D28MA

Civil Engineering Materials

Lecture 7 – Steel 1
Course delivery team

Dr. ‘Nwendu Ogwuda Dr. Chu, May Yen Dr. Ceren Ince
e: [email protected] e: [email protected] e: [email protected]

D28MA Civil Engineering Materials

D28MA Civil Engineering Materials
Content

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Manufacture and production of steel

7.3 Embodied energy and CO2

7.4 Factors affecting steel properties

7.5 Grains and grain defects

7.1 Introduction

Metals are classified as either ferrous or non-ferrous.

‘Ferrous metals’ are those metals that chief constituent of which is iron. Pig iron, cast iron,
wrought iron and steel belong to this group of metals.

‘Non-ferrous metals’ are those metals of which the main constituent is not iron. Copper,
aluminum, zinc, lead, tin, magnesium and nickel are the non-ferrous metals of greatest
commercial importance.
7.1 Introduction

The principle constituent of all ferrous metals is iron, which is the second most abundant metal
and fourth most abundant element of earth. Pig iron is extracted from the iron ore through a
process known as smelting, usually performed in a blast furnace.

IRON ORE

PIG IRON
CAST IRON
STEELS
OTHER
LOW ALLOYS
WROUGHT IRON (i.e. stainless steel)
STEEL

MILD HIGH
MEDIUM
CARBON
CARBON
7.1 Introduction
Pig Iron
Pig iron contains many dissolved impurities and also a high amount of carbon (3.5 to 4%)
which is absorbed by the molten iron. Such high carbon content makes the metal brittle. This
metal cannot be shaped easily. Therefore, pig iron needs refinement before being used as
cast iron, wrought iron or steel.

Pig iron is relatively brittle and

unsuitable for most structural
applications but serves as a crucial
intermediate material in the
production of cast iron and steel.
7.1 Introduction

Cast Iron
Cast iron is produced by remelting the pig iron in a furnace and pouring it into molds of desired
shape. The purpose of remelting the pig iron is to reduce the amount of impurities in it and obtain
a more uniform product. Cast iron has carbon content in the range of 2.5 – 4% and is hard and
brittle.

It is easy to form shapes with cast iron since the required

shape is simply obtained by pouring the molten materials
into molds. It is cheaper than forming steel shapes.
However, because of its comparatively low tensile strength
and high brittleness, cast iron is used only for member
which the tensile stresses are low and are not subjected to
dynamic loading. It is usually used for pipes and in parts
Crystal Palace Joseph Praxton
for machinery. This material has limited structural London 1851
Cast iron and glass
applications.
7.1 Introduction

‘Wrought Iron’ is the ferrous metal that consists of highly refined metallic iron (with a carbon
content usually less than 0.02%) and it is soft and ductile. The high resistance of wrought iron to
corrosion makes it useful for the production of pipes, tubular products, bars, plates and rivets.

Wrought iron products are used in building

construction, public-works construction, and for
railroad, marine and petroleum industries. They are
widely used in locomotive and car parts. Due to its
properties of being easily welded and having high
workability, wrought iron is also extensively used in
ornamental work.

Eiffel Tower 1887-1889 Paris

Gustaf Eiffel
Wrought iron
7.1 Introduction

‘Steel’ is an iron-carbon form of ferrous metal having a carbon content less than 2% and
generally ranging from 0.05% to 2%. It is usefully malleable as cast and exhibits properties
of toughness as well as strength.

Steel is produced from pig iron by removing its impurities as much as possible, adjusting
the carbon content to the desired value and adding some alloying elements as may be
required to alter the properties.
7.1 Introduction

Steel is a versatile and widely used construction material

due to its strength, durability, and flexibility.

It has been a basis of modern construction for centuries,

revolutionizing the way buildings and infrastructure are
designed and built.

Towering skyscrapers to bridges, stadiums, and residential

structures, etc.
7.1 Introduction

Carbon in steel
Steel is an alloy of pure iron and carbon. 3 broad groups of materials are formed from the
alloy, and their properties are influenced by their carbon content (% weight).

