The Value of Cycling': Fiona Rajé and Andrew Saffrey

Fiona Rajé and Andrew Saffrey
‘The Value of Cycling’

Contents
Acknowledgements 1
Headline findings 3
Executive summary 4
Background 7
The team 8
Methodology 8
Findings 10
Gap Analysis 28
Conclusion 29
References 30
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the following people and

organisations for their contributions, assistance, or responses to
requests for information.
• Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport – in particular the

staff at the John Williams Library
• Cycling and Society Research Group
• Cyclists’ Touring Club – Brett Nicolle and John Meudell
• Department for Transport
• European Cyclists’ Federation
• Hilary Dreaves – University of Liverpool
• Outspoken Delivery – Gary Armstrong
• Manuel Calvo
• Peter Wood – Open University
• Phil Jones Associates – Adrian Lord and Phil Jones (content and
production); Antoine François (graphics and typesetting)
• Professor John Parkin – University of Western England (quality
assurance)
• Professor Miles Tight – University of Birmingham
• Release the Chicken – Milenne Tanganelli (photography)
• Rosalind Readhead
• Sustrans
• Transport for London – George Weeks
The value of cycling
1
Headline Findings
Strategic • High-density, cycle-friendly urban form is conducive to achieve agglomeration benef ts
economic • Annualised infrastructure costs in compact, less car-dependent metropolises are 33% less
benef ts than in low-density, car-oriented ‘sprawl’
• Catering for cycling is steadily rising on the agenda of business leaders and city mayors
Local • Cyclists visit local shops more regularly, spending more than users of most other modes of
economic transport
benef ts • Per square metre, cycle parking delivers 5 times higher retail spend than the same area of
car parking
• A compact town optimised for walking and cycling can have a “retail density” (spend per
square metre) 2.5 times higher than a typical urban centre.
• Public realm improvements, including those that cater for cycling, have been shown to result
in increased trade at local businesses; up to 49% in New York City
Personal • Neighbourhoods with cycle-friendly characteristics – low traff c volumes, walkable, close to
benef ts off-road cycle paths – are more desirable or have higher property values
• Residential property values rise 1% if motor vehicle traff c is reduced by 50%
• Children who walk or cycle to school tend to be more attentive and achieve better results
• Cycle friendly environments promote more physical activity in later years
Employment • Facilitation of cycling to work leads to lower staff turnover

benef ts • Cycling facilities can overcome diff culties in accessing employment opportunities
• Cycling reduces absenteeism, boosting productivity: regular cyclists take one less sick day
per year
Public • Cycling schemes can achieve more for less, with benef t-to-cost ratios in the in the range of
expenditure 5:1 to 19:1 – some as high as 35.5:1
benef ts • A typical “cycling city” could be worth £377 million to the NHS in healthcare cost savings, in
2011 prices
• Facilities allowing children to cycle to school save on the public cost of school travel:
amounting £390 million per annum in the Netherlands in 1987 prices.
• Investment is effective in increasing usage
Tourism • Cycle tourists on average spend more: around 9% per head per trip, or around £81 per head
benef ts per trip.
• Cycle tourism is inf uenced by utility mode share: i.e. where cycling is attractive and thus
more people cycle, there is a greater propensity for cycle-tourism
Transport • Cycle freight offers a competitive advantage in city locations and is cheaper than motorised
and logistics freight for small payloads over short distances. Cost savings range between 39% and 64%
benef ts compared to a van-based service.
• Cycle freight is not affected by shortages of qualif ed drivers
• An absence of dedicated cycling infrastructure will slow down buses and HGVs as mode
share increases
• Cycling has a lower capital cost than other forms of infrastructure
• Cycling can increase the reach of public transport
Cycle • Per capita spending on cycling equipment and maintenance is higher as mode share
industry increases
benef ts • Domestic production of bicycles, parts and accessories has doubled from 2007 to 2013.
3
Executive Summary
This report was commissioned to provide a review of

the literature on the value of cycling. It focuses on
evidence of the wider economic benefits of cycling as a In terms of public spending, cycling and related
mode of transport, such as retail revenue, employment infrastructure have been found to be substantially
effects, and public spending efficiencies. lower cost than other transport modes. At the same
time, there are benefits to businesses of cycling, both
The aim of the research is to collate the evidence as a utility and leisure mode, as well as the benefit of
base which outlines the benefits and disbenefits of running a business in an area which is conducive to
investment in cycling as a mode of transport. Existing cycling. These effects appear to have received more
appraisal methods already take into account health detailed economic valuation than individual impacts.
benefits (reduced mortality), decongestion benefits
(including generalized reduction in traffic collisions), Cycling has been shown to benefit both the employer
and personal journey amenity benefits. and the employee. While it would appear that the
benefits in terms of sick leave are relatively low, the
Searches of the academic and grey literature were role of cycling facilities for attracting staff seems to hold
undertaken. These searches centred on the impacts great potential. Moreover, for the prospective employee,
of cycling at the individual, neighbourhood, town/city, ease of physical access to work opportunities is central
regional and national levels, with a view to developing to the ability to gain employment and cycling provides
an understanding of the benefits of cycling and the a tool by which joblessness due to transport exclusion
value associated with the mode. may be overcome for some social groups.
The findings of the review suggest that there is The literature suggests that cycling can assist in
evidence of the value of cycling as a mode of transport. meeting strategic goals in diverse areas such as
However, it is less clear what the exact nature of that helping to introduce parity of access to employment
value would look like: the valuation and monetization opportunities, contribute to retail and other business
of the complete range of potential benefits of cycling vitality, and create vibrant spaces.
do not appear to have been widely considered. This is
not unexpected. It is relatively easy to assign financial There is a concern in the literature that the currently
and economic values to investment in infrastructure widely-used appraisal methods do not incorporate
but the monetization of social and individual impacts is the full extent of benefits associated with cycling and
much more challenging. this means that, as the mode competes for funding, it
may always be seen as less viable than other options.
The findings show that cycling has largely positive Furthermore, there is little recognition of the disbenefits
impacts for people and the places where they live. It of non-cycling modes of transport in current appraisal
can improve their well-being, lessen their spend on methods.
travel, and enhance the liveability of their environment.
In conclusion, there is substantial discourse about the
benefits of cycling. These benefits are found across a
range of thematic spheres (e.g. improving accessibility,
increasing employment access, contributing to vibrant
communities and individual well-being) and geographic
scales (neighbourhood, local, regional, national).
However, despite assertions of various positive
impacts, the literature is less forth-coming about the
ways in which these may be realistically captured. The
nuanced impacts that go beyond mainstream economic
measures are difficult to harness into substantiated
and replicable metrics.
For cycling’s potential to be realised and infrastructure

schemes to be financed, there is a need to give priority
to developing appraisal methods that incorporate the
full range of relevant cost and benefits that relate to
cycling, and indeed consistently across all modes of
transport. Social accounting and audit may be one
approach that offers a framework for exploring the
broader scope of assessment as it concerns itself
with more than economic impacts and is not solely
expressed in financial terms. It accepts the use of
qualitative input, incorporates multiple perspectives,
and includes social, economic and environmental
impacts.
5
1.0 Background
This report was commissioned by the DfT and provides
the results of a rapid review of the value of cycling.
While there is an extensive literature on the health and
air quality benefits of cycling, this review is focused on
filling the gaps in knowledge about the wider economic
case for cycling and sought evidence on all possible
impacts of cycling – both benefits and disbenefits.
Existing appraisal methods already take into account
health benefits (reduced mortality), decongestion
(including generalized reduction in traffic collisions),
and personal journey amenity benefits.
7
Relevant results No relevant results
2.0 The Team CYCLING AND CYCLING AND
The literature review has been undertaken by a
Value Micro
partnership of University of Birmingham and Phil
Jones Associates.
Economic Business location
The University is one of Britain’s leading academic
Macro Commerce
institutions. Phil Jones Associates is an independent
transport planning and design consultancy, with a
Walkability Land use
specialism in sustainable transport and active travel.
The report has been through a quality assurance
Economic Efficiency
process, undertaken by Professor John Parkin on the
University of the West of England.
development
Livability Cost of living

