Presented at the DLSU Research Congress 2015

De La Salle University, Manila, Philippines

March 2-4, 2015

Challenges to water resource management:

ensuring adequate supply and better water quality
for the present and future generations

Dr. Roberto B. Raymundo

School of Economics
De La Salle University
Manila, Philippines
[email protected]

Abstract: One of the most important life sustaining natural resources that a country should
continually protect, preserve and enhance is water. All forms of life depend on water. Access to
clean and potable water immensely contributes to the improvement of the quality of life. The human
body needs to continually consume regular amounts of water in order to replace lost body fluids and
to function properly. The production of food and raw materials by the agricultural sector as well as
the manufacturing, mining and construction activities in the industrial sector all require huge
amounts of water as a major input. The cheapest form of electricity comes from hydroelectric power
plants which rely on water flowing through man made dams in the country’s various major river
systems. The provision of uninterrupted water supply improves the living conditions of all
households and supports the continued expansion of economic activities whether in agriculture,
industry or the services sector. A severe water shortage will lead to a deterioration in the quality
of life as well as economic losses for firms heavily dependent on water as a major input for
production.

The main objective of the study is to provide insights for policy recommendations that will
improve water quality, improve waste water treatment, eliminate water pollution , protect
watershed areas and reservoirs as well as promote the use of water harvesting facilities by both
households and firms.

Key words: integrated water management framework; water demand and supply; improving water
quality; watershed protection, ground water contamination; water harvesting

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Proceedings of the DLSU Research Congress Vol. 3 2015
 Presented at the DLSU Research Congress 2015
De La Salle University, Manila, Philippines
March 2-4, 2015

1. INTRODUCTION 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

One of the most important life sustaining 3.1 Water Demand

natural resources that a country should
continually protect, preserve and enhance is
water. All forms of life depend on water. Access to Groundwater demand
clean and potable water immensely contributes to
the improvement of the quality of life. The human Based on the estimates provided by the
body needs to continually consume regular National Statistical Coordination Board (NSCB)
amounts of water in order to replace lost body published in the Philippine Water Resources
fluids and to function properly. The production of Report for 2003, the industrial demand for
food and raw materials by the agricultural sector as groundwater in 1988 was measured at
well as the manufacturing, mining and approximately 2.229 billion cubic meters and had
construction activities in the industrial sector all increased to 3.769 billion cubic meters by the end
require huge amounts of water as a major input. of the year 2001. Using these estimates to arrive at
The cheapest form of electricity comes from an annual average growth rate of 4.123 percent,
hydroelectric power plants which rely on water ground water demand for 2008 would be at 5.0
flowing through man made dams in the country’s billion cubic meters and 6.372 billion cubic meters
various major river systems. The provision of by 2014. Ground water is actually subsurface
uninterrupted water supply improves the living water found in underground aquifiers which can be
conditions of all households and supports the extracted through deep well digging operations.
continued expansion of economic activities whether
in agriculture, industry or the services sector. A As the population continues to grow, the
severe water shortage will lead to a deterioration domestic demand for groundwater also continues
in the quality of life as well as economic losses for to increase from 3.906 billion cubic meters in 1988
firms heavily dependent on water as a major input to 5.8297 billion cubic meters in 2001. This reflects
for production. an annual average growth rate of 3.128 percent
over the 1988 to 2001 period (NSCB, 2003). With
this rate of increase, groundwater domestic
Objectives (household) demand is estimated at 7.23 billion
cubic meters for the year 2008 and 8.7 billion
The main objective of the study is to provide cubic meters for the year 2014.
insights for policy recommendations that will
improve water quality, improve waste water Surface water demand
treatment, eliminate water pollution , protect
watershed areas and reservoirs as well as promote
Surface water which is found in lakes, rivers and
the use of water harvesting facilities by both
streams was subject to substantial increases in
households and firms.
demand over the 1988 to 2000 period. The use of
surface water for domestic/ household consumption
increased from 1.02754 billion cubic meters in 1988
2. METHODOLOGY to 1.25965 billion cubic meters in the year 2000
(NSCB, 2003). This reflects an average annual
increase of 1.71 percent over the 13 year period.
The study uses a descriptive approach in order to
Based on this yearly rate of increase the demand
provide an overview of the current state of water
for groundwater will be approximately 1.443
resources in the Philippines, as well as a thorough
billion cubic meters in 2008 and 1.597 billion by
discussion and analysis of the issues confronting
the year 2014.
water resource management.