Wrought iron <0.02% carbon

• Almost pure iron.
• Soft and ductile.
• Little structural use.

Steel 0.15 - 2% carbon

• Wide range of properties.
• Embraces structural steel (0.2 - 0.3%)

Cast iron 2.5 - 4.5% carbon

• Hard and brittle.
• Limited structural applications.
7.1 Introduction

Low 0.07 – 0.15% Cold working, stampings,

Dead mild steel pressings
carbon
0.15 – 0.25% General purpose steel, castings,
steels Mild steel forgings, structural steel
sections.
0.3% Machined fittings, pressings of
higher strength
Medium
0.4% Spindles, axles, gears, keys
carbon requiring good strength and wear
resistance
steels
0.5% Heavily stressed working parts in
aircraft, automobiles and general
engineering
0.5 – 0.65% Railway rails, hammers and tools

High 0.65 – 0.75% Clutch plates, springs, saws

carbon 0.75 – 0.85% Car bumpers, cold chisels

steels 0.85 – 0.95% Punches, small cold chisels

1.1 – 1.4% Razors, drills, planing tools

7.2 Manufacture and production

800 million tonnes of steel is being produced worldwide for a variety of uses and about 40% of
this production originates from recycled steel. Steel is possibly the most versatile construction
material - it is strong in tension and in compression, it is easily formable and has uniform quality.
The inclusion of steel in concrete to produce reinforced concrete has extended its versatility.

Illustration above shows hot rolling of steel

Initial production of steel is a 2 stage process:

1) Production of pig-iron in a blast-furnace.
2) Pig-iron refined to produce steel.
7.2 Manufacture and production
7.2 Manufacture and production

Raw Materials: Iron Ore

• Abundant, makes up 5% of earth’s crust

• Is not found in ‘free state’, must be found in rocks and oxides, hence Iron ore.
• After mining, the ore is crushed and the iron is separated, then made into pellets, balls
or briquettes using binders, such as water.
• The pellets are typically 65% iron, and about 1” in diameter.
• Principal iron ores:
• Magnetite (Fe3O4): 70%-75% iron
• Haematite (Fe2O3): 60-70% iron
• Limonite (2Fe2O3 3H2O): up to 60% iron
• Iron Pyrite (FeS3): up to 47% iron
• Siderite (FeCO3): up to 50%.
7.2 Manufacture and production

Raw Materials: Coke

• Coke is formed by heating coal to 1150 oC, then
cooling it in quenching towers.
• Generates high heat, needed in order for
chemical reactions in iron-making to take place.
• Produces CO (carbon monoxide) which reduces
iron-oxide to Iron.

Raw Materials: Limestone

• Limestone (calcium carbonate) is used to
remove impurities.
• When the metal is melted, limestone combines
with impurities and floats to the top of the
metal, forming slag. The slag can then be
removed, purifying the iron.
7.2 Manufacture and production
7.2 Manufacture and production

The production of pig-iron: The Blast Furnace

The purpose of a blast furnace is to reduce and
convert iron oxides into liquid iron called "hot
metal".
The blast furnace is a huge, steel stack lined with
refractory brick.
The three raw materials are carried to the top of the
blast furnace and dumped into it.
The charge mixture is melted in a reaction at 1650
°C with air pre-heated to about 1100°C and blasted
into the furnace through nozzles.
The molten metal accumulates at the bottom of the
furnace while the impurities float to the top of the
metal as slag
Molten metal is drawn off into ladle cars; pig iron.
Pig iron composition: 4% C, 1.5% Si, 1%Mn, 0.04%
S, 0.4% P
7.2 Manufacture and production
7.2 Manufacture and production
7.2 Manufacture and production

Reactions:

1. Reactions of Coke and the hot air

2C + O2 → 2CO + heat Heat from this reaction
raises the temperature
carbon air carbon monoxide

2. Main chemical reaction

Fe2O3 + 3CO → 3CO2 +2Fe

Iron oxide carbon monoxide Molten iron

3. Limestone (at intermediate temperatures in the middle zone of the furnace the limestone
decomposes to calcium oxide and carbon dioxide).

