UT Product Technology

UT Product Technology
Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd Name

Product Technology
Steel Production
Casting Wrought Production Welding

Extrusion
Forging
Rolling
Defects Inherent
Processing
Service
Heat Treatment
Steel Production
2 Stage Process
• Iron ore is reduced into pig iron assisted
by other materials.
• Carbon content of Pig Iron is lowered by
reacting with oxygen
• The molten metal is then cast into Ingots
or continuously cast
• Ingots are rolled into Blooms, Billets or
Slabs

Steel Production
1st Stage
• Iron ore is reduced into pig iron assisted
by other materials.
• Raw materials Hematite (Fe2O3)
or
Magnetite(Fe3O4)
+
Coke
Limestone
Air
Steel Production
1st Stage
Blast furnace reactions
• Fe2O3 + 3CO = 2Fe + 3CO2
• Fe2O3 + 3C = 2Fe + 3CO

Lime from limestone combines with
impurities (mainly silica) in the ore to form
fluid slag
• SiO2 + 2Cao = 2CaOSiO2
Steel Production
Blast Furnace
Charge
Products
• Ore 4000
• Pig Iron 2000
• Limestone 800
• Slag 1600
• Coke 1800
• Dust 200
• Air 8000
• Furnace gas 10800
14600
14600

Steel Production
Blast Furnace
Product of Blast Furnace - Pig iron (>3% carbon)

Steel Production
• Pig iron converted to steel by blowing
molten metal with oxygen or oxygen
rich gases
• Oxygen reacts with excess carbon
• C + 2 O → CO2
• C + O → CO
• CO + O → CO2

Steel Production
• Bessemer
• Open hearth process
• Basic oxygen process

Steel Production
Solid scrap

Steel Production
Molten Pig Iron

Steel Production
Oxygen lance

Steel Production
Steel

Steel Production
Molten steel poured into large molds (ingots)
Ingots are used for further processing
Hot top

Steel Production
Molten steel poured into large molds (ingots)
Ingots are used for further processing
2 types of mould - Narrow end up, Wide end
up

Steel Production
• Metal solidifies from outside inwards
3 types of crystal formed
• Chill or fine exui-axed
• Columnar
• Large equi-axed

Smelting Defects
Primary pipe/sink
• Pipes
• Shrinkage
Secondary
pipe

Smelting Defects
• Non-metallic inclusions

Smelting Defects
• Segregation of metals

Steel Production
• Alternative to ingots is Continuous casting
Tundish
Mold forming slab
Water spray
chamber
Rollers

Steel Production

Steel Production
Advantages of Continuous casting
• Faster : 300 tons of steel in 45 mins
compared to 12 hours
• No piping problems
• Cheaper : No ingot molds, handling

Product Technology
Casting

Casting Process
• Liquid metal is caused to fill a cavity and
solidify into a useful shape
• All materials used in metal manufacture
cast at some time

Casting Process
• Stage 1 : A pattern of the finished
item slightly over sized
• Stage 2 : Mould constructed from
the pattern
• Stage 3 : Liquid metal poured
through the channels to fill
the mould

Casting
Pouring Riser
basin
Sprue
Core
Runner

Casting
Chaplets Chills
Casting
• Casting involves the solidification from
liquid to solid
• Solidification proceeds from outside to
centre
• Solidification involves shrinkage

Grain Growth

Casting Methods
• Sand casting

Sand Casting

Sand Casting

Sand Casting

Sand Casting

Sand Casting

Sand Casting

Casting Methods
• Sand casting
• Die casting / Injection moulding

Die Casting
Casting
cavity
Injection
piston
Moving Die
Fixed platen
platen
Casting Methods
• Sand casting
• Die casting / Injection moulding
• Investment casting / Lost wax process

Investment Casting
Wax
Pattern

Investment Casting
Coat with
refractory
slurry

Investment Casting
Reinforce with plaster

backing (Investment)

Investment Casting
Oven dry to liquify or

vaporise pattern and dry
mould

Investment Casting
Pour metal

Investment Casting
Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd Remove investment material