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Proceedings of the DLSU Research Congress Vol. 3 2015
 Presented at the DLSU Research Congress 2015
De La Salle University, Manila, Philippines
March 2-4, 2015

8 million cubic meters for Bacolod City (NWRB,

Industrial demand for surface water increased 1998). Aside from the projected demand being
from 175.99 million cubic meters in 1988 to 242.34 larger than the exploitable groundwater in these
million cubic meters by the year 2000. This reflects seven critical major metropolitan areas, it is also
an average annual growth rate of 2.7 percent important to consider that a large percentage of
(NSCB, 2003). Using this yearly rate of increase, groundwater is not fit for human consumption. The
surface water industrial demand will be at Environmental Management Bureau under the
approximately 300 million cubic meters by 2008 Department of Environment and Natural
and 352 billion cubic meters for the year 2014. Resources reports that 66 percent of the 611
classified inland bodies of water were not fit for
Water Demand in the human consumption due to the pollution caused by
Major Metropolitan Areas the dumping of wastes from mining and industrial
plants. Approximately 57 percent of the deep wells
The National Water Resources Board (NWRB) being monitored for groundwater extraction were
has identified seven critical major metropolitan highly contaminated with fecal colliforms
areas in the Philippines where the projected (Philippine Environment Monitor, 2003). This
demand for water is expected to dramatically further limits the amount of clean and potable
increase over the next 10 years. By the year 2025, water which could be used in these critical
water demand is expected to reach 2.883 billion metropolitan areas.
cubic meters in Metro Manila, 342 million cubic
meters in Metro Cebu, 203 million cubic meters in Household consumption of water includes
Zamboanga City, 153 million cubic meters in Davao drinking, hygiene, sanitation, food preparation and
City, 111 million cubic meters in Bacolod City, 98 laundry (Inocencio, 1999). The agricultural
million cubic meters in Cagayan de Oro City, and sector’s use of water is primarily for irrigation or
87 million cubic meters in Baguio City. These inland fisheries. Industry uses water as an input
Metropolitan areas are expected to have one of the for production for processed food and beverages ,
most rapid increases in population growth because the production of electricity, as well as a cooling
of rural to urban migration and increased birth agent for equipment and machinery which operate
rates. They are expected to attract the largest at high temperatures. Then mining sector uses
amount of investments in manufacturing, water in the process of extracting certain mineral
construction, electricity gas and water, as well as ores. Based on the World Resources Institute
in commercial and residential establishments. (2003), roughly 88 percent of total water
withdrawals is attributed to the agricultural sector,
However, the amount of exploitable 8 percent is accounted for by domestic household
groundwater in these nine major metropolitan use, while the remaining 4 percent is for industrial
areas fall short of the projected demand for 2025. and commercial purposes.
In 1998, exploitable groundwater was 191 million
cubic meters for Metro Manila, 60 million cubic 3.2 Water Supply
meters for Metro Cebu, 54 million cubic meters for
Zamboanga City, 84 million cubic meters for Davao The Philippines’ water resources are primarily
City, 103 million cubic meters for Bacolod City, 34 composed of inland freshwater, coastal, bay and
million cubic meters for Cagayan de Oro City and oceanic water. Water for domestic household
15 million cubic meters for Baguio City. consumption as well as for commercial and
industrial use is taken from inland freshwater
The largest gap between projected demand sources. Forest cover in mountainous areas serve
and exploitable groundwater is 2.692 billion cubic as watersheds by absorbing rainfall and gradually
meters for Metro Manila, 282 million cubic meters allowing water to flow from the forest into rivers,
for Metro Cebu, 149 million cubic meters for lakes or coastal areas. Rainfall contributes to the
Zamboanga City, 72 million cubic meters for Baguio accumulation of groundwater which can be
City, 69 million cubic meters for Davao City , 64 accessed by the digging of wells. The country has
million cubic meters for Cagayan de Oro City, and 421 principal rivers, 59 natural lakes, and many