CaCO3 → CaO + CO2

7.2 Manufacture and production

Reactions:

CaO + SiO2 + Al2O3 → slag

Calcium oxide (CaO) reacts with some of the impurities in the iron ore (particularly silica)
to form a slag which is essentially calcium silicate (CaSiO3).

Iron Carbide (cementite) is also produced,

3Fe2O3 + 11C → 2Fe3C (7% carbon) +9CO

The final product from the blast-furnace is a mixture of pure iron and iron carbide, with an
overall carbon content of 4%
7.2 Manufacture and production

2 products:
1. Pig Iron: Contains many dissolved
impurities and have high carbon
content (3.5 to 4%) Brittle!
2. Blast furnace slag: by product
material. It leave the furnace in a
molten state and cooled rapidly (such
as by pouring water) to obtain a
granulated amorphous material.
Granulated blast furnace slag is
ground and is an excellent admixture
for concrete.
7.2 Manufacture and production
7.2 Manufacture and production

Production of Steel
Steel is an alloy of iron with carbon content not exceeding 2% which is produced from
cast iron by removing carbon and other impurities.

The basic methods for producing steel are:

(a) Bessemer & Thomas methods
(b) the method of basic oxygen furnace
(c) the method of open hearth furnace
(d) the electric furnace method.
7.2 Manufacture and production

Pig iron has too high a carbon content for structural use and must be reduced. Normally
achieved by three processes:

1. Bessemer Converter [1856]

Converter charged with pig iron

Air blow through molten pig iron which burns off the carbon

Process lasts about 15 minutes

Little control over the carbon content, hence quality of steel

Temperatures, generally, not high enough for combustion.

7.2 Manufacture and production
7.2 Manufacture and production

British Steel’s blast-furnace at Redcar

Ore, coke and limestone charged here

Gas exhaust
Ignition lance

Gas probe Temperature probe

Inner volume
4572m2

Tuyères

Hot air input with additions of oil or oxygen

7.2 Manufacture and production

The Bessemer Process

1) Molten pig iron poured into converter

Impurities/carbon
burnt off
Non-combustible lining

Air inlet Metal

2) Process in action 3) Steel poured off

7.2 Manufacture and production

The major disadvantage: inability to precisely control and adjust the carbon content of
the resulting steel.
In the Bessemer process is limited in its ability to control the final carbon content
accurately. As a result, it can lead to inconsistent carbon levels in the produced steel.
This lack of precise control over carbon content makes it challenging to produce steels
with specific mechanical properties and characteristics.
High carbon content can make the steel brittle, while low carbon content may result in
steel that is too soft for certain applications.
Furthermore, the Bessemer process tends to remove more carbon than necessary, often
resulting in steel with carbon content that is lower than desired for some applications.
This deficiency led to the development of other steelmaking processes, such as the Basic
Oxygen Furnace and Electric Arc Furnace, which offer better control over carbon
content and are widely used in modern steel production.
7.2 Manufacture and production

2. Open Hearth Process [1856]

• Charge of pig iron, scrap steel and iron ore
• Air blow over molten material; waste heat from furnace heats brick chamber
• Air combines with impurities to form a slag which floats on the surface and is removed
• Process lasts about 15 hours
• High temperatures achieved and better control over the carbon content, hence quality of
steel

A key advantage:
(i) it achieves better uniformity in the steel and
(ii) the carbon content is easily controlled.
The main disadvantage is higher manufacturing costs.
7.2 Manufacture and production

Open hearth furnace

Oxygen lance Water cooled doors for charging

slag
metal

Air flow in Exhaust flow out

to heat bricks

Air-exhaust flow
reversal system

Checker-work brick chambers

7.2 Manufacture and production

Open hearth furnace

7.2 Manufacture and production

3. Basic oxygen process (L-D Process: Linz-Donawitz )

It is a variation of the Bessemer method
It is the most common method of steel production today.
Pure oxygen (instead of air) is introduced into the converter
Fastest steel making process. The convertor has a capacity of over 300 tons. 250 tons of steel are
produced per hour
• Melted pig iron and scrap are poured (charged) into a vessel (converter).
• Fluxing agents (limestone) are added.
• The molten metal is blasted with pure oxygen. Iron oxides with carbon to produce CO and CO2.
The slag floats to the top of the metal.