Name
Choice of Casting Method
Dimensional Accuracy Cost

• Investment casting • Sand casting
• Die casting • Die casting
• Sand casting • Investment casting

Casting Defects
Primary pipe/sink
• Shrinkage cavities
• Sinks
Secondary
pipe

Casting Defects
Blowholes and porosity
Cross-sectional
changes /corners

Casting Defects
• Inclusions
• Scabs
• Fins

Casting Defects
Shrinkage

Casting Defects
Scabs

Casting Defects
Scabs- part of mould stuck to the casting

Casting Defects
Fins
Gaps

Casting Defects
Fins- excess metal of casting
Fin

Casting Defects
• Hot tears The larger section The grain are
cools slower than the different
smaller section between the
sections
Hot Tears

Hot Tears

Chills are used for:
2. Directional grain growth
3. Uniform cooling rate

Casting Defects
• Segregation

Product Technology
Wrought Production Methods

Wrought Production
• Forging
• Extrusion
• Rolling

Wrought Production
Forging Extrusion
• Metal confined under • Metal forced through
pressure to cause a die under a large
plastic flow load
Rolling
• Thickness reduction
through
compression
Rolling
Ingots, slabs and billets rolled to produce long
length products with uniform cross section
PRIMARY ROLLING
PROCESS / COGGING
Two-High Reversing Mill

Rolling
PRIMARY ROLLING PROCESS
Secondary
piping

Rolling
SECONDARY ROLLING PROCESS
Lamination
Three-High Reversing
Mill
Rolling
Non-metallic
inclusion

Rolling
Stringers
Mill
Rolling
Segregation of
metals

Rolling
Banding
Mill
Cold Rolling
• Initial rolling hot
• Finishing by cold working
Cluster mill 4 High mill

Rolling
• Bloom - Square c/s 150x150mm minimum
• Slab - Rectangular c/s area greater than 14400 mm2
• Billet - Square 50x50 up to 120 x 120mm
• Primary rolling- ingot to blooms and slabs

• Secondary rolling - blooms and slabs to plates ,
sheets etc

Forging
Blacksmith
Hammer
Anvil

Forging
6 basic actions
• Upsetting
• Swaging
• Bending
• Welding
• Punching
• Cutting out

Forging
Blacksmith / Open die forging
Hammer
(Tup)
Anvil

Forging
• Pressure forging

Forging
• Closed die

Extrusion
• High loads used to shape ferrous and
non-ferrous alloys
• Items produced are of uniform cross section
• Direct
• Indirect
• Impact

Direct Extrusion
Die
Billet Ram

Indirect Extrusion
Die
Billet
Extruded
item
Impact Extrusion
Punch
Blank
Die

Extrusion Defects
• Oxide films (‘Extrusion’ defect)
• Surface cracks
• Grain structure variation

Impact Extrusion

Wrought Production Defects
• Cracks
• Laps
• Seams
• Stringers
• Slugs
• Bursts
• Laminations

Wrought Production Defects
• Banding
• Excessive flash
• Lack of fill
• Mismatch
• Internal cracking
• Mechanical marks

Other Wrought Processes
Drawing
• Material is reduced or changed in profile
by pulling through a die
Die
Wire or rod Force

Other Wrought Processes
Drawing
• Material is reduced or changed in profile
by pulling through a die
Die
Tube Mandrel Force

Product Technology
Welding

A Weld : Definitions
• A union between • A continuous defect
pieces of metal at surrounded by
faces rendered parent material
plastic or liquid by
NASA
heat,pressure or
both.
BS 499

Welds
• An ideal weld must give a strong bond
between materials with the interfaces
disappearing
To achieve this
• Smooth,flat or matching surfaces
• Surfaces shall be free from contaminants
• Metals shall be free from impurities
• Metals shall have identical crystalline
structures
Welding
• A union between pieces of metal at faces
rendered plastic or liquid by heat,pressure or
both.
BS 499
Possible energy sources
• Ultrasonics
• Electron beam
• Friction
• Electric resistance
• Electric arc
Electric Arc Welding
Electrod
e
Power
supply
Work piece
Clamp(Earth)
• Electric discharge produced between cathode and
anode by a potential difference (40 to 60 volts)
• Discharge ionises air and produces -ve electrons and