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Proceedings of the DLSU Research Congress Vol. 3 2015
 Presented at the DLSU Research Congress 2015
De La Salle University, Manila, Philippines
March 2-4, 2015

reservoirs with an aggregate area of 50,000 square at 2.939 billion cubic meters. The identification of
kilometres (NSCB, 2003, Greenpeace, 2007, NWRB, these 12 water resource regions are based on the
2003). hydrological boundaries set by the DENR, EMB
and NWRB.
Ground water supply
Estimates of water resource potential reveal
The stock of groundwater had decreased by 79.182 that Northern, Southern, Southeastern and
billion cubic meters from 1988 to 2001, reflecting a Southwestern Mindanao possess the largest
reduction at an annual rate of 5.3 percent during potential followed by the Western and Eastern
the thirteen year period. The decrease in the stock Visayas regions. Identifying the water resource
of groundwater is largely attributed to the rising regions with the greatest potential provides a
demand from the industrial as well as the possible solution for the large projected growth of
household sector (NSCB, 2003). water demand in the major metropolitan areas by
2025. Decongesting overcrowded metropolitan
Surface water supply areas such as Manila, Cebu and Davao could be
undertaken by enhancing infrastructure
development and encouraging the entry of both
The stock of surface water decreased from 220.440
domestic and foreign investment in less crowded
billion cubic meters to 193.091 billion cubic meters
cities, provinces and municipalities located in the
from 1988 to 2000 reflecting a yearly rate of
Mindanao and Visayas regions where water
reduction at 7.3 percent. Irrigation of agricultural
resource potential is greater. However, this will
land accounts of the largest share in the use of
require the implementation of a rational land use
surface water followed by household consumption
policy in order to avoid the problems experienced
and industrial demand (NSCB, 2003).
by these overcrowded cities in the form of severe
vehicular traffic, compliance with zonal regulations
The Philippine Environment Monitor of 2003
for commercial, industrial and residential
provides a description of the total amount of
establishments and the protection of agricultural
surface water potential and groundwater potential
lands, watersheds, forest reserves and national
which can be developed in the country in order to
parks to preserve and protect the ecosystem.
meet the need for agriculture, industry and
household use. The total water resource potential
for the entire country is estimated at 145.990
billion cubic meters. Roughly 86 percent of the
total water resource potential is surface water Factors affecting water supply
measured at 125.790 billion cubic meters, while 14
percent or 20.2 billion cubic meters makes up the The main source of fresh water is rainfall.
groundwater potential. The regions with the Forest reserves and watershed areas facilitate the
largest water resource potential are: 1) Northern absorption of rain fall in order to replenish ground
Mindanao at 31.116 billion cubic meters; water sources. Rainwater flowing through
2) Southern Mindanao at 20.548 billion cubic forested mountain slopes ultimately increase water
meters; 3) Western Visayas at 15.344 billion cubic levels in streams, rivers and lakes which increase
meters; 4) Southeastern Mindanao at 13.675 the supply of surface water that can be used.
billion cubic meters; 5) Southwestern Mindanao at During the last three decades, the production and
13.182 billion cubic meters; 6) Eastern Visayas at supply of clean and potable water has been
11.907 billion cubic meters and; 7) Cagayan threatened by the lack of rainfall in the major
Valley at 11.335 billion cubic meters. The watershed areas and reservoirs being managed by
remaining five regions which have water resource the government’s local water utility agencies. The
potentials below 10.0 billon cubic meters are: 8) country is visited by an average of 20 typhoons per
Central Luzon at 9.611 billion cubic meters; 9) year which helps replenish water sources behind
Southern Tagalog at 7.780 billion cubic meters; 10) dams and reservoirs, but the growing population
Ilocos at 4.498 billion cubic meters; 11) Bicol at along with the rapid pace of urbanization,
4.145 billion cubic meters and; 12) Central Visayas accompanied by the need to generate hydroelectric