Higher steel quality than open hearth. Used to make plate, sheet, I-beam, tubing and channel.

• Combines cheapness of Bessemer with quality of Open Hearth

7.2 Manufacture and production

Basic oxygen converter

7.2 Manufacture and production

4. Electric arc furnace

• High quality steels, e.g. stainless steel.
• Furnace heated by electrical resistance and oxygen lance used.
• Electrical consumption same as that of a town of 100,000 people!
• Temperatures are elevated up to 2000°C by means of an electric arc through the use
of graphite electrode or induced current.
• High electricity cost!
7.2 Manufacture and production

Main Casting Processes in Steel-making

Steels produced by basic oxygen furnace or electric furnace are solidified for
subsequent processing either as cast ingots or by continuous casting

Casting of ingots – a discrete production process

Continuous casting – a semi-continuous process

7.2 Manufacture and production

Shaping Structural Steel

Ingots are given a preliminary shaping by being rolled or

forged into “billets”.

Desired shapes are obtained from billets by:

Rolling: Compressive deformation process in which the thickness of a plate is

reduced by passing through two rotating rollers.
Forging: The work-piece is compressed between two opposing dies so that the die
shapes are imparted to the work.
Extrusion: The work material is forced to flow through a die opening taking its shape
Drawing: The diameter of a wire or bar is reduced by pulling it through a die
opening (bar drawing) or a series of die openings (wire drawing)
7.2 Manufacture and production

Shaping Structural Steel: ROLLING

Hot Rolling: If the temperature of the metal is above its critical temperature which
causes recrystallization of the crystallic structure. Properties are not significantly
affected greatly.

Cold Rolling: If the temperature is below the critical temperature the initial crystallic
structure will be maintained but the properties will change. The strength increases but
ductility is decreased.
7.3: Embodied energy and CO2

Embodied energy for common building materials

Galvanised steel 38
100
Aluminium 170
30
Stainless Steel 90
12.7
Autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) 3.6
1.5
Clay bricks 2.5
2
In situ concrete 1.9
5.6
Plasterboard 4.4
2.9
Synthetic rubber 110
90
Glue-laminated timber 11

0 40 80 120 160 200

Embodied Energy (GJ/t)
7.3: Embodied energy and CO2

Embodied CO2 in construction materials

Plywood
Timber
Steel (42% recycled content)
Stainless Steel
Steel
Glass
Concrete: Non Structural
Concrete: High Strength
Cement
Brick

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000

Embodied CO2e (kgCO2e/tonne)

7.4: Factors affecting steel properties

Factors affecting steel properties

7.4.1 Carbon content

7.4.2 Heat treatment and shaping method

7.4.3 Presence of harmful elements

7.4.4 Presence of alloying materials.

7.4: Factors affecting steel properties

7.4.1 Carbon content (Recall)

Wrought iron <0.02% carbon Low 0.07 – 0.15% Cold working, stampings,
Dead mild steel pressings

•
carbon
0.15 – 0.25% General purpose steel, castings,
Almost pure iron. steels Mild steel forgings, structural steel

• Soft and ductile. 0.3%

sections.
Machined fittings, pressings of

• Little structural use. Medium

carbon
0.4%
higher strength
Spindles, axles, gears, keys
requiring good strength and wear
resistance
steels
0.5% Heavily stressed working parts in
Steel 0.15 - 2% carbon aircraft, automobiles and general
engineering
• Wide range of properties. 0.5 – 0.65% Railway rails, hammers and tools

• Embraces structural steel (0.2 - 0.3%)

High

carbon
0.65 – 0.75%

0.75 – 0.85%
Clutch plates, springs, saws

Car bumpers, cold chisels

steels 0.85 – 0.95% Punches, small cold chisels

Cast iron 2.5 - 4.5% carbon 1.1 – 1.4% Razors, drills, planing tools

• Hard and brittle.

