materials

Article
Experimentation and Predictive Models for
Properties of Concrete Added with Active and
Inactive SiO2 Fillers
Wasim Abbass, Mohammad Iqbal Khan * and Shehab Mourad
Department of Civil Engineering, King Saud University, Riyadh 800-11421, Saudi Arabia;
[email protected] (W.A.); [email protected] (S.M.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +966-1467-6920; Fax: +966-1467-7008




Received: 26 December 2018; Accepted: 16 January 2019; Published: 18 January 2019


Abstract: Cement is one of the main constituents of concrete material and it is one of the main
sources of carbon dioxide emissions in the environment. Fillers within a range of 5–7% from different
sources can be used as a replacement of cement without compromising the properties of concrete
or even tailoring for required property. This paper investigates the influence of inactive silica filler
and silica fume on the mechanical- and durability-related properties of concrete with different
strengths. The investigated mechanical properties focused on compressive strength at different ages
up to 400 days, while the durability-related properties focused on porosity and rapid chloride ion
penetrability (RCPT). Two types of ultrafines, namely quartz ultrafine and silica fume, were used.
Concrete mixtures with four different water/binder ratios (0.25, 0.30, 0.35, 0.40) were prepared for
various dosages of quartz ultrafine (0%, 5%, 8%, 10%, 15%, 25%, and 35%) and different dosages of
silica fume (0%, 8%, 10%, and 12%). The results revealed that the compressive strength and durability
related properties of concrete with different dosages of ultrafines and silica fume were significantly
affected; however, there was a negative impact of ultrafine filler on the compressive strength after
replacement of more than 8% of ultrafines. The strength relationships for the concrete with different
water-to-cement ratio were assessed and certain modifications were proposed for ultrafines and silica
fume. Predictive models were proposed for predicting the compressive strength of concrete in terms
of RCPT and porosity for different levels of replacements of ultrafines and silica fume.

Keywords: ultrafines; silica fume; mechanical properties; chloride ion penetrability; predictive models

1. Introduction
Concrete is a heterogeneous material composed itself of different materials such as coarse
aggregate, fine aggregate, cement, etc. The physical and chemical properties of these materials
significantly affect the properties of concrete. One of the most important parts of such materials
are fine fillers which compensate for the irregularities of aggregates available in concrete [1]. Fine
fillers can be a better alternate for the replacement of cement, and consequently, can aid in reducing
emissions of carbon dioxide in atmosphere. Almost one ton of carbon dioxide is generated through
the production of one ton of cement, i.e., clinker fabrication releases around 825 kg CO2 per ton of
clinker [2]. Consequently, higher levels of replacement of cement will reduce emission of CO2 in
the environment. Concrete with higher mechanical and durability properties are prepared through
dense structure of matrix. The densification of matrix is achieved by addition of ultrafine minerals
and chemical actions. Physical densifying through properly grading material in the matrix will also
prepare more compacted structures [3]. The chemical action (pozzolanic reaction) is explained by fixing
of lime release during cement hydration to form a new generation of more compact C–S–H, which

Materials 2019, 12, 299; doi:10.3390/ma12020299 www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2019, 12, 299 2 of 19

improves the performance and long-term durability of concrete [4–6]. Consequently, the use of mineral
admixture which is chemically active or inert in the concrete material has increased in recent years
due its environmental benefits (reduced cement consumption) and technical advantages (improved
mechanical and durability related properties). Silica fume is one of the major mineral admixtures
which has been widely used in construction since the 1970s and which is still the focus of research due
to its physical and chemical properties [7–11].
In the last few years, the use of mineral admixtures which are either inert or having very low
reactivity in cement-based material, along with very fine sizes, has captured the attention of researchers
due to the increase in demand of new mineral additives. In addition, researchers have focused on
utilizing fine by-products such as blast furnace slag and fly ash for use as fine fillers for concrete,
especially when they are already available in some regions. Utilizing such fine fillers in concrete has
reported positive effects. As one example, grinding of sugarcane bagasse ash with high levels of
quartz with reduction in its particle size has caused increase in pozzolanic activity [12,13]. In addition,
increase in the degree of hydration of mortar with inclusion of quartz particles (10–75%) was observed
with respect to reference mortar [14,15]. Moreover, reduced particle size of mineral admixtures affects
hydration along with improving nucleation sites; these nucleation sites enhance with the reduction in
particle size of mineral admixtures [16].
It was reported that ultrafine filler improves the strength properties of concrete by using quartz
filler and higher water-to-cement ratios [17]. The results of adding ultrafines to concrete has different
effects on its strength properties based on the particle size of the ultrafines. Quartz ultrafines with a
size less than 5 µm needs further investigation to understand its effect on the hardened properties
of concrete. Until now, researchers have used quartz ultrafine as inert filler for strength, but how it
affects the strength properties with time and permeation-related properties still needs to be explored
in comparison with high pozzolanic active silica, i.e., silica fume.
In this research work, the use of ultrafine quartz and silica as a partial replacement of cement
in concrete mixtures with different water-to-cementitious ratios were examined extensively to
investigate its effect on the compressive strength at different ages and durability related properties.
The durability-related properties focused on were chloride ion penetrability, porosity, and rapid
chloride ion penetrability (RCPT). Wider ranges of ultrafine ratios were used to find out the optimal
content of ultrafine quartz and silica fume as partial replacements of cement with respect to the strength
and durability related properties of concrete. Two types of ultrafines, namely quartz ultrafine and
silica fume, were used. Concrete mixtures with four different water/binder ratios (0.25, 0.30, 0.35,
0.40) were prepared for various dosages of quartz ultrafine (0%, 5%, 8%, 10%, 15%, 25%, and 35%) and
different dosages of silica fume (0%, 8%, 10%, and 12%).