3.0 Methodology
Liveability Staff
The online search tool, FindIt@Bham, was used
to search the academic literature. It is a ‘one stop Employment Property
shop’ search system provided by the University of
Birmingham library which enables searches of print Employee Productivity
and audio-visual material, e-journals, e-books and
databases, as well as journal article level content. It Employer Absenteeism
allows the use of Boolean operators and searches
a wide range of database resources such as Web of Salary Access
Science, Science Direct and EBSCO.
Benefit Industr*
During an initial trawl, 29 combined search terms
were used with cycling being linked using ‘AND’ to a Tourism Production
range of words. These combinations are listed in the
table below, showing where pairings did and did not Happiness Assessment
yield results.
Well-being
When no relevant references were obtained for a
search, walking was substituted for the word cycling and
the combined search re-run. This resulted in boosting
the number of documents found to be of relevance
to the review. Searches were also conducted using
French, Spanish, Italian, German, Dutch and Danish
terms for cycling and bicycle (and variations thereof).
During reviewing, any references within documents to
additional resources which appeared relevant to the
focus were followed up. In total, 88 papers, webpages, for information’ issued to the Cycling and Society
blog entries and other sources were reviewed. While academic discussion group. The call was also issued
the main objective of this component of the review was directly to a number of organisations drawn up by the
to include material from academic sources (i.e. peer study team in consultation with the client. Furthermore,
reviewed content) to ensure quality, there are cases throughout the course of the evidence review the study
where other sources have been included, if they were team monitored news sources likely to carry articles
considered to clarify or add to the literature already about sustainable transport interventions. Finally,
found. Google and EBSCO were used to obtain any research
material referred to in secondary or tertiary sources
No specific search was undertaken to examine the found through the grey literature search. A total of 83
disbenefit of cycling investment; however the search sources were found in the grey literature review.
process outlined above looked at the links between
cycling and various economic themes. Such a search The results of the combined review process have been
would have found any sources discussing disbenefit, categorized by theme in the following sections where
but none was found. Where papers were equivocal further discussion of the findings also takes place.
or presented mixed findings, this is reflected in our
discussion of the evidence. Where sources report financial costs and benefits,
these are converted into sterling at the exchange rate
In addition, a search of the grey literature was on 1st April of that year as an arbitrary barometer. The
conducted to capture additional insights to expand exceptions to this are undated reports, where 1st April
understanding of the benefits and value of cycling. The 2015 is used; or where the date of the paper predates
grey literature search was undertaken by examining the earliest exchange rate available on the OANDA.
existing policy documents from organisations and com website, where 1st January 1990 is used.
bodies with an interest in transport cycling or who
have invested in cycling infrastructure. The grey
literature search was also supplemented by a ‘call
9
4.0 Findings
4.1 Introduction
The impacts of active travel have been studied However, SQW (2007:6) cautioned that:
for a number of years, resulting in an extensive
literature on health and environmental benefits of [not] all investment in cycling will produce
walking and cycling. However, the wider economic huge returns. Each case needs to be assessed
impacts of these two modes have received less on its own merits, but relatively high values
academic attention. This review set out to scope where projects are able to generate new
the coverage of the economic value and benefits cyclists, suggests (sic) that there is a major
of cycling available in the literature. opportunity to make investments that will,
over time, more than repay their costs.
In general, it would appear that evidence on
valuation and monetization of economic benefit While SQW’s research indicates that there
has not been considered in great depth. At the may be some unpredictability about the net
same time, there is a strong narrative about the benefits of some cycling schemes, Powell et
value of cycling, largely based upon statements al’s (2010) reminder of Saelensminde’s (2004)
that the mode is beneficial in economic terms (see, finding that walking and cycling investments are
for example, Rahul and Verma, 2013; Weston more beneficial for society than other transport
and Mota, 2012; Lumsdon et al, 2009) but figures investments seems less tentative. Nevertheless,
to substantiate such assertions are less readily SQW (2007:82) go on to conclude that
accessible. Similarly, academic literature relating
to evaluation and benchmarking investments in …cycling investment that targets new cyclists
sustainable modes is also sparse (Henao et al, in particular would generate substantial
2015). economic benef t. Where this can be shown
to reduce car travel, the combination of health
To demonstrate the difficulties inherent within the benef ts and reduced congestion and pollution
literature, recent researchi (Rajé, 2014:3 4) found would in most cases justify investment. There
that SQW (2007:4) highlighted that cycling has a are likely to be considerable economies of
beneficial impact that ‘cuts across policy areas’. scale in investing to release the potential
Some of the wider benefits suggested were related of existing infrastructure through training,
to health, such as protection from obesity and promotion and travel planning, but there
quality of life (e.g. mental health improvements). is also a great deal of scope for new and
SQW’s report also pointed to social gains and improved cycling infrastructure.
tourism opportunities associated with cycling
– both of which could, arguably, be rendered in Given the apparent tenuous link between the
monetized values. Meanwhile, connectivity has prevalent qualitative descriptions of cycling’s
also been highlighted as important to positive benefits and the less forthcoming quantification of
cycling experiences, as is the ‘unique sensory such value, there appears to be a need to back up
experience’ of being on a bike (Clayton and intuition with hard data.
Musselwhite, 2013) – these are, perhaps, not so
easily translated into economic benefits although The following four sections give an overview of
WebTag does monetise the ‘journey ambiance’ the landscape of evidence available across the
benefit of cycling. academic and grey literatures. The findings are
divided into individual, fiscal, employment and
i Conducted by Tight and Rajé on the value of provision of strategic governance effects. At times, there is
walking and cycling infrastructure in UK urban areas as part of the overlap between the categories. However, the
EPSRC and ESRC funded iBUILD programme (https://research.ncl. overall findings weave together the tapestry of
ac.uk/ibuild/) current understanding of the value of cycling.
11
4.2 Individual effects
There is a general recognition across the literature of the Examining the psychosocial and environmental predictors
personal benefits of cycling. People on bikes (as well as of cycling for transportation in Flanders, De Geus et al
pedestrians) are reported to be amongst the most satisfied (2008:706) found a ‘scarcity of research examining possible
consumers of transport (St-Louis et al, 2014) and active correlates of cycling for transportation’. Although the
commuters have been found to be physically and mentally authors stated that ‘individual factors (psychosocial, self-
better off regardless of whether or not active commuting efficacy, perceived benefits and barriers) outperformed
is their only form of exercise (Humphreys, 2013). Rauner the environmental determinates in this sample of adults’
et al (2013) indicate that physical activity leads students where basic cycling infrastructure is available, there is no
to achieve higher grades and Living Streets (2008) report information about the value associated with these factors
that children who walk to school are more alert and ready affecting propensity to cycle. De Geus et al recognize
to learn than children who are driven by car. As a corollary, that ecological models that combine psychosocial and
given walking and cycling are similar activities, it is likely environmental variables are likely to best explain physical
similar findings would also apply to cycling. activity but it is a subjective statement rather than
objective practice that is being reported. The authors’
Some authors link cycling and well-being benefits results suggest that:
to institutional interventions, for example, Baden-
Württemburg (2012) report that employees of Miele who …promotion campaigns aimed at increasing
participated in a cycle-to-work scheme were found to cycling for transportation should focus on
demonstrate positive effects on stress levels and mood as creating social support by encouraging cycling
a result of cycling. Others suggest that it is the provision with cycling partners, increasing self-eff cacy,
of good quality cycling environments that provide the raising ecological and economic awareness,
impetus for accruing individual benefits of the mode. For decreasing lack of time and interest barriers
example, Aldred (2015) suggests that such environments and providing facilities for cyclists at the
result in more physical activity in later years. At this end of workplace.
the age spectrum, in a qualitative survey, Zander et al (2013)
found an overwhelming response that taking up cycling However, there is no attempt at quantification of the costs
in older age was a liberating and fun experience with spin- and benefits of such promotional activity. It should be
off social benefits. This was linked to cycling providing a noted that the De Geus’s focus on ‘soft’ measures has to
sense of pride and empowerment. Respondents felt that be understood in the context of the study having taken
fear of cars was the main reason they did not cycle. place in Flanders, where cycling infrastructure conditions
are different from those that can be found in the United
Kingdom.
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members of the wider local community. For
example, investment in cycling infrastructure in
Groningen led to an urban renewal of inner-city
areas, increasing young population in central
districts (Pharoah & Apel, 1995).
Nevertheless, the discourse on the impacts of
less dependence on cars is not all positive. For
ODPM (2003) reports that children from the
example, 23% of car-free households encounter
lowest social class are five times more likely to
difficulty accessing shopping facilities (PTEG,
be involved in a fatal road traffic collision than
2010). However, that in itself could be interpreted
those from the highest social class: therefore
as a prompt for improvements to the walkability
investment in schemes that reduce the volume
and cyclability of localities, and the broadening of
or speed of motor traffic can have a benefit in
transport options more generally.
terms of narrowing this gap. Such schemes could
take the form of investment in cycle-friendly road
Given the commonalities associated with walking
layouts, e.g. ‘filtered permeabilityi in residential
and cycling, the apparent preference for walkable
areas, or reallocation of roadspace which results
neighbourhoods points to a likelihood that cycle-
in calmer main road traffic or reduced severance.
friendly spaces will also be desirable places.
Casualty reduction is already recognised in the
Discussing the U.S. residential market and
WebTag appraisal of the ‘decongestion’ benefits
liveability, Litman (2010) suggests that
of cycling (Department for Transport, 2014:1).
…there appears to be signif cant latent demand
Looking forward, recent research (Philips, 2014)
for housing in more walkable communities. A
explored whether places which have more walking
survey sponsored by the National Association
and cycling, or more potential for these modes,
of Realtors found that consumers value a
are more resilient to environmental and other
shorter commute time and having sidewalks
changes which might occur at some point in the
and places to walk in their neighborhood
future. The work seemed to show this is the case
(Belden, Russonello & Stewart, 2004).
and, hence, it could be argued that this greater
Asked to choose between two communities,
resilience to external shocks is an additional
six in ten prospective homebuyers chose
economic benefit of cycling.
a neighborhood that offered a shorter
commute, sidewalks and amenities like
Overall, the findings show that cycling has
shops, restaurants, libraries, schools and