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Proceedings of the DLSU Research Congress Vol. 3 2015
 Presented at the DLSU Research Congress 2015
De La Salle University, Manila, Philippines
March 2-4, 2015

power as well as the provision of water for surface and groundwater. The rapid rate of
irrigation has increased the rate of water usage urbanization has led to a larger number of
faster than the rate at which it can be replenished. households and firms not connected to a sewerage
treatment system, disposing of untreated waste
The occurrence of the “El Nino” phenomenon and contaminating both groundwater and
every 4 to 5 years brings drought to several regions potential surface water sources. In poverty
in the country which creates more difficulty stricken communities, households do not have
replenishing depleted surface and ground water toilets and kitchens and no sources of clean water
sources because of the absence of rain and the which makes them vulnerable to water born
longer dry spells during summer. diseases such as typhoid, cholera, gastroenteritis,
diarrhoea, dysentery, hepatitis and other bacterial
Deforestation has dramatically reduced the infections. The absence of an extensive sewerage
ability of large tracks of land to absorb rainwater system that will treat waste water severely
and recharge groundwater sources. During the compromises the quality of groundwater as well as
past 50 years roughly 97 percent of the country’s surface water specially if these water sources are
forest cover has been lost due to extensive logging located close to residential and industrial areas.
activities both legal and illegal, with only 7.2
million hectares left from the original 27 million Water distribution
hectares of forest cover (Forest Management
Bureau, 2009). The encroachment by illegal settlers Leaking pipes, illegal connections and faulty or
and the activities of illegal loggers in watershed tampered water meters have made water
areas have reduced its ability to absorb rainfall distribution inefficient and increases the amount
and replenish reservoirs and ground water sources. of non-revenue water (NRW) either being lost or
pilfered. Lost revenue does not allow the water
It will be absolutely necessary to identify protected utility operator to recover its costs and induces the
forest reserves and watershed areas as well as firm to pass the burden of uncollected revenues to
intensify efforts to plant more trees in these legitimate consumers. Legitimate consumers are
protected areas in order to increase the rainfall penalized with higher water prices, part of which
absorption and replenish groundwater and surface is used to recover the systems losses. Manila
water sources. Water which operates the water concession for the
East Zone had non-water revenue at 55 percent in
1999, which consequently worsened in 2002 at 57
percent. However, with the replacement of old
pipes and the installation of new ones alongside the
removal of illegal connections and the replacement
Water quality of old and faulty meters, NRW had declined
significantly from 57 percent in 2002 to 47 percent
Inadequate sewerage treatment systems has in 2004, 38 percent in 2005, 34 percent in 2006, 25
increased the amount of domestic household waste percent in 2007, 18 percent in 2008 13 percent in
water, industrial effluence and agricultural run-offs 2009 (ADB, 2010). New investments in pipes,
that have contributed largely to the pollution of pumps and the ability to eliminate illegal
ground water and surface water sources severely connections and faulty meters improve efficiency
compromising water quality. The Joint Monitoring in water distribution which provides uninterrupted
Program for Water Supply and Sanitation of the supply and consistent water pressure for
World Health Organization and UNICEF (2004), legitimate consumers. This also makes it easier for
reports that only 7 percent in the urban areas and water utility operators to recover costs and
2 percent in the rural areas in the Philippines are investments in infrastructure as the true cost of
connected to a sewerage system. A majority of producing and distributing water is reflected by a
households use flush toilets that drain into a septic reasonable price.
tank or into sewers that lead to canals and river
systems without being treated, contaminating both