2. Materials

2.1. Cementitious Materials

Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) according to ASTM C150 [18] requirements was used as binder
material which was partly replaced with silica fume. Median grain sizes of OPC, silica fume, and quartz
ultrafine were 13 µm, 8 µm, and 3.5 µm, respectively. The physical and chemical properties of the
abovementioned fine materials are shown in Table 1. The particle size distributions of the fine materials
are shown in Figure 1. Silica fume consists of very fine particles with particle sizes of less than 1 µm.
Particle size distribution of silica fume showed that around 40% of particles are less than 1 µm and
about 60% of particles are between 6 and 10 µm, whereas use of well-graded silica fume has a particle
size of 0.1 µm [3]. This type of grading makes it more interesting to study its effect on hardened and
durability related properties of a material. The scanning electronic microscopic (SEM) image of fine
material is shown in Figure 2. The SEM images of silica fume and ultrafines shows the particles with a
size of less than 10 µm. The ultrafine filler shows irregular particles, whereas silica fume particles have
a quite spherical-like shape, as shown in Figure 2.
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 21
Materials 2019, 12, 299 3 of 19
Table 1. Physical and chemical properties of cementitious materials.

OxideTable
Composition Ordinary
1. Physical and chemical Portlandof cementitious
properties Silica Fume Ultrafine
materials.
(%) Cement (S) (C)
Oxide Composition (%)
SiO2 Ordinary Portland Cement
20.2 Silica Fume
93.2 (S) Ultrafine
99.5 (C)
SiO2 Al2O3 20.2 5.49 93.20.2 0.2099.5
Al2 O3 Fe2O3 5.49 4.12 0.2
0.03 0.030.20
Fe2 O3 4.12 0.03 0.03
CaO CaO 65.43 65.43 0.72
0.72 0.010.01
MgO MgO 0.71 0.71 0.14
0.14 - -
Na2 OeqNa2Oeq 0.26 0.26 0.07
0.07 - -
SO3 SO3 2.61 2.61 <0.01
<0.01 - -
Loss on ignition (%) 1.38 5.4 -
Loss on ignition (%) 1.38 5.4 -
Specific gravity 3.14 2.27 -
FinenessSpecific
(m2 /kg)gravity 373 3.14 2.27
19,000 - 16,500
Fineness (m2/kg) 373 19,000 16,500
100

80
Percentage Passing (%)

60

40 cement particle size

S particle size
20
C particle size
0
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000

Particle Size (μm)

Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER
Figure 1. REVIEW
Particle size distribution of cement, silica fume, and quartz filler. 4 of 21
Figure 1. Particle size distribution of cement, silica fume, and quartz filler.

(a) (b)
Figure 2. Cont.

(c)
Materials 2019, 12, 299 4 of 19
(a) (b)

(c)
2. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of fine materials.
Figure 2. materials. (a) Ultrafine (C); (b) Silica
fume (S); (c) Cement.