positive impacts for people and the places
public transportation within walking distance
where they live. It can improve their well-being,
over a sprawling community with larger lots,
lessen their spending on travel and enhance
limited walking opportunities, and longer
the liveability of their environment. To make the
commutes. Minorities are even more likely
personal economic case for cycling, methods of
than other Americans to choose a walkable
capturing the value of such impacts could reveal
neighborhood that has a shorter commute,
the strength of their effects. This element would
with 59% of women, 57% of Hispanics and 78%
need to be built into traditional models of transport
of African-Americans selecting more walkable
project assessment.
communities.
i “Filtered permeability” is the practice of configuring streets
Further, there is a suggestion that increased in residential areas such that they do not provide a convenient route
liveability comes with public space that enables for through traffic, while access is maintained for residential traffic
cycling. Cycle-priority measures can help re- albeit limited in terms of the actual point of entry or exit, and throughput
populate urban centres by attracting younger for pedestrians and cycles is unrestricted. Filtered permeability can
residents (Pharoah & Apel, 1995). As this group is be retro-fitted to existing neighbourhoods, for example De Beauvoir
less likely to drive, they benefit from being closer Town in London, or implemented in new-build residential estates.
to employment and education opportunities. The principle of permeability is already recognised as good practice
Their presence can lead to increased city centre by the Manual for Streets as it reduces walking distances; the
vitality and allied accrued benefits for individual “filtering” out of motor traffic from the permeable network therefore
retains the benefits of a walkable and cycleable neighbourhoods,
but diminishes the negative effects of non-local motor traffic. (Melia,
2012)
Experience in urban Japan helps elucidate the benefits
of density. Intensive land use means 50% less resource
4.3 Fiscal effects
is spent on transport costs (VNG, 2000):
There is a widely held view by economists (e.g.
Glaeser, 2009) that agglomerationi is beneficial and
...the intensive use of space in the population
this is borne out in greater per capita GDP with a
centres has stimulated use of the bicycle and
denser urban form.
public transport. Thanks to the relatively low
costs of the transport system, the country
Density-dependent agglomeration appears to be one
has long been able to manufacture goods at
of many factors that are favourable to sustainable
lower costs and invest more in its production
transport (Litman, 2010; Sherlock, 1991). Importantly,
systems. For example, Japan spends almost
the relationship between non-motorized modes and
50% less … on transport than the United
agglomeration economies appears to be two-way:
States. This has enabled Japanese industry
while density is conducive to these modes, urban public
to compete very effectively on international
space for walking and cycling can also contribute to
markets.
productivity associated with density. Glaeser (2009)
It has also been reported that annualised infrastructure
states that
costs in areas of urban sprawl are nearly 50% higher
than in the most compact cities ($750 pcpa vs $502
Agglomeration economies are, at their
pcpa)ii(Litman, 2015). In addition, dense, cycling-
root, advantages that come from reducing
friendly urban forms result in lower fuel consumption
transportation costs. After all, urban density
per capita (Newman and Kenworthy, 1989).
is just the absence of physical space between
people and f rms. Agglomeration economies
Blue (2013:90) points to the opportunity cost of car
can exist because of reduced transportation
parking being potentially economically significant:
costs for goods: input suppliers and
customers save on those costs if they locate
… parking lots represent a massive amount
near one another. Agglomeration economies
of taxable property that could yield thousands
can exist because of reduced transportation
of dollars per lot, per year—representing
costs for people: labor markets may be more
millions of dollars of lost revenue for cities.
eff cient in urban areas and service providers
Instead, the constant need for maintenance
may f nd it easier to cater to their customers.
drains public and private coffers—and this
Finally, agglomeration economies can exist
cost is overshadowed by the opportunity cost
because of easier transmission of ideas: cities
of what could be built in our cities instead.
may thrive because they facilitate the f ow of
knowledge across people and enterprises.
She then states that such parking capacity being given
away free of charge amounts to a subsidy – public or
i “Agglomeration refers to the idea that larger and/or private – citing a calculation by Donald Shoup that
denser places are more productive. In other words, businesses estimated this to cost $127 billion per year in 2002iii.
operating in large cities tend to produce more output per worker than
similar businesses operating in small towns.” http://transportblog.
co.nz/2014/07/30/guide-to-economic-evaluation-part-3-what-is- ii $US 750 = £505.88; $US 502 = £338.60 (at 1st April 2015
agglomeration/ exchange rate)
iii $US 127 billion = £89.1 billion (at 1st April 2002 exchange
rate)
15
Blue (89) also cites research by Akbari and Rose (2001) In addition, 42% is spent on public transport,
that revealed 25% of the land in central Houston was which has an 18% share.
dedicated to parking. She also highlighted (ibid.) the
Embarcadero freeway in San Francisco, which when However, there may be elements of the above splits
demolished opened up a waterfront development in investments that have impacts across numerous
which attracted millions of dollars of investment. modes.
As part of a wider sustainable transport strategy, Nevertheless, infrastructure cost savings accrued by
cycling has a role to play by facilitating density – developing cycle facilities instead of construction and
‘cities of short distances’ – in the country’s economic maintenance costs associated with infrastructure for
powerhouses. Looking at Australian cities, Newman motorized transport can yield substantial economic
(1992) reports that there is a ‘sharp increase at high benefits (Buis, 2000; Transport for London, 2014). This
densities’ in walking and biking, perhaps as these two finding is extended by the suggestion by VNG (2000)
options become more viable than transit. that cheaper cycling infrastructure can substitute
for expensive road schemes and for public transport
Retail density is high in Houten, a Dutch new town investment and subsidy. There is also recognition
specifically built around walking and cycling: it enjoys that cycling infrastructure can bestow cost savings
two and a half times the turnover per square metre to government and other authorities by the lower
as other cities (VNG, 2000). This could influence the maintenance impact of cycling (relative to cars), the
design of new garden cities, reducing their land take ability to defer investment in more costly modes of
– i.e. less cost and greater stakeholder acceptance transport and right-of-way preservation for future
(reduced loss of green belt or open land). transport schemes. PWC (2009, citing Krizek, 2007)
state that:
Given the apparent cost and fuel savings associated
with dense, liveable spaces that are conducive to Depending on the extent of any substitution
non-motorized modes, the OECD suggested that between car and cycle trips, increases in
cycling has a key role to play in 21st century urban bicycle trips has the potential to reduce road
development (OECD, 2015). For example, Buis (2000) maintenance costs, as bicycles produce
suggests that only insignif cant wear and tear on roads. A
potentially more signif cant source of road
The bicycle can help to reduce the negative cost savings is derived from using cycle ways
impact of motorised traff c on the urban quality for preserving land for right-of-way passage
of life. Which, especially in city centers, can which may be required for future infrastructure
lead to a more attractive climate for retailers, expansion. Placing a bicycle track along a
cafes and even companies to locate a new right-of-way corridor is a relatively inexpensive
business. way of ensuring a transportation use for the
corridor, which provides user benef ts rather
Furthermore, it has been found that cycle infrastructure than allowing the land to lie fallow.
provision is cost effective (VNG, 2000):
There appears to be a widely held view that cycle
Even in the German city of Freiburg, which has facilities are cost effective relative to other types of
a strict cycling policy and where the bicycle’s transport investment (BVDI, 2015; VNG, 2000, Litman
share of the total number of journeys is 19%, 2010; PWC, 2009). Dordrecht decided to invest in
the costs of bicycle facilities amount to just cycling facilities rather than road widening when the
1% of all the costs of traff c and transport two proposals were jointly considered. The cycling
amenities. 57% of investments are for the scheme was sufficient to reduce car trips to make the
car, which has a 42% share of all transport. road widening unnecessary. The cycle infrastructure
cost 75% of the predicted cost of the road widening nature of traffic and the budgets needed to sustain the
(VNG, 2000). In relation to cycling, it is reported that current mix of vehicles may be achieved.
Transport for London’s (TfL) position is that “do nothing
is not an option” (TfL, 2014) because of the current Rissel et al (2013), in a publication written in the format
trend of rising use of cycles. of a proposal, on evaluating the transport, health and
economic impacts of new urban cycling infrastructure
Without providing dedicated space for cycling, (i.e. in Sydney, suggest a number of components of such a
mixing cycling with other vehicles) modelling shows that study. These attributes are: before/after assessment of
as cycle rates increase (as they are in London and other local communities in relation to new cycle infrastructure,
metropolitan areas), this can lead to a delay to other using intervention and comparison areas, online
vehicles (Gosse & Clarens, 2013). The ‘Influencing questionnaire and travel diary and supportive use of
Travel Behaviour’ programme in Cambridge ‘created’ GPS devices. They considered a number of economic
the equivalent of 5-6% increase in road capacity by benefits – reduced environmental impacts (e.g. noise),
facilitating the use of non-car alternatives (Department congestion, car parking costs and changes to local
for Transport 2011). Seville’s €32Mi investment in economy - to be important. In addition, they highlighted
its cycle network benefitted 70,000 users per day, the importance of qualitative impacts such as amenity
compared to its €600Mii metro extension which is used value, improved access, community engagement and
by 30,000 daily (2010 ridership) (Sillero, 2011). To give increased liveability. Given the nature of the paper, it
this context, Seville’s population is 700,000, equivalent does not supply any outcomes, but rather suggests
to that of Leeds. In addition, cycling can be viewed as what an investigation into these issues might comprise.
a means of extending the range of public transport
through schemes such as OV-Fiets in the Netherlands, In a publication for US planners, researchers,
ATOC’s Bike-n-Rail programme, and the recently- engineers and the general public, Bushell et al (2013:6)
launched PlusBike initiative. Given these benefits, it is summarize the findings of other studies of the economic
not unexpected that Transport for London is actively benefits of walking and cycling infrastructure:
seeking to encourage “Dutch-style” cycling (TfL 2014).
Developing pedestrian and bicycle
Transport for London (2014) indicate that low- infrastructure has economic benef ts also.
cost investment in cycle superhighways will help Studies have found that bicycle infrastructure
defer or reduce investment requirements for other improvements can have a positive overall
infrastructure, especially where it is at capacity and impact on business, and that people who
expansion is likely to be problematic. Dedicated walk or bike to a commercial area spend more
cycling infrastructure is seen as a way of mitigating money per month than those who accessed the
existing and modelled delays to transport as a result area by automobile. The removal of on-street
of mixed traffic, where cyclists are sharing the road parking is often thought to negatively impact
with other vehicles, yielding benefits for bus operators business, but reports show adding facilities
in reduced traffic delay costs.However, Buis (2000) such as bicycle racks and bicycle lanes can
cautions that investing in bicycle infrastructure will not actually increase economic activity, and also
automatically produce savings in the traffic budget. help create a buffer from moving traff c that