+ve ions
• Electrons impact upon anode, ions upon cathode
• Impact of particles converts kinetic energy to heat

(7000o C) and light
• Amperage controls number of ions and electrons,

Voltage controls their velocity

Arc Welding Processes
• Manual metal arc
• Tungsten Inert Gas
• Metal Inert Gas
• Submerged Arc
Differences between them

• Methods of shielding the arc
• Consumable or Non-consumable electrode
• Degree of automation

Zones in Fusion Welds
• Fusion Zone

• Fusion Zone
• Heat Affected Zone

• Fusion Zone
• Heat Affected Zone
• Parent Material or Base Metal

Joint Design
Butt Weld

Joint Design
Butt Weld
Lap
Joint

Joint Design
Butt Weld
Corner Lap
Joint Joint

Joint Design
Butt Weld
Corner Lap
Joint Joint
Edge
Weld

Joint Design
Butt Weld
Corner Lap
Joint Joint
Edge T Joint
Weld

Manual Metal Arc (MMA)
Consumable
electrode
Flux coating
Arc
Evolved gas
shield
Core wire
Slag
Weld metal
Parent metal

Manual Metal Arc Welding
• Shielding provided by Welder controls

decomposition of flux • Arc length
covering • Angle of electrode
• Electrode consumable • Speed of travel
• Manual process • Amperage settings

Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG)
Gas nozzle
Filler wire
Non-consumable
tungsten
electrode
Gas shield
Arc
Weld metal
Parent metal

Metal Inert Gas (MIG)
Gas nozzle Reel feed
Consumable
electrode(filler wire)
Gas shield
Arc
Weld metal
Parent metal

Submerged Arc
Reel feed
Flux
retrieval Consumable
electrode
Flux feed
Slag
Weld metal
Parent metal

Electroslag
Filler wire
Water cooled
copper shoes
Molten flux
Weld metal

Welding Defects
Cracks
4 Crack Types
• Solidification cracks
• Hydrogen induced cracks
• Lamellar tearing
• Reheat cracks

Welding Defects
Cracks
Classified by Shape Classified by Position
• Longitudinal • HAZ
• Transverse • Centreline
• Branched • Crater
• Chevron • Fusion zone
• Parent metal

Welding Defects
Cracks
Solidification
• Occurs during weld solidification process
• Steels with high sulphur content (low
ductility at elevated temperature)
• Requires high tensile stress
• Occur longitudinally down centre of weld
• eg Crater cracking

Welding Defects
Cracks
Hydrogen Induced
• Requires susceptible grain structure, stress
and hydrogen
• Hydrogen enters via welding arc
• Hydrogen source - atmosphere or
contamination of preparation or electrode
• Moisture diffuses out into parent metal on
cooling
• Most likely in HAZ
Welding Defects
Cracks
Lamellar Tearing
• Step like appearance
• Occurs in parent material or HAZ
• Only in rolled direction of the parent material
• Associated with restrained joints subjected to
through thickness stresses on corners, tees
and fillets
• Requires high sulphur or non-metallic
inclusions
Welding Defects
Cracks
Re-Heat Cracking
• Occurs mainly in HAZ of low alloy steels
during post weld heat treatment or service at
elevated temperatures
• Occurs in areas of high stress and existing
defects
• Prevented by toe grinding, elimination of poor
profile material selection and controlled post
weld heat treatment
Welding Defects
• Incomplete root penetration
Causes
• Too large or small a root gap
• Arc too long
• Wrong polarity
• Electrode too large for joint preparation
• Incorrect electrode angle
• Too fast a speed of travel for current
Welding Defects
• Root concavity
Causes
• Root gap too large
• Insufficient arc energy
• Excessive back purge (TIG)

Welding Defects
• Lack of fusion
Causes
• Contaminated weld preparation
• Amperage too low
• Amperage too high (welder increases speed of
travel)
Welding Defects
• Undercut
Causes
• Excessive welding current
• Welding speed too high
• Incorrect electrode angle
• Excessive weave
• Electrode
Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd too large Name
Welding Defects
• Incompletely Filled Groove
Causes
• Insufficient weld metal deposited
• Improper welding technique