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Proceedings of the DLSU Research Congress Vol. 3 2015
 Presented at the DLSU Research Congress 2015
De La Salle University, Manila, Philippines
March 2-4, 2015

Agency overlaps in water Because the agricultural sector uses the

resource management largest volume of water for both irrigation and
inland fishery, the Department of Agriculture (DA)
Water resource management in the becomes involved through its line agencies
Philippines is subject to a relatively complex particularly the National Irrigation Administration
system of governance because of the regulatory (NIA), the Bureau of Soil and Water Management
overlaps that exist among the different agencies (BSWM) and the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic
involved in it. The Philippine Water Supply Sector Resources (BFAR).
Roadmap (2010) and Elazeui (2004), provides a
description of the system of governance applicable Water collected using dams from river
to water resource management. A brief discussion systems are used for irrigation. The NIA
of this is presented as follows: undertakes water resource projects for irrigation as
well as for flood control, drainage and hydropower
development for agriculture.

The BSWM is responsible for formulating and

Protecting forest reserves, watersheds implementing policies and programs for the
and improving the quality of water protection of existing and potential sources of soil
and water for agricultural development.
The National Water Resources Board (NWRB)
serves as the lead coordinator for water resources The BFAR establishes plans for the proper
programs alongside administering and enforcing protection and management of the country’s
the Water Code. It is under the Department of fisheries and aquatic resources. Coordination with
Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) but the DENR and the NRWB become necessary if
needs to coordinate policy implementation with two surface water sources such as lakes and rivers are
other agencies under the DENR namely the Forest at the same time being used for fishing and
Management Bureau (FMB) and the irrigation activities.
Environmental Management Bureau (EMB).
Safe water, sanitation and avoiding
The FMB is necessary to ensure that forests
water-borne diseases
and watershed areas are protected, developed and
managed to prevent encroaching by informal
The Department of Health (DOH) is the third
settlers and denudation and exploitation by both
department that is involved, through its line
legal and illegal loggers. The FMB can formulate
agency which is the Environmental Health Service
and implement policies and programs in order to
(EHS). Water produced and distributed by the
meet the above mentioned goals and continue the
utility operators will be subject to regular testing
conservation of forests and watershed areas.
by the EHS. The EHS will be responsible for
monitoring the safety of water for consumption
A well protected forest reserve and watershed
and the implementation of sanitation programs
area will better absorb rain fall replenishing both
and other strategies that will forestall the spread of
groundwater and surface water which will be
water-borne diseases.
subject to extraction, treatment and distribution
by the operators of the various water utilities. The
EMB is expected to set and enforce water quality Hydro-electric power generation
and effluent standards, criteria, as well as
guidelines for all aspects of water quality The National Power Corporation (NPC) is part
management, to ensure that the water provided by of water management due to its use of the dams to
the utility operators will be safe and fit for human generate hydroelectric power. It must coordinate
consumption. with the NIA as well as the NWRB in order to
establish rules and guidelines in determining when
Water for irrigation and fisheries the dams can be actually used for hydroelectric
power generation subject to acceptable water level

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Proceedings of the DLSU Research Congress Vol. 3 2015
 Presented at the DLSU Research Congress 2015
De La Salle University, Manila, Philippines
March 2-4, 2015