The author suggests that this will only be the case aids both pedestrian and bicyclist activity.
when bicycle use increases considerably. However, Finally, improving bicycle and pedestrian
with substantial increases in personal and business infrastructure can lead to positively impacting
travel by bicycle being complemented by a rise in cycle real estate values. Homes near bicycle paths
freight movement which may all come from greater have been found to support higher sales
investment in cycling infrastructure, changes in the prices, and areas that facilitate walkability
and attract pedestrians sustain higher rents,
i EUR 32M = £28.24M (at 1st April 2011 exchange rate) revenues and resale values.
ii EUR 32M = £28.24M (at 1st April 2011 exchange rate)
17
While they do not report on their own empirical findings, Similar outcomes were found in a comprehensive
Rissel et al (2013:963) do provide some commentary study of public realm and “sustainable street”
based on their assessment of other studies. This helps interventions in New York City (NYCDOT nd): most
deepen understanding of the nuanced relationship notably the 49% increase in sales on 9th Avenue
between cycling infrastructure and business: after the implementation of protected bike lanes. The
methodology compares each location to a similar
Traditional cost-benef t analyses of cycling ‘control’ where no intervention took place. While
infrastructure do not generally consider the this increase was not universally found across all
wider/indirect economic impacts, including interventions, the report acknowledges that if even
impacts on local business and retail using a closely similar control site it is not possible to
establishments. The very limited evidence completely isolate all other factors. For example, in
that does exist is generally favourable for one scenario a massive change in turnover was largely
cycling infrastructure. For instance, an inner down to a single shop changing from one business
city Melbourne study found that while car type to another.
users averaged more overall spending per
hour than bike riders, the small area of public The views of the business operators above represents
space required for bike parking means that a step change in the way that people perceive the
each square metre allocated to bike parking benefits of walking/cycling infrastructure. These are
generated $31 per hour, compared to $6 generally at odds with recommendations of the Portas
generated for each square metre used for (2011) review, which placed much emphasis on the role
a car parking space (Lee and Marsh, 2010). of cheap or free parking, with less focus on pedestrians
Anecdotal reports from the City of Sydney and public transport, and no consideration at all of cycle
i
suggest that new businesses have started facilities. However, the comfort of pedestrians was at
along new separated bike paths, adding to least acknowledged in terms of the attractiveness of a
the local economy and reducing VKT to other shopping environment.
retail centres.
Although not universal, cycling schemes (and wider
The story from the non-academic US-based National public realm and sustainable transport schemes)
Complete Streets Coalition (no date:2) is less have been shown to result in increased trade in local
equivocal. It reports that businesses (e.g. McCormick, nd; NYCDOT, nd; van
Goedveren & Godefrooij, 2011) Cycle parking outside
When a bike lane was added along Valencia shops gives the impression of popularity or acts as a
Street in San Francisco’s Mission district, buffer between traffic and customers (Flusche 2012;
nearby businesses saw sales increase by UCD, 2015). Numerous studies have shown that while
60 percent, which merchants attributed to cyclists spend less per visit, they tend to visit shops
increased pedestrian and bicycle activity. more regularly resulting in higher weekly spends (e.g.
Similarly, a study in Toronto showed that Clifton, 2012; TfL, 2011; O’Connor et al, 2011). Cyclists
nearly three-quarters of merchants along have a similar shopping profile to car drivers (i.e.
Bloor Street expected that better bicycle and they are able to travel to different areas to complete
pedestrian facilities would improve business. a shopping trip) whereas pedestrians and bus users
are usually more limited in their potential destinations
(Sustrans, 2006). TfL (2011) report that 40% of town
centre customers are making an “unencumbered” trip
i $AU 31 = £21.22, $AU 6 = £4.11 (at 1st April 2013
(i.e. not carrying or purchasing a bulky item), suggesting
exchange rate)
cycle use would be practical. Based on the experience
of Groningen, despite initial negative impacts, further
cycle infrastructure provision and improvement in the
UK could be expected to be positively viewed in the benefits and does not provide values of what they are
long run (Pharoah & Apel, 1995). other than to indicate that application of the assessment
In terms of the cycle retail sector, there is reportedly a framework suggested an estimated economic savings
strong correlation between mode share and per capita of Rs. 0.25ii million per day, and this is due to a 1% mode
spend on cycle equipment and maintenance (ECF, shift from motorized to non-motorized transport for trips
2014). Individual spend is also relevant. Colibi (2012) below the length of 5 km. The authors suggest that
indicates that the Dutch spend around €750i on a new this points to ‘the immense potential of non-motorized
bike and the market is dominated by sturdy “city bikes” traffic in achieving the goals of sustainability and such
(55%) which tend to be European-made, as opposed considerable savings for a small shift underlines the
to Asian-made, suggesting British manufacturers could necessity of including it in the development agenda for
gain economically from a move to more utility cycling. Bangalore’ (Rahul and Verma, 2013:33).
Looking at cycle freight, it is seen to offer a much Borjesson and Eliasson (2012) examined the value of
cheaper and more flexible product than traditional vans time and external benefits in cycle scheme appraisal
for urban delivery of small parcels (in fact, payloads for Sweden. They found that cycling on a separated
if up to 250kg) (King, 2013; Cycle Logistics, 2014). bicycle path instead of on street with mixed traffic
Cycle Logistics (2014) found cost savings of 39% and is valued at 5.4 EUR/hiii . Relating this to investment
64% for two example shipments taken by cargo bike costs for bicycle paths, at a value of 0.6 MEURiv per
compared to using a van-based service. While there km (based on City of Stockholm, 2002, Hopkinson and
is a shortage of qualified 7.5t drivers, cycle freight Wardman, 1996), they suggest (678) that:
does not require specific qualifications other than
being in reasonable physical condition (King, 2013). ‘bicycle paths are socially prof table already
In wider terms, implications for freight that on the at yearly average cycling volumes of a little
surface may seem like a disbenefit can in fact produce less than 300 cyclists per day, which in urban
beneficial outcomes. Shifting deliveries to overnight contexts is very low. Major bicycle paths can
in NYC has shown considerable time saving as a easily have 3000 cyclists per day, which would
result, which suggests that even if road-space is lost give a benef t/cost ratio of around 13. Note,
to accommodate cycling, a consequential benefit may however, that this is excluding the opportunity
be that complementary freight management measures cost value of land, which in urban contexts
would have a positive impact overall despite the initial can be a considerable cost’
disadvantage of having to implement revised strategies
(USDOT, 2010). Deenihan and Caulfield (2014:148) studied the health
and economic benefits from construction of a new cycle
In a study in Bangalore, India, Rahul and Verma route in Ireland using the HEAT tool. Amongst other
(2013:27) suggest a methodology for estimating the estimates, they looked at potential changes, in terms
economic impact of non-motorized modes. While the of health, associated with an increase of cycling modal
study proposes an analysis that looks at qualitative share from 1.72% to 2.5%, 5% and 10% and found
and quantitative economic impacts, monetary benefits that the increases in cycling rates would reduce the
have been mainly associated with the customary areas number of deaths per year by between 3.39 and 17.93,
of air pollution and accident reductions, congestion depending on the modal switch. Using the European
costs and mode shift to non-motorized transport and Union’s statistical value of life at €1,574,000v , they
associated cost savings. The paper’s main focus is indicate that, over a 10 year period with a two year
on walking and pedestrianisation which are seen to
lead to increase in retail income and price. There is ii INR 0.25M = £3025 at 1st April 2013 exchange rate
also a limited discussion of user enjoyment and health iii EUR 5.4 = £4.49 at 1st April 2012 exchange rate
benefits. However, the study tends to list possible iv EUR 0.6m = £0.5m at 1st April 2012 exchange rate
v EUR 1.57M = £1.3m at 1st April 2014 exchange rate
i EUR 750 = £624.25 at 1st April 2012 exchange rate
19
uptake of cycling and five years for the build-up of the bicycle tourism gives rise to mostly regional
health benefits, the benefits accumulated over 10 years effects. A bicycle tourism effect on national
would be between €26,695,000 and €141,222,000i level only occurs in cases where a tourist
, dependent on the modal switch. Ultimately, they chooses a destination within Sweden instead
suggest that this would lead to benefit–cost ratios of of going abroad thanks to a new or developed
between 2.22:1 and 11.77:1, dependent on the mode bicycle trail. New incoming bicycle tourism
switch which they state are ‘very favourable’ for a is always a net contribution to the national
transport facility. Other non-health related economic bicycle tourism effect. The f ndings from
benefits such as well-being effects were not explored. the study of bicycle tourism in Varberg and
Gotland are that there is a vast difference in
Turning to leisure and tourism, a propensity for cycle the economic contribution of bicycle tourists.
tourism has been found to correlate with utility mode The range for the guest night spending is 466
share (EuroParl, 2012). It is likely that this relates to SEK – 1,233 SEK depending on region and
the ‘normalizing’ of cycling, making it a more natural type of visitorii.
choice. For example, in the Netherlands, Colibi (2012)
reports that 30% of domestic vacations were cycle Ritchie and Hall (1999) report that cycle tourists in
holidays. the south island of New Zealand were found to spend
considerably higher amounts during their visits than
In addition, cycling trips for leisure purposes have been other international tourists ($3021 versus the average
described as being important to both environmental of $2776 for international visitors within New Zealand
and economic sustainability (Weston and Mota, 2012; in 1995/96)iii . This was attributed to their propensity to
Lumsdon et al, 2009). Runyan (2013) states that cycle stay longer than other tourists. In addition, Ritchie and
tourists spend more than average, and tourist cycle Hall suggest that the travel patterns of cycle tourists
facilities are said to have a very strong payback in illustrate that these travellers disperse into smaller
terms of local economic spend (Flushe, 2012). more peripheral and rural areas, bringing much
However, Weston and Mota (2009:1) caution that: needed economic development for local economies.
Similar findings have been reported for European
For example, poor integration with public locations which are currently not part of mainstream
transport and the lack of consistent tourism development (Lumsdon et al, 2009). There is
infrastructure deter the development of the also evidence that it may not only be the less tourism
market. Demand tends to occur where good focused areas that may benefit from cycle tourism.
networks of cycle routes exist… Palau et al (2012:15-16) report on the concept of
greenways being associated with major Spanish
Downward et al (2009:39), through a case study of tourism brands:
a cycle network in North East England, collected
expenditure information from cyclists on a number of “Greater development of greenways in mature
long distance cycling tourist routes using diaries and tourist destinations through the creation of
intercept surveys. The authors found that the amount networks of pathways providing more peaceful
spent was linked to group size and duration of trip. routes for travel across the region by bicycle
or on foot, helping tourists better understand
Heldt and Liss (2013:7) investigated the extent of the heritage, landscape and culture, will serve
benefits from bicycle tourism and who stands to gain to increase the economic development of the
from a developed bicycle trail network in Sweden. region as a whole…”
They report that
ii SEK 466 = £46.93; SEK 1233 = £124.16 (at 1st April 2013
(o)ne f nding from the study is that inbound exchange rate)

