THEORIES ABOUT THE ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE

Brahmanda (Cosmic Egg) Universe

The Hindu Rigveda, written in India around the 15th-12th Century B.C., describes a
cyclical or oscillating universe in which a “cosmic egg”, or Brahmanda, containing the
whole universe (including the Sun, Moon, planets and all of space) expands out of a single
concentrated point called a Bindu before subsequently collapsing again. The universe cycles
infinitely between expansion and total collapse.

Anaxagorian Universe
The 5th Century B.C. Greek philosopher Anaxagoras believed that the original state of
the cosmos was a primordial mixture of all its ingredients which existed in infinitesimally small
fragments of themselves. This mixture was not entirely uniform, and some ingredients were
present in higher concentrations than others, as well as varying from place to place. At some
point in time, this mixture was set in motion by the action of “nous” (mind), and the whirling
motion shifted and separated out the ingredients, ultimately producing the cosmos of separate
material objects, all with different properties, that we see today.

Atomist Universe
Later in the 5th Century B.C., the Greek philosophers Leucippus and Democritus
founded the school of Atomism, which held that the universe was composed of very small,
indivisible and indestructible building blocks known as atoms (from the Greek “atomos”,
meaning “uncuttable”). All of reality and all the objects in the universe are composed of different
arrangements of these eternal atoms and an infinite void, in which they form different
combinations and shapes.
Aristotelian Universe

The Greek philosopher Aristotle, in the 4th Century B.C., established a

geocentric universe in which the fixed, spherical Earth is at the center, surrounded by concentric
celestial spheres of planets and stars. Although he believed the universe to be finite in size, he
stressed that it exists unchanged and static throughout eternity. Aristotle definitively established
the four classical elements of fire, air, earth and water, which were acted on by two
forces, gravity (the tendency of earth and water to sink) and levity (the tendency of air and fire to
rise). He later added a fifth element, aether, to describe the void that fills the universe above the
terrestrial sphere.

Stoic Universe
The Stoic philosophers of ancient Greece (3rd Century B.C. and after) believed in a kind
of island universe in which a finite cosmos is surrounded by an infinite void (not dissimilar in
principle to a galaxy). They held that the cosmos is in a constant state of flux, and pulsates in size
and periodically passes through upheavals and conflagrations. In the Stoic view, the universe is
like a giant living body, with its leading part being the stars and the Sun, but in which all parts
are interconnected, so that what happens in one place affects what happens elsewhere. They also
held a cyclical view of history, in which the world was once pure fire and would become fire
again (an idea borrowed from Heraclitus).

Heliocentric Universe
The 3rd Century B.C. Greek astronomer and mathematician Aristarchus of Samos was
the first to present an explicit argument for a heliocentric model of the Solar System, placing the
Sun, not the Earth, at the center of the known universe. He described the Earth as rotating daily
on its axis and revolving annually about the Sun in a circular orbit, along with a sphere of
fixed stars. His ideas were generally rejected in favor of the geocentric theories of Aristotle and
Ptolemy until they were successfully revived nearly 1800 years later by Copernicus. However,
there were exceptions: Seleucus of Seleucia, who lived about a century after Aristarchus,
supported his theories and used the tides to explain heliocentricity and the influence of the
Moon; the Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata described elliptical orbits around the
Sun at the end of the 5th Century A.D.; as did the Muslim astronomer Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu
Ma'shar al-Balkhi in the 9th Century.

Ptolemaic Universe
The 2nd Century A.D. Roman-Egyptian mathematician and astronomer Ptolemy
(Claudius Ptolemaeus) described a geocentric model largely based on Aristotelian ideas, in which
the planets and the rest of the universe orbit about a stationary Earth in circular epicycles. In
terms of longevity, it was perhaps the most successful cosmological model of all time.
Modifications to the basic Ptolemaic system were suggested by the Islamic Maragha School in
the 13th, 14th and 15th Centuries including the first accurate lunar model by Ibn al-Shatir, and
the rejection of a stationary Earth in favor of a rotating Earth by Ali Qushji.

Abrahamic Universe
Several medieval Christian, Muslim and Jewish scholars put forward the idea of
a universe which was finite in time. In the 6th Century A.D., the Christian philosopher John
Philoponus of Alexandria argued against the ancient Greek notion of an infinite past, and was
perhaps the first commentator to argue that the universe is finite in time and therefore had a
beginning. Early Muslim theologians such as Al-Kindi (9th Century) and Al-Ghazali (11th
Century) offered logical arguments supporting a finite universe, as did the 10th Century Jewish
philosopher Saadia Gaon.

Partially Heliocentric Universe

In the 15th and early 16th Century, Somayaji Nilakantha of the Kerala school of
astronomy and mathematics in southern India developed a computational system for a partially
heliocentric planetary model in which Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn orbited the Sun,
which in turn orbited the Earth. This was very similar to the Tychonic system proposed by the
Danish nobleman Tycho Brahe later in the 16th Century as a kind of hybrid of the Ptolemaic and
Copernican models.