• Limited structural applications.
7.4: Factors affecting steel properties

7.4.1 Carbon content

Steel comprises pure iron, carbon and small amounts of manganese, silicon, sulphur and
phosphorous. At room temperature steel contains the following components (actual
amounts depend on the carbon content):

Ferrite: practically pure iron often referred to as α-iron. Very soft and ductile.

Cementite: iron carbide (Fe3C) which is a hard, brittle material.

Pearlite: a combination of ferrite and cementite approximately 87% ferrite and 13% iron
carbide. Helps balance the properties of steel. Pearlite has a fine and layered structure,
with alternating layers of ferrite and cementite.

And at high temperature steel contains:

Austenite: Austenite is the high-temperature phase of iron-carbon alloys, and its
presence in the microstructure can influence the steel's properties, such as hardness,
toughness, and dimensional stability.
7.4: Factors affecting steel properties

7.4.1 Carbon content

At room temperature steel contains the following components:

Ferrite: contributes to the ductility and toughness of steel. Presence of ferrite increases the
ductility, toughness, and formability of steel. However, excessive ferrite content may reduce
strength and wear resistance.
Cementite: contributes to the hardness and wear resistance of steel. It is hard and brittle.
Presence of cementite increases the hardness and wear resistance of steel. However, excessive
cementite content may reduce ductility and toughness, leading to brittleness.
Pearlite: contributes to the strength and toughness of steel. It provides a balance between
strength and ductility, making it suitable for various structural and engineering applications.

And at high temperature steel contains:

Austenite:influences the formability, hardenability, and machinability of steel. Austenite's
presence affects the hardenability and formability of steel during heat treatment processes.
7.4: Factors affecting steel properties

Influence of carbon content on the properties of steel

Ultimate tensile 80
Ultimate tensile strength

700 400

Hardness (Brinell scale)

strength
60 300

Elongation (%)
(N/mm2)

500 40 200

Elongation 20 100
Hardness
300
0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2
% Carbon content
7.4: Factors affecting steel properties

Carbon in steel

▪ Carbon dissolves more easily in iron as the temperature increases i.e. the
solubility of carbon in iron increases.

▪ At about 900-1100ºC the iron and carbon exist as a solid solution where the
‘alloy’ becomes a single phase known as Austenite or gamma (g) iron.

▪ The maximum amount of carbon that can dissolve in iron at these temperatures is
about 1.7%

▪ The composition of steel can be obtained from the iron-carbon equilibrium

(solubility) diagram
7.4: Factors affecting steel properties

Iron-Carbon Thermal equilibrium diagram

7.4: Factors affecting steel properties

Iron-Carbon Thermal equilibrium diagram

C D
910 Austenite (g)
formability, hardenability & machinability
Temperature ºC

a&g cementite & g

730
A E B
Ferrite (a) Cementite
ductility and toughness hardness and wear resistance
& &
Pearlite Pearlite
strength and toughness strength and toughness

0 0.3 0.87 1.0

Pure % Carbon
Iron

Schematic diagram of the thermal equilibrium diagram for the iron-

carbon system
7.4: Factors affecting steel properties
Iron-Carbon Thermal equilibrium diagram
Gives the various types of 'iron' existing in equilibrium at different temperatures for various carbon
contents. On cooling, crystals (grains) form from the solid solution:
▪ If carbon content of the melt = 0.87% only pearlite exists at room temperature.
▪ If carbon content of the melt > 0.87% pearlite & cementite exist at room temperature.
▪ If carbon content of the melt < 0.87% pearlite & ferrite exist at room temperature.
Crossing a boundary on heating, results in a phase change. Note: Melting point of pure iron is 1534ºC

C D
910 Austenite (g)
formability, hardenability & machinability
Temperature ºC

a&g cementite & g

730
A E B
Ferrite (a) Cementite
ductility and toughness hardness and wear resistance
& &
Pearlite Pearlite
strength and toughness strength and toughness
0 0.3 0.87 1.0
Pure Iron % Carbon
7.4: Factors affecting steel properties

7.4.2 Heat treatment and shaping method

Temperature and the carbon content are the two main factors that affect the formation of the cystals
grains contained in steel. Reheating the steel to a temperature around 725°C causes austenite formation
having coarser grain sizes. The steel becomes eligible to be easily shaped. When rapid cooling from an
elevated temperature by contact water, the sudden decrease in temperature results in hardness and
brittleness.
Shaping operations also have important effects on the properties such as strength, ductility and
hardness.