iii $NZ 3021 = £1,004.78; $NZ 2776 = £923.30 (at 1st April
i £22.1m to £116.92m at 1st April 2014 exchange rate 1999 exchange rate)
Their research compared the cost per use of organised A recent paper by Deenihan and Caulfield (2015)
sports facilities in the boroughs through which the focuses on an Irish government objective to “provide
greenways run to the cost per use of the greenways designated rural signed cycle networks providing
themselves. The greenways offered a better cost per especially for visitors and recreational cycling”. The
use than the sports facilities for all indicators analyzed. case study is of a 42km off-road route, the longest
In overall terms, while the ratio for the greenways is in Ireland. The estimated payback for this new
Euro1.12i per use, the figure for sports facilities is infrastructure is 6 years. The authors’ study was based
Euro2.67ii per use. Amongst other results, the authors on a Stated Preference intercept survey which looked
highlight that in the mountain section studied, the specifically at whether tourists would be willing to spend
greenways had a ratio of E0.69iii per use, while for time, comfort and energy in order to travel on perceived
sports facilities there the figure was E3.18iv per use. safer cycling infrastructure. The respondents appeared
This suggests that greenways may offer a higher to like such facilities as they expressed willingness to
level of return on investment compared to other increase travel time by up to 100% to use such facilities
investments in facilities for active pursuits. Palau et (note this is in a leisure context). They were also willing
al (2012:22) suggest that “the superior cost/use ratio to pay 48% more for a road with cycle lanes than one
of the greenways should encourage governments to without.
extend the network for the use of local residents and
tourists, and prompt tourism promotion bodies to There appears to be a correlation between mode share
encourage their use by tourists, cyclists and walkers, for utility cycling and tendency to cycle for holiday
both actual and potential, not only as travel routes (European Parliament, 2012), perhaps because cycling
but as a sustainable tourism resource serving as a is “normalised” and thus a more realistic option for a
showcase for the surrounding natural, social, cultural holiday or day trip. In the country in Europe with the
and economic attractions of the region”. biggest cycle-tourism market, Germany, 95% of cycle-
tourists are domestic. This suggests an increase in UK
Looking at the Danube Cycle Route, Meschik (2012) utility cycling rates would help develop the UK cycle-
also discusses the regional economic benefits of cycle tourism industry further, and the likelihood increased
tourism: interest in cycle-tourism would largely translate into
domestic activity.
With the average amount spent per day by
cycle tourists estimated to be E65.70v , the Cycling and related infrastructure have been found to
total benef t to the area around Krems during be substantially lower cost than other transport modes.
July and August alone sums up to around E1 At the same time, there are business benefits of
millionvi . Importantly, the average distance cycling both as a utility and leisure mode, as well as the
covered per day is about 50 km, which means derived benefits of running a business in an area which
the spending is evenly distributed along the is conducive to cycling. These and other fiscal effects
route, encouraging the development of good of cycling appear to have received more detailed
tourist infrastructure’ (Meschik, 2012:53). economic valuation than individual impacts. This is
unsurprising as financial valuation is quantitatively
The author concludes that development of cycle routes based. Nevertheless, the more readily measurable
can bring economic gains along the route from tourists, impacts may end up stifling the importance of the less
while also reducing their environmental impact. easily captured, yet important, individual and social
effects which do not convert readily to monetized value.
i EUR 1.12 = £0.93 at 1st April 2012 exchange rate
ii EUR 2.67 = £2.22 at 1st April 2012 exchange rate
iii EUR 0.69 = £0.57 at 1st April 2012 exchange rate
iv EUR 3.18 = £2.65 at 1st April 2012 exchange rate
v EUR 65.70 = £54.68 at 1st April 2012 exchange rate
vi EUR 1 million = £832,200 at 1st April 2012 exchange rate
21
4.4 Employment effects
The Estates Gazette (2012) reports that cycle facilities