requirements. During periods of low water levels in order to help conserve water. Collecting rainfall
during the summer, the NPC must temporarily and making use of proper storage facilities (rain
abandon hydroelectric power generation in order to water collectors and covered wells) should allow
give way for irrigation and household use. both households and firms to reduce water
consumption expenditures. Encouraging this
Water utility regulators practice at the barangay level to be implemented
nationwide will contribute substantially to the
The Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage conservation of the country’s water resources.
System (MWSS) is responsible for producing and Republic Act No. 6716 which is known as the
distributing water to the end users (both consumers Rainwater Act of 1989 was enacted for this
and firms) with MWSS regulating water purpose. However, the law is currently not being
concessionaires rates and service standards in enforced and monitored.
Metro Manila as well as maintaining existing
assets and infrastructure.
4. CONCLUSIONS
The Local Water Utilities Administration
(LWUA) promotes, finances and regulates the
The goals of increasing current water supply,
construction and operation of local water utilities
improving water quality and ensuring that future
outside Metro Manila.
generations will continue to get access to this vital
resource will require: 1) an integrated water
Final comments
resources management framework; 2) greater
environmental awareness from consumers and
The three departments namely: the DENR, DA stakeholders; 3) effective regulations with clear
and DOH, and their respective line agencies rules and guidelines to implement the clean water
NWRB, FMB, EMB, NIA, BSWM, BFAR and the act; 4) the strong enforcement of environmental
EHS, alongside three government owned and laws; 5) and more investments into engineering
controlled corporations NPC, MWSS, and LWUAA structures that correct water quality and improve
have well defined goals and functions pertaining to waste water treatment infrastructure. In
the management of water resources. All of the addition, it will be necessary for the price of water
above mentioned agencies will be subject to the to reflect its true cost of production and distribution
coordination and regulatory functions of the NWRB which should include the protection of watershed
which will adopt the encompassing policy areas, and allow for the recovery of cost and an
framework to be recommended by the National acceptable return on investment for water
Economic Development Authority (NEDA). producers. It will be necessary to encourage more
private sector participation not only in water
However, the overlaps across the line agencies, production and distribution, but also in its
the departments and water utility regulators conservation and the protection of groundwater
creates an environment wherein there are two and surface water sources.
many laws and a large number of these are neither
enforced nor monitored. There are 23 key water
related legislations subject to implementation by
the various line agencies but many of these laws
are not implemented or carried out because of
budgetary constraints as well as the lack of 5. REFERENCES
enforcement and monitoring.
Asian Development Bank (2010), ADB and
Institute of Water Policy, Lee Kuan Yew School
The need to encourage
of Public Policy (2010). Every drop counts:
rainwater harvesting
learning good practices in eight Asian cities.
Mandaluyong City, Philippines.
Local governments should encourage
households and firms to engage in water harvesting Elazegui, D. (2004), Water Resource Governance:

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Proceedings of the DLSU Research Congress Vol. 3 2015
 Presented at the DLSU Research Congress 2015
De La Salle University, Manila, Philippines
March 2-4, 2015

Realities and Challenges in the Philippines. Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and
Philippine Institute for Development Studies, Sanitation. Report 2004.
Makati City.

Forest Management Bureau, 2009

Inocencio, A., Padilla, J. and Javier E. (1999). How

Much Water Do Housholds Require. PIDS Policy
Notes. Philippine Institute for Development
Studies, Makati City.

National Water Resources Board (1998). Master

Plan Study on Water Resources Management in
the Republic of the Philippines: Final Report.
Japanese International Cooperation Agency.
Tokyo.

National Statistical Coordination Board (2003), The

Philippine Water Resources Report 2003.
Philippine Statistics Authority, NSCB, Makati
City Philippines.

Philippine Environment Monitor: Water Quality

(2003). The World Bank New York.

Philippine Water Supply Sector Roadmap

(2003,2010). National Economic Development
Authority, Pasig City.

Senate Economic Planning Office Policy Brief

(2011), Turning the Tide: Improving Water
Resource Management in the Philippines.
Harry S. Pasimio Jr. Senate of the Philippines,
August 2011

United Nations Development Programme (2006).

Human Development Report 2006 – Beyond
Scarcity: Power, Poverty, and the Global Water
Crisis. United Nations Development
Programme, New York.

World Resources Institute (2003), World Resources

2002-2004: Decisions for the Earth: Balance
voice and power. World Resources Institute,
the United Nations Development Programme
and the United Nations Environment
Programme.

World Health Organization and UNICEF (2004),

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