) (cm) (Eq.5)
r1 (cm) rr (cm) H1 H2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Where, r1= radius on one side vortex (left); r2=radius on opposite side of vortex (right);
z=Distance from datum; H1=height at one side of vortex (left); H2=height at opposite side of
vortex (right); Speed of rotation: 100 Number of revolutions in t seconds

2 (100)
Angular velocity    rad/sec
t

Plots: 1) r (cm) on x- axis vs. H (cm) on y axis;

2) r (cm) on x- axis vs. z (cm) on y axis;

Repeat the experiments for three different RPM by adjusting the knobs.

Results and Discussion:

1) Compare the experimental values of H and theoretically obtained values of H (Eqn. 5)
and discuss.
2) Compare the experimental values of z and theoretically obtained values of z (Eqn. 7) and
discuss.

Conclusions: 1) Comment on the experiment; 2) Comment on the results; 3) Comment on

applications; 4) Comment on possible experimental errors.

CE233 – FM Lab Manual – Dept. Civil Engg., IIT Bombay Page 50

TITLE: PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS & HYDROSTATICS BENCH
EXPERIMENT 7A
Aim: Boyle - Mariotte’s Law
Unit Layout:

Fig. 1 Experimental set-up

Theory:
Boyle's law (sometimes referred to as the Boyle–Mariotte law, or Mariotte's law) is an
experimental law that describes how the pressure of a gas tends to increase as the volume of a
gas decreases. A modern statement of Boyle's law is:
“The absolute pressure exerted by a given mass of an ideal gas is inversely proportional to
the volume it occupies if the temperature and amount of gas remain unchanged within
a closed system.”
Liquids (such as water) can normally not be compressed, unlike gases. As the pressure p
rises, the gas volume V falls. This property is described by Boyle – Mariotte’s
lawmathematically as:
𝑝𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
 The law applies at constant temperature.
Accordingly, for two different states in the measuring vessel:
𝑝1 𝑉1 = 𝑝2 𝑉2
For this case, Vi is the residual volume of air in the small
measuring vessel (diameter d) at any two points in time i= 1 and
i = 2. Thus:
𝜋
𝑉𝑖 = 𝑑2 𝑧𝑖
4

Fig. 3 Dependence of Substituting in above equation:

the air pressure pifrom
𝑝1 𝑧1 = 𝑝2 𝑧2
the height of air column
zi

Note: the pressure pim displayed on the manometer must be increased by the atmospheric
pressure pamb ≈ 1 bar acting on the surface of the earth, thus
𝑝𝑖 = 𝑝𝑖𝑚 + 𝑝𝑎𝑚𝑏
When the above equation is plotted over the height of the air column zi, a hyperbola is
produced; with semi-logarithmic scaling a straight line(fig. 3).
Procedure:
1. Preparing the system:
 Open plug valves (13) and (17), close plug valves (14), (16) and (18).
 Close vent valve on the small measuring vessel (1), open vent valve on the large
vessel (4).
 Switch on the submerged pump.
 Close plug valve (13). Switch off the pump once water level reaches a height of
approx. 15 – 20 cm.
 Open plug valve (14): water will flow into the small measuring vessel. The water
level in the 2 measuring vessels will not be equal because of air in the smaller
vessel.
 Connect the compressor via a connecting hose to the large measuring vessel.
2. Performing the experiment:
 Switch on the compressor.
 The pressure in the small measuring vessel will start to rise, at the same time,
the water level in the small vessel will also rise; air in it being compressed.
 Take number of measurements:
zi Height of air column in small vessel
pim Air pressure on manometer
3. Draining the system:
 Close vent valve on large measuring vessel and open all other plug valves and
vent valves.
4. Plot the variation of pressure of air with the height of air column in the small vessel.
Calculations:
Observation Table:
Time Pressure on pi = pim+ pamb Height of air pi.zi Deviation
(ti) Manometer pim (pamb= 1 bar; column in in %
(bar) atmospheric small vessel zi
pressure) (cm)
i=1
i=2
i=3
i=4
i=5
i=6
i=7

Discussion and Conclusions:

1. What is the effect of the shape of the two vessels on the pressure increase/decrease?
2. Why is it necessary for temperature to be constant?
3. What is an ideal gas?
4. Name a practical example where you can observe Boyle’s law.
TITLE: Hydrostatic Pressure in Liquids
EXPERIMENT 7B
Aim: The two objectives of this experiment are:
a. To determine the hydrostatic force.
b. To determine the position of the line of action of the hydrostatic force.

Unit Layout:

Fig. 1 Experimental set-up

Theory:
The hydrostatic pressure of liquids is the gravitational pressure phyd.It rises due to the intrinsic
weight as the depth t increases, and is calculated from:
Phyd= ρ.g.t………………………(1)
Where, t=distance from liquid surface
It will be first demonstrated how centre of pressure can be determined. The resultant force Fp
is then calculated..
 Fig. Resultant force and centre of pressure illustration
Equations for the calculations of the centre of Pressure and resultant Force:
As per the geometry of the instrument, following formulae can be used to determine the
resultant force and centre of pressure-
For vertical positioning of water vessel-
a. For a water level s< 100 mm:
1
𝑒=6s
s
ID= 200 mm − 3., where ID= lever arm of the resultant force
1 (100𝑚𝑚)2
b. For a water level s>100 mm, 𝑒 = 12 . s−50mm
ID = 150mm + e

Resultant Force
Fp=pc.Aact.
For s < 100 mm: Pc=ρgs/2 and Aact.= s.b
For s> 100 mm: pc=ρ.g.9s-50 mm) and Aact= 100 mm.b
b=75 mm (width of the vessel)

When water vessel is tilted

 The difference between evaluation of the tilted vessel and that of the vertical vessel
lies in the translation of the water levels onto the tilted active surface: A factor cosα
must be taken into account here

For a water level s<sh a triangular profile as follows applies:

For a water level s>sh a trapezoidal profile as follows applies

Resultant Force
For s<sh
Pc=ρ.g.(s-st)/2 and Aact=h.b

For s>sh the trapezoidal profile as follows applies:

Pc= ρg(s-st-50mm.cosα), Aact=100mm.b
Theresultant force is produced as
Fp=pc.Aact.

900 positioning of the water vessel

ID= 150 mm.
Fp= ρg.(s-st).(100mm.b)

Procedure:

 Set the water vessel (1) to an angle of  0° using the detent (2) as shown.
 Counterbalance the unit with a rotating slider (3): The stop pin (4) must be
precisely in the middle of the hole for this.
  Mount the rider (6), set the lever arm on the scale (e.g. l=150 mm).
 Top up with water until the unit is balanced (stop pin (4) at centre of hole)
 Read off water level s and enter it in the prepared worksheet
 Increase the appended weights (7) in increments of 0.5-1 N and repeat the
measurement.
 For the calculations of centre of pressure and hydrostatics force formulae are
given in previous paragraph.
 Follow the same procedure for tilted vessel and vessel at90o also.
 To check the theory, a balance of moments around the centre of motion O can be
established and checked:
FG.I = FP.ID
Calculations:
Worksheet for centre of pressure:

Discussion and Conclusions:

1. What is centre of pressure?
2. Name any practical application where hydrostatic force is taken into consideration.