Cycling is now on the political agenda of major
are now a factor in the career choice of over half the
businesses (Cycling Weekly, 2014; British Cycling,
respondents to a British Council for Offices survey
2015) and, within this context, the reported links
(n=149). Meanwhile, companies’promotion of cycling
between employment and infrastructure for non-
to work has led to lower job turnover (Sustrans 2011).
motorized transport appear important. Garrett-
There is also some suggestion that cycling facilities
Peltier (2011:2) reports on an evaluation of 58 studies
may be important to attracting particular types of
of the employment impacts of pedestrian and cycling
employees: Walljasper (2013) reports that the mayor
infrastructure in the US. Her research found that
of Milwaukee reportedly views cycling as being
cycling infrastructure can be very effective – each $1
critical in attracting creative talent.
millioni spent on cycling projects creates 11.4 jobs.
Pedestrian infrastructure reportedly creates slightly
Lack of transport options is recognized as a factor in
fewer and roads projects are weakest of all.
joblessness (ODPM, 2003) and insufficient transport
provision is a reason for declining employment (CfIT,
The US National Complete Streets Coalition (no
2002).The lowest economic quintile of society has
date:2) also highlights the link between cycling
a typical commute of 3 miles, whereas the national
infrastructure and jobs:
average is 8 miles (ODPM, 2003). This bears out
the “Marchetti wall” principle (Marchetti, 1994) that
Better bicycle infrastructure can create
people have a ‘transport budget’ of approximately
jobs directly, too. Cycling adds over $556
1 hour’s maximum commute (3 miles = 1 hour’s
million and 3,400 jobs to Wisconsin’s
walk), while an hour’s cycle commute corresponds
economy through increased tourism, bicycle
to about 8 miles. This suggests that wider availability
manufacturing, sales and repair, bike tours,
of cycling for transport has the potential to reduce
and other activities. Similarly, there’s a $90
transport inequality and promote access to jobs and
million benef t to the city’s economy from
education.
Portland, Oregon’s bicycling industry, and the
state of Colorado reaps a benef t of over $1
Referring to transportation costs in Bogotá,
billion each year from bicycle manufacturing,
Columbia, Muñoz-Raskin (2010) highlights that for
retail, and tourismii.
the least economically well off, the marginal utility
of saving the monetary cost of a transportation
There are other reported relationships between
ticket can be significant. This implies that low cost
cycling and employment. Hendriksen et al (2010),
solutions may be key to lessening the travel burden
reporting on a Dutch study, state that cycling to work
in economically excluded communities, pointing
results in reduced absenteeism, with regular cycle
to the potential within cycling to act as a tool for
commuters having on average one day less sickness
enabling accessibility. This prospect is heightened by
absence per annum than other people.
the author’s advice that in order
to save on the costs of transportation