Welding Defects
• Gas pores / Porosity
Causes
• Excessive moisture in flux or preparation
• Contaminated preparation
• Low welding current
• Arc length too long
• Damaged electrode flux
• ©Removal
Copyright 2004 WI Ltd of gas shield Name
Welding Defects
• Inclusions - Slag
Causes
• Insufficient cleaning between passes
• Contaminated weld preparation
• Welding over irregular profile
• Incorrect welding speed
• Arc length too long
Welding Defects
• Inclusions - Tungsten
Causes
• Contamination of weld during TIG welding
process

Welding Defects
• Burn Through
Causes
• Excessive amperage during welding of root
• Excessive root grinding
• Improper welding technique

Welding Defects
• Arc Strikes • Spatter
Causes Causes
• Electrode straying onto • Excessive arc energy
parent metal • Excessive arc length
• Electrode holder with • Damp electrodes
poor insulation • Arc blow
• Poor contact of earth
clamp

Steel Metallurgy
Steel- Iron and carbon alloyed with other elements
• Carbon- Strength, hardness, toughness, ductility

• Manganese- Strength, hardenability
• Silicon - Toughness
• Molybdenum- Creep resistance, temper
embrittlement
• Chromium- Hardness, wear resistance,
corrosion
• Nickel - Ductility, strength, toughness
Steel Metallurgy
Steel- Iron and carbon alloyed with other elements
BCC FCC

Steel Metallurgy Elastic
Deformation
Low Stress
Increased
Stress
Plastic
Deformation
Heat Treatment
• Post heat treatment performed to
improve specific metallurgical or
mechanical properties or stress relief
• Softening Controlled by
• Hardening • Heating rate
• Tempering • Temperature attained
• Stress Relief • Time at the elevated
temperature
Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd • Cooling rate Name
Heat Treatment
900
850 Ac3
Ar3
800
Ac2
Ar2
750
Ac1
700
Ar1
1 2
Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd Minutes to raise temperature by 10 C Name
Iron Carbide Diagram
1000 Ac3
900
800
Ac1
700
600
.2 .4 .6 .8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd Carbon % Name
Iron Carbide Diagram
1000 Ac3
900
Austenite
800 Austenite and Ferrite

Austenite and Fe3 C
Ac1
700
Ferrite and Pearlite Pearlite and Cementite
600
.2 .4 .6 .8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd Carbon % Name
Heat Treatment
Hardening
• Produce hard but
brittle material
• Heat to above
transformation range
• Cool very quickly
( quench ) in oil, water
or brine

Heat Treatment
Stress Relief
• Relax stresses without significant
changes in the metallurgical structure
• Heat to 550-650 degrees C
• Hold for 1 hour per 25mm thickness
• Cool in air

Heat Treatment
Full Annealing
• Produces very soft
low hardness material
for machining or cold
work
• Heat to above 910
degrees C
• Hold
• Cool very slowly in
furnace
• Once reached 680 C ,
Copyright ©cool in air
2004 WI Ltd Name
Heat Treatment
Sub Critical Annealing
• Spheroidizing produces soft low
hardness material cheaper than full
anneal
• Heat must not rise above 700 degrees C
• Hold for recrystallisation to occur
• Cool in air

Heat Treatment
Normalising
• Maintains and improves mechanical
properties and modifies grain structure
• Heat to above 910 degrees C
• Hold
• Cool in air

Nature and Origin of Defects
• Inherent
• Processing
• In Service

Heat Induced Defects
• Heat treatment cracks
• Grinding cracks
• Friction induced cracks

In Service Cracks
Cyclic stress
• Fatigue cracks Fatique

crack
• Stress corrosion cracks
• Hydrogen induced cracks
Hydrogen

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Casting Wrought Production Welding

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• Fe2O3 + 3C = 2Fe + 3CO

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Product of Blast Furnace - Pig iron (>3% carbon)

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Mold forming slab

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Reinforce with plaster

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Oven dry to liquify or

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Dimensional Accuracy Cost

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