7.4.3 Presence of harmful elements

The presence of high amount of sulfur, phosphorus, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen makes steel very
brittle.

7.4.4 Presence of alloying materials

Alloying elements such as nickel, aluminium, chromium, silicon are used to impart the desirable
properties of steel. The purpose is to obtain (a) higher strength and hardness without brittleness; (b)
higher resistance to corrosion; and (c) higher resistance to elevated temperatures.
7.5: Grains and grain defects

Heterogeneity of steel

The heterogeneity of steel are the presence of non-uniformities or variations within the
material, including differences in composition, microstructure, and mechanical properties.
Grains are the individual crystalline regions within the steel's microstructure. These grains
are formed during the solidification process. Grain defects, on the other hand, are
deviations or abnormalities in the grain structure that can affect the mechanical properties
and performance of the steel.

Influences the mechanical / engineering properties by:

• Formation of grains (crystals)
• Impurities at the grain boundaries
• Defects in the crystal lattice
• Defects arising in manufacture e.g. microcracks, entrapped air
7.5: Grains and grain defects

Formation of grains

When steel is cooled slowly, the atoms have more time to migrate and arrange themselves
into larger grains. Larger grains typically lead to reduced strength and toughness. Slow
cooling rates, on the other hand, may lead to softer steel with lower strength but
potentially better ductility.

Conversely, rapid cooling prevents this migration, resulting in smaller grains that
enhances strength and toughness. For example, rapid cooling can prevent the formation
of certain phases, leading to a finer microstructure with increased strength due to the
suppression of coarse pearlite formation. Faster cooling rates also often result in higher
hardness and strength due to the formation of finer grain structures and potentially more
desirable phases.
7.5: Grains and grain defects

Impurities at the grain boundaries

Impurities at grain boundaries can significantly affect the properties of steel. Grain boundaries
are the interfaces between adjacent grains in the microstructure of a material. These boundaries
can serve as sites for impurity segregation, where certain elements concentrate, leading to
various effects on the steel's properties:
Grain Boundary Weakening: Impurities can weaken the grain boundaries, making them more
susceptible to deformation and fracture.
Embrittlement: Certain impurities can cause embrittlement at grain boundaries, making the
steel more prone to brittle fracture.

Reduced Mechanical Properties: 50mm

The presence of impurities at Crystal
boundaries
grain boundaries can lead to
Orientation of
reduced mechanical properties, crystal planes
such as strength, ductility, and
toughness.
7.5: Grains and grain defects

Defects in the crystal lattice

Iron atoms packed in a

regular (3-D) array

In steel manufacturing, various defects can occur in the crystal lattice structure of
the material. Some common defects in the crystal lattice of steel include:
▪ Vacant lattice sites
▪ 'Foreign' atoms in interstitial or substitutional positions (e.g carbon in iron)
▪ Dislocations (line defect) in the crystal lattice produced during grain formation
7.5: Grains and grain defects

Point defects in metallic crystal lattice

Vacancy Smaller substitutional

Interstitial
Larger substitutional

▪ Defects can cause tensile or compressive internal stresses

▪ Defects can also improve resistance to slip
7.5: Grains and grain defects

Dislocations Bonds stretched and weakened in

1 region of dislocation

3
• On application of load,
4 dislocation moves one
layer of atoms closer to
5 the grain boundary

Application of load • Foreign atoms 'block' the

movement of dislocations
1
• Dislocations can become
2 tangled, causing an
enhancement in strength
3
4

5
7.5: Grains and grain defects

Load
Load Load Load

Slip plane

slippage

(a) (b) (c)

Dislocation