services, the poorest communities may end
i $US 1 million = £622,800 at 1st April 2011 exchange rate up landlocked in marginal peripheral areas,
ii $US 556 million = £375.02 million; $US 90 million without adequate access to the areas where
= £60.71 million; $US 1 billion = £670 million (at 1st April 2015 the job pools exist in the city.
exchange rate; report is undated so this year’s exchange rate is
applied)
This finding would appear to be as relevant in the
UK as it is elsewhere and cycling provides a simple
solution to access difficulties across income levels.
Cycling has been shown to benefit both the

employer and the employee. Aside from its benefits
in terms of reducing sickness absences, the role of
cycling facilities for attracting staff seems to hold
great potential. For the prospective employee, ease
of physical access to work opportunities is central
to the ability to gain employment and cycling
provides a tool by which joblessness due to transport
exclusion may be overcome for some social groups.
Transferring these impacts into benefits that can be
included in transport project assessment would seem
to be central to reflecting the true nature of cycling’s
potential in improving employment prospects and,
thereby, helping to lower rates of unemployment.
23
4.5 Strategic governance effects
Cycling policy is relevant to the achievement of strategic Thus, pin-pointing the economic value of cycling
governance objectives. For example, examining cycle infrastructure can be seen to be made difficult by the
to school impacts briefly, Dutch evaluation of children’s other attributes which may confound assignment of
cycling to school activity estimated the equivalent benefits to specific causation.
cost of providing school buses at NLG1.2 bni (Boot
& Ploeger, 1987). Children using active travel to get Evidence in relation to property effects is mixed. It
to school tend to be more attentive and achieve better appears to vary according to type of cycle infrastructure
results (Living Streets, 2008; Rauner et al, 2013). In but stated preference analysis in the U.S. showed there
addition, as the economic and social burden of school is a greater willingness to pay for residential properties
travel is reported to fall predominantly on women, that are close to some types of cycle infrastructure
restricting employment opportunities (Nottinghamshire (generally off-road routes), although on-road routes
County Council, 1995), cycling to school in groups may are regarded as a disbenefit (Krizek, 2007). In addition,
provide economic benefits in the form of increased traffic reduction schemes complementary to cycling, or
employment options for those who once served as cycling schemes that result in a reduction of through
escorts to school. These benefits ultimately accrue traffic, can be regarded as having positive local benefit
across the population and economy, but are also economically. A Dutch study modelled traffic volume
experienced by individuals and employers. Thus this and residential property values and found that a 50%
particular benefit, whilst minor, is felt across all interest drop in traffic volume corresponds to an uplift in value
areas of this review. by 1% (Ossokina and Verweij, 2014). This means that
‘filtered permeability’ schemes (removing all through
Another potential strategic economic effect of cycling traffic except cycles) from residential areas can be
is its role in business. Improved accessibility has been viewed and promoted as resulting in wider improvement
linked to increased economic activity. Cycling and to the area. It is also reported that revealed preference
related infrastructure have been seen earlier to play a analysis shows strong favour among potential buyers
role in retail and business activity. But Mejia-Dorantes for “walkable” neighbourhoods, particularly amongst
and Lucas (2014:241) caution that the relationship women (Litman, 2010).
‘is far from conclusive or consistent’. With respect to
regeneration, they suggest that the nature and extent Looking now at the potential within investment in
of the relationship and related economic impacts cycling infrastructure for influencing travel behavior,
depends on the there is consistent evidence of new infrastructure
helping to increase the volume of cycling significantly.
type and scale of the infrastructure For example, in increasing order of impact, refer to
provided, its location and specif c operating Sloman et al, 2011; MVA, 2011; and Sillero, 2011.
characteristics, as well as on other factors Revealed preference analysis indicates a preference
outside the transport system, such as the pre- for protected, off-road and quiet-street cycling
existing property market, land uses and local infrastructure, particular for trips involving vulnerable
land policies. users (Aldred, 2015). However, Reid (2013) cautions
that comprehensive cycling infrastructure is not likely
to attract high usage where motoring is easy and
uncongested, citing the example of the Stevenage
i NLG 1.2bn = £390 million at 1st January 1990 exchange rate
cycle network which was copied by the Dutch in the
(earliest date available for exchange rate calculation on OANDA.
1970s. This does suggest investment is likely to be
com)
more worthwhile where cycling can offer competitive
journey times. With a tendency for cycling in London
They go on to provide guidelines for an online tool
to assess bicycle facilities. It looks at costs and
benefits and effects on demand. They report that the
recreational benefits of cycling typically in the US are
to compete for physical space with other modes, the around $40i per day (2004 values). The paper also
high cycling rates in the capital are against a backdrop discusses more obvious benefits (e.g. mobility, health,
of high ‘churn’ (i.e. a large proportion of new cyclists safety) and less obvious ones (e.g. automobile decline,
are replacing people who have stopped cycling) (TfL, and liveability). The paper also presents a positive
2010). This typifies a ‘distressed’ transport choice correlation between house prices and off-road bicycle
in response to a specific need (e.g. commuting or facilities, and on the other hand a negative correlation
lack of tube access) and that behaviour changes between house prices and on-road bike lanes. This
when circumstances do. Conversely, in locations is consistent with numerous studies (e.g. Aldred,
where cycling infrastructure is good (Munich) or 2015) that reveal acceptability of cycling as a mode
universal (Utrecht), “practical travelling” by bicycle is of transport is strongest where dedicated infrastructure
much more widespread: that is, people use a cycle is provided or in environments where traffic volumes
purely because it is convenient and not through any are low. Further investigation of the specification and
sense of environmental obligation or dissenting self- detail of how the software works may help elucidate
identification (Anable, 2013). the process and outputs further.
Aldred (2015, 1-2) argues that although it is possible Another paper contributes to the narrative of cycling’s
to monetize and model many benefits associated benefits and the impacts that need to be assessed
with cycling, these values are rarely included within when considering cycling. Handy and Xing (2011)
conventional transport models. She suggests that they describe the following:
are usually marginalized when data are collected and
when conducting transport assessments, where travel ▪Environmental (evidence not clear about car trip
time savings continue to dominate. While such savings reduction)
may have dominated assessment traditionally, it is ▪Health – clearer cut, but causality direction an issue
anticipated that this review may help reveal the gap (do fitter people typically choose to cycle?)
in available data which could then be built on to better ▪Well-being
capture the values that may thus far have been less ▪Economic – reduced health care costs, fewer sick days,
likely to have been considered. For example, Krizek transport cost savings, improved access to business,
et al (2007:211) provide an overview of an online tool cycling based tourism, workplace productivity.
developed to capture the value of investing in cycling
in the US. They indicate that As with many other sources, the quantification of these
benefits is absent from the discussion. However, one
A central problem troubling planning efforts of the papers that does give quantitative evidence
is that cycling currently lacks the tools looks at cost benefit analysis for walking and cycling.
and methodologies that are available for Davis (2010:2) indicates that several studies have
automobiles and transit related to forecasting identified economic benefits of walking and cycling
and benef t/cost calculations. interventions which are highly significant. He indicates
that the ‘median result for all data identified is 13:1 and
for UK data alone the median figure is higher, at 19:1’.
Based on Cavill et al’s economic analyses (2008),
i $US 40 = £21.56 at 1st April 2004 exchange rate
25
Connor (2014) suggests further that ‘(b)uilding a city The authors state that
for walkers or cyclists makes for a good investment The city is now well known for its grade-
all round: ‘One review set the cost benefit ratio of the separated bicycle and pedestrian paths, which
economic benefits of cycling interventions, including are integrated into a network of bicycle lanes,
health impacts from more physical activity, at 5:1’. This cycle-tracks, and on-street bicycle routes.
is comparable to DfT’s own estimates of the value for (Henao et al, 2015:65)
money of cycling investments (2014:2), which average
at 5.5:1. One investment package assessed by DfT The paper goes on to report that during the period
produced a BCR of 35.5:1. Note these assessments studied (1990-2009)
are conservative since they do not all capture all
potential wider economic benefits as identified in this …bicycling infrastructure investments varied
study. from $2.4 to $5.7 million (in 2009 dollars)
per year between 2000 and 2009, with a
Connor (2014) also states that: total of $84.7 million from 1990 to 2009. The
percentage of the total budget allocated to
Studies across the world report a positive bicycling infrastructure ranged from 10 to 20
economic multiplier effect when cities invest percent, with a 17 percent average, for the
in and embrace cycling. One study focused study period. (B)etween 1990 and 2009, the city
on Portland, Oregon, where businesses have had approved over $45.5 million of bicycling
a culture that accepts the bicycle mode, infrastructure enhancements. Examples of
sometimes offering specials for those who bicycle infrastructure added during this time
arrive by bike, plus amenities such as lockers, include the installation of bicycle lanes, multi-
showers, and other services that are less use path underpasses, and the addition of
obvious from the street. Portland is actively new multi-use paths. (Henao et al, 2015:67) i
pursuing this development concept, but
the individual elements of bike-supported The cycling mode share increase over the same period
development are catching on nationwide, even is equivalent to a 0.11 per cent increase per year or
when support from the business community approximately 2 per cent between 1990 and 2009.
is mixed (Clifton et al, 2012). However, the authors conclude that it is very difficult to
quantify the benefits of active travel and therefore the
Another source of monetized values is Henao et al’s results should be treated cautiously.
(2015) report on a review of transportation investments,
in terms of economic spend, made between 1990 and In the UK, Grous (2011) at the LSE prepared a report
2009 in Boulder, Colorado. This data is presented on the cycling economy in which a number of sources
along with mode share in order to highlight correlations were reviewed. He suggests that the cycling sector
between investments in sustainable transportation generates £2.9 billion for the British economy or a
infrastructure and increased use of these modes. The value of £230 for every biking Briton in the country,
city has invested heavily in sustainable transportation which takes into account purchase and maintenance
infrastructure over recent decades and simultaneously of bicycles.
experienced increased share of these modes with
i $US 2.4 million = £1.67 million; $US 5.7 million = £3.97 million;
the city being recognized by the League of American
$US 84.7 million = £58.99 million; $US 45.5 million = £31.69 million
Bicyclists as a Platinum bicycle-friendly community.
(at 1st April 2009 exchange rate)
Data from Colibi (2014) allows us to look deeper
at the bicycle industry in the UK, Bicycle production
is 20% higher in 2013 than at the time of the Grous
report (50,000 units per year in 2013), although this is
some way short of the era when bicycles were mass
produced domestically (1 million units per year in 2001,
after which point domestic production collapsed).
Nevertheless, this is a steady improvement from the However, although figures such as those supplied by
low point of 20,000 units produced per year in 2009. Grous and Gotschi are relatively rare, for Handy et al
(2014:13), it is essential that all important benefits and
Parts and accessories production is very strong: the costs are included in CBA for cycling:
output of €31 millioni per year in 2013 is double the
figure in 2001 (Colibi, 2014). …both those that impact gross domestic product (GDP)
(such as reduced travel times for trucks or business
While Colibi (2014) figures report a dip in employment travel) as well as those that have no impact on GDP
and retail sales since the Grous report, Halfords’ UK (such as reduced travel times for social trips, or lower
annual sales broke the £1bn mark in 2014 with 1.3 noise levels). Note that while all reductions in travel
million bicycles sold (Rankin, 2015) and the bicycle time should be included, even those that do not impact
sector is now the strongest part of the retailer’s GDP (at least not directly), the analysis should account
business. for the fact that the marginal value of time differs by the
trip purpose as well as mode (Borjesson & Eliasson,
The Grous (2011) report contains a number of other 2012).
figures which help develop an understanding of the
UK cycling economy. Some of these are that almost a For investments in cycling infrastructure, Handy et al
quarter of the UK population are now cyclists. Regular suggest that benefits such as environmental, health,
cyclists take one sick-day less per year, saving the economic, and well-being benefits, should all be
economy £128 million per year in absenteeism. A 20% included in CBAs. This is true at the national, strategic
rise in cyclists by 2015 could save the NHS £52 million level and, equally so, at the regional and local scale.
in costs. With Lee and March (2010) providing a reminder
that cyclists are more likely to be from a smaller local
While Grous’s estimation of NHS budget savings may catchment than car drivers who can travel from further
appear small, it is based on growthing up the already afield, the role of local cyclists in their own community
low volume of cycling in the UK. A more helpful way is central to the neighbourhood’s businesses thriving,
of considering the cost savings is to value it against its vitality and general amenity – its liveability. The role
the cost of the infrastructure provided, and taking into of these individuals in their communities needs to be
account actual demand for travel and thus reasonable monetized if realistic decisions about infrastructure for
prediction of potential usership. This approach by cycling are to be made.
Gotschi (2011) found healthcare savings from cycling
investment to be worth between $388 million and $594
million against capital costs in the range of $138 million
to $605 million.
i EUR 31 million = £26 million, at 1st April 2013 exchange rate
27
The literature suggests that cycling can assist in
meeting strategic goals in diverse areas such as
helping to introduce parity of access to employment
opportunities, contribute to retail and other business
vitality and create vibrant spaces. However, there is
a concern in the literature that appraisal methods do
not incorporate the extent of benefits associated with
cycling and this means that, as the mode competes
for funding, it may unduly be seen as less viable than
other options.
Borjesson and Eliasson (2012:682) offer the strongest