Copernican Universe

In 1543, the Polish astronomer and polymath Nicolaus Copernicus adapted the geocentric
Maragha model of Ibn al-Shatir to meet the requirements of the ancient heliocentric universe of
Aristarchus. His publication of a scientific theory of heliocentrism, demonstrating that the
motions of celestial objects can be explained without putting the Earth at rest in the center of
the universe, stimulated further scientific investigations and became a landmark in the history of
modern science, sometimes known as the Copernican Revolution. His Copernican Principle (that
the Earth is not in a central, specially favored position) and its implication that celestial bodies
obey physical laws identical to those on Earth, first established cosmology as a science rather
than a branch of metaphysics. In 1576, the English astronomer Thomas Digges popularized
Copernicus’ ideas and also extended them by positing the existence of a multitude
of stars extending to infinity, rather than just Copernicus’ narrow band of fixed stars. The Italian
philosopher Giordano Bruno took the Copernican Principle a stage further in 1584 by suggesting
that even the Solar System is not the center of the universe, but rather a relatively
insignificant star system among an infinite multitude of others. In 1605, Johannes Kepler made
further refinements by finally abandoning the classical assumption of circular orbits in favor of
elliptical orbits which could explain the strange apparent movements of the planets. Galileo's
controversial support of Copernicus' heliocentric model in the early 17th Century was denounced
by the Inquisition but nevertheless helped to popularize the idea.

Cartesian Vortex Universe

In the mid-17th Century, the French philosopher René Descartes outlined a model of
the universe with many of the characteristics of Newton’s later static, infinite universe. But,
according to Descartes, the vacuum of space was not empty at all, but was filled with matter that
swirled around in large and small vortices. His model involved a system of huge swirling
whirlpools of ethereal or fine matter, producing what would later be called gravitational effects.

Static (or Newtonian) Universe

In 1687, Sir Isaac Newton published his “Principia”, which described, among other
things, a static, steady state, infinite universe which even Einstein, in the early 20th Century, took
as a given (at least until events proved otherwise). In Newton’s universe, matter on the large
scale is uniformly distributed, and the universe is gravitationally balanced but essentially
unstable.

Hierarchical Universe and the Nebular Hypothesis

Although still generally based on a Newtonian static universe, the matter in a
hierarchical universe is clustered on even larger scales of hierarchy, and is endlessly being
recycled. It was first proposed in 1734 by the Swedish scientist and philosopher Emanuel
Swedenborg, and developed further (independently) by Thomas Wright (1750), Immanuel Kant
(1755) and Johann Heinrich Lambert (1761), and a similar model was proposed in 1796 by the
Frenchman Pierre-Simon Laplace.

Einsteinian Universe
The model of the universe assumed by Albert Einstein in his groundbreaking theory
of gravity in the early 20th Century was not dissimilar to Newton’s in that it was a static,
dynamically stable universe which was neither expanding or contracting. However, he had to add
in a “ cosmological constant” to his general relativity equations to counteract the dynamical
effects of gravity which would otherwise have caused the universe to collapse in on itself
(although he later abandoned that part of his theory when Edwin Hubble definitively showed in
1929 that the universe was not in fact static).
String Theory

According to string theory, these subatomic particles do not exist. Instead, tiny pieces of
vibrating string too small to be observed by today's instruments replace them. Each string may be
closed in a loop, or open. Vibrations from the string correspond with each of the particles and
determine the particles' size and mass.

How do strings replace point-like particles? On a subatomic level, there is a relationship

between the frequency at which something vibrates and its energy. At the same time, as Einstein's
famous equation E=mc2 tells us, there is a relationship between energy and mass. Therefore, a
relationship exists between an object's vibrational frequency and its mass. Such a relationship is
central to string theory.

Limiting the dimensions of the universe

Einstein's theory of relativity opened up the universe to a multitude of dimensions,

because there was no limit on how it functioned. Relativity worked just as well in four
dimensions as in forty. But string theory only works in ten or eleven dimensions. If scientists can
find evidence supporting string theory, they will have limited the number of dimensions that
could exist within the universe.

We only experience four dimensions. Where, then are the missing dimensions predicted
by string theory? Scientists have theorized that they are curled up into a compact space. If the
space is tiny, on the scale of the strings (on the order of 10-33centimeters), then we would be
unable to detect them.

On the other hand, the extra dimensions could conceivably be too large for us to measure;
our four dimensions could be curled up exceedingly small inside of these larger dimensions.

Searching for evidence

In 1996, physicists Andrew Strominger, then at the Institute for Theoretical Physics in
Santa Barbara, and Cumrun Vafa at Harvard, simulated a black hole with an excessive amount of
disorder, or entropy. Such a black hole had been simulated two decades earlier by physicists
Jacob Bekenstein and Stephen Hawking. At the time, no one could figure out why a black hole
might harbor so much entropy.