case for considering the benefits of cycling in their own
right:
The bicycle is in many contexts and

circumstances an extremely eff cient mode of
transport – cheap, fast, reliable and requires
little space or physical investments. As we
have seen, the value of cycling time savings
is potentially very high. In our opinion, the
bicycle deserves to be viewed as an important
.0 Gap Analysis and eff cient mode of transport – rather than
simply a means to obtain other effects’
In the United Kingdom context, the benefits of cycling

are only measured where a “mode switch” occurs:
i.e. health and other benefits begin to accrue if users
switch from other forms of transport, but the absence
of those benefits is not evaluated in the appraisal of
non-cycling transport decisions. Nor is the disbenefit
of mode switch in the other direction accounted for in
the assessment of non-cycling transport schemes.
Social accounting and audit may be another approach

that offers a framework for exploring the broader
scope of assessment as it concerns itself with more
than economic impacts and is not only expressed in
financial terms. It accepts the use of qualitative input,
incorporates multiple perspectives, and includes the
social, economic and environmental.
6.0 Conclusion
The findings reveal a substantial discourse about the

benefits of cycling. These are found across a range
of thematic spheres (e.g. improving accessibility,
increasing employment access, contributing to vibrant
communities and individual well-being) and geographic
scales (neighbourhood, local, regional, national).
However, despite assertions of various positive
impacts, the literature is less forth-coming about the
ways in which these may be realistically captured. The
nuanced impacts that go beyond mainstream economic
measures are difficult to harness into substantiated
and replicable metrics.
Yet, for the mode’s potential to be revealed and

infrastructure schemes to be financed, there is a need
to give priority to developing holistic models that move
beyond easily monetized factors to incorporate the
softer factors that show the interaction between cycling
and society.
There is also a need to appraise transport decisions

on a consistent basis across different type of modes
so that all benefits and disbenefits are captured in the
business case.
29
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Fiona Rajé and Andrew Saffrey

‘The Value of Cycling’

The authors would like to acknowledge the following people and

• Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport – in particular the

The value of cycling

Employment • Facilitation of cycling to work leads to lower staff turnover

The value of cycling

This report was commissioned to provide a review of

For cycling’s potential to be realised and infrastructure

The value of cycling

The value of cycling

Livability Cost of living

The value of cycling

The value of cycling

The value of cycling

The value of cycling

The value of cycling

(o)ne f nding from the study is that inbound exchange rate)

The value of cycling

The Estates Gazette (2012) reports that cycle facilities

to save on the costs of transportation

Cycling has been shown to benefit both the

The value of cycling

i $US 40 = £21.56 at 1st April 2004 exchange rate

The value of cycling

i EUR 31 million = £26 million, at 1st April 2013 exchange rate

The value of cycling

Borjesson and Eliasson (2012:682) offer the strongest

The bicycle is in many contexts and

In the United Kingdom context, the benefits of cycling

Social accounting and audit may be another approach

The findings reveal a substantial discourse about the

Yet, for the mode’s potential to be revealed and

There is also a need to appraise transport decisions

The value of cycling

The value of cycling

Newman, P. and Kenworthy, J. (1989) ‘Gasoline PWC-PriceWaterhouseCoopers (2009), ‘Evaluation of

The value of cycling

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