The theoretical black hole created by Strominger and Vafa was not created like
conventional black holes seen at the center of galaxies such as the Milky Way. Instead, they
relied on string theory to simulate it, providing a link between the complex theory and the
fundamental force of gravity that drives black holes. By basing its foundation on string theory
instead of conventional particles, they lent more credibility to the potentially unifying theory.

Whether string theory is the "ultimate" theory — the theory of everything — is unknown. But it
is a strong contender for explaining the inner workings of the universe.

— Nola Taylor Redd, SPACE.com Contributor

M-Theory

M-Theory is the name for a unified version of string theory, proposed in 1995 by the
physicist Edward Witten. At the time of the proposal, there were 5 variations of string theory, but
Witten put forth the idea that each was a manifestation of a single underlying theory.

Witten and others identified several forms of duality between the theories which, together
with certain assumptions about the nature of the universe, could allow for them to all be one
single theory: M-Theory. One of the major components of M-Theory is that it required adding
yet another dimension on top of the already-numerous extra dimensions of string theory so that
the relationships between the theories could be worked out.

The Second String Theory Revolution or M- theory

In the 1980s and early 1990s, string theory had reached something of a problem due to an
abundance of riches. By applying supersymmetry to string theory, into the combined superstring
theory, physicists (including Witten himself) had explored the possible structures of these
theories, and the resulting work had shown 5 distinct versions of superstring theory. Research
further showed that you could use certain forms of mathematical transformations, called S-
duality and T-duality, between the different versions of string theory.

Physicists were at a loss

At a physics conference on string theory, held at the University of Southern California in

spring of 1995, Edward Witten proposed his conjecture that these dualities be taken seriously.
What if, he suggested, the physical meaning of these theories is that the different approaches to
string theory were different ways of mathematically expressing the same underlying theory.
Though he did not have the details of that underlying theory mapped out, he suggested the name
for it, M-Theory.
Inflation Theory

Inflation theory brings together ideas from quantum physics and particle physics to
explore the early moments of the universe, following the big bang. According to inflation theory,
the universe was created in an unstable energy state, which forced a rapid expansion of the
universe in its early moments. One consequence is that the universe is vastly bigger than
anticipated, far larger than the size that we can observe with our telescopes. Another
consequence is that this theory predicts some traits—such as the uniform distribution of energy
and the flat geometry of spacetime—which was not previously explained within the framework
of the big bang theory.

The pulsating universe theory, which is more commonly known as the oscillating or
cyclic universe theory, posits that the universe goes through regular cycles of expansion and
destruction. This theory is credited to Albert Einstein.

In the cyclic model, the universe begins with a "big bang" and ends with a "big crunch."
After the big bang, the universe expands until gravitational forces force it to stop. At this point,
the universe contracts until it implodes into a singularity. A gravitational singularity is a point
where gravitational forces are infinite. After this contraction occurs, the cycle begins again with a
new big bang.

The original cyclic universe theories conflict with the established laws of
thermodynamics, which state that entropy in a system can only increase. The collapse of the
universe into a big crunch results in a loss of entropy. Newer models solve this problem by
factoring in dark energy, a type of energy not yet discovered in Einstein's time.

This theory is not the currently accepted theory about the origin and end of the universe,
but does explain some shortcomings of other theories. Most prominently, it solves the thermal
state problem: how the universe begins at such a high temperature. In cyclic theories, the
implosion of all matter and energy in the universe into a singularity produces the required energy
to initiate a big bang.
Holographic Universe

The holographic principle is a property of quantum gravity theories which resolves the
black hole information paradox within string theory.First proposed by Gerard 't Hooft, it was
given a precise string-theory interpretation by Leonard Susskind.The principle states that the
description of a volume of space should be thought of as encoded on a boundary to the region,
preferably a light-like boundary like a gravitational horizon. For a black hole, the principle states
that the description of all the objects which will ever fall in is entirely contained in surface
fluctuations of the event horizon. In a larger and more speculative sense, the theory suggests that
the entire universe can be seen as a two-dimensional information structure "painted" on the
cosmological horizon, so that the three dimensions we observe are only an effective description
at low energies.

Cosmological holography has not yet been made mathematically precise, partly because
the cosmological horizon has a finite area and grows with time. It has been claimed, on general
physical principles, that the holographic principle may manifest itself in the form of background
noise in gravitational wave detectors.
 Bibliography

https://www.space.com/17594-string-theory.html
https://www.thoughtco.com/m-theory-2699256
https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-inflation-theory-2698852
https://www.reference.com/science/pulsating-theory-77a64f12c535f8b3

https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/holographic_principle.htm
https://www.physicsoftheuniverse.com/cosmological.html
THEORIES
ABOUT THE
ORIGIN OF
THE
UNIVERSE
ABM 11-PACIOLI

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