2.2. Fine and Coarse Aggregates

2.2. Fine and Coarse Aggregates
Two types of sands with different particle sizes were used for preparation of mixes named as
Two types of sands with different particle sizes were used for preparation of mixes named as
crushed sand and fine sand. The Fineness moduli were 1.47 and 4.66 for fine and crushed sand,
crushed sand and fine sand. The Fineness moduli were 1.47 and 4.66 for fine and crushed sand,
respectively. Fine and crushed siliceous sand were combined as 65% and 35%, respectively, to achieve
respectively. Fine and crushed siliceous sand were combined as 65% and 35%, respectively, to achieve
a fineness modulus of 2.54. Coarse aggregate with maximum size of 10 mm was used for mix
a fineness modulus of 2.54. Coarse aggregate with maximum size of 10 mm was used for mix
preparation. The physical properties of fine and coarse aggregate are summarized in Table 2. Particle
preparation. The physical properties of fine and coarse aggregate are summarized in Table 2. Particle
size distributions of sands and coarse aggregate are shown in Figure 3.
size distributions of sands and coarse aggregate are shown in Figure 3.
Table 2. Physical properties of fine and coarse aggregate.
Table 2. Physical properties of fine and coarse aggregate.
Properties/Material Specific Gravity Absorption (%) Unit Weight (kg/m3 )
Absorption Unit Weight
Properties/Material
White Sand Specific Gravity
2.63 0.77 1725
(%) (kg/m3)
Crushed Sand 2.68 1.52 1552
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER
White REVIEW 5 of 21
Coarse Aggregate (10 Sand
mm) 2.65 2.63 1.450.77 1725
1570
Crushed Sand 2.68 1.52 1552
Coarse Aggregate (10 mm) 2.65 1.45 1570

Figure 3. Particle size distribution of fine and coarse aggregate.

Figure 3. Particle size distribution of fine and coarse aggregate.
2.3. Chemical Admixtures
2.3. Chemical Admixtures
A modified polycarboxylic ether (PE) polymer (Glenium 51) was used in the production of required
mixture.AIt modified polycarboxylic
had a specific ether
gravity of 1.1 and(PE)
dry polymer
extract of(Glenium
36%. The51) was of
dosage used inexpressed
PE is the production of
as a dry
required mixture. It had a specific gravity of 1.1 and dry extract of 36%. The dosage
extract (DE) per cement weight. The PE dosage was optimized for workable mixture of concrete. of PE is expressed
as a dry extract (DE) per cement weight. The PE dosage was optimized for workable mixture of
concrete.

3. Mix Preparations and Test Setup

Materials 2019, 12, 299 5 of 19

3. Mix Preparations and Test Setup

3.1. Mix Properties and Preparations

The experimental work includes the preparation of eight different concrete mixes with four
different water/binder ratios (0.25, 0.30, 0.35, 0.40) with various dosages of quartz ultrafine (0%, 5%,
8%, 10%, 15%, 25%, and 35%) and different dosages of silica fume (0%, 8%, 10%, and 12%). Table 3
shows the mix proportions of different mixes. In the mix design, cement content of 550 kg/m3 for 0.25
w/c ratio, 500 kg/m3 for 0.30 w/c ratio, 450 kg/m3 for 0.35 w/c ratio, and 400 kg/m3 for 0.40 w/c
ratio were chosen. The amount of coarse aggregate used for the mixtures was 1056 kg/m3 . The slump
of all mixtures was attempted to be maintained between 175 ± 25 mm as shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Mix proportions of silica fume (SF) and ultrafine (UF) for all mixtures.

Ultrafine Content Water to Cement Ratio

0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40
Mix
SF (%) UF (%) Cement Slump Cement Slump Cement Slump Cement Slump
Kg/m3 (mm) Kg/m3 (mm) Kg/m3 (mm) Kg/m3 (mm)
Control 0 0 550 185 500 190 450 200 400 150
S8 8 0 506 202 460 180 414 165 368 185
S10 10 0 495 175 450 170 405 200 360 160
S12 12 0 484 190 440 160 396 158 352 170
C5 0 5 522.5 171 475 184 422.5 194 380 182
C8 0 8 506 175 460 192 414 202 368 201
C10 0 10 495 198 450 179 405 191 360 184
C15 0 15 467.5 200 425 155 382.5 195 340 160
C25 0 25 412.5 200 375 180 337.5 185 300 180
C35 0 35 357.5 205 325 210 292.5 155 260 185

All aggregates were added to the mixer and mixed for a few revolutions with absorption water
and then the fines were added and mixed in dry state for few minutes. Premixed super plasticizer
in water was added to aggregates and mixed for three minutes followed by a rest for three minutes,
then mixed again for two minutes. The mixer was stopped followed by casting of the specimen in
molds. Concrete cylinders of 100 × 200 mm were casted for standard compressive strength tests in
rigid plastic molds, while concrete discs 100 mm in diameter and 50-mm thick were casted in molds
for durability according to ASTM 1202 [19] and porosity tests.

3.2. Experimental Method

The compressive strength and modulus of elasticity of high-strength concrete was measured with
a 100 × 200 cylinder at a loading rate of 0.25 MPa/s. A water saturated, 50-mm thick and 100-mm
diameter concrete sample was subjected to 60 V applied DC voltage for 6 h. Concrete saturated samples
were placed in two reservoirs. One reservoir of 3% NaCl and another reservoir of 0.3 M NaOH solution
covered the saturated concrete sample for the entire duration of the test. The charge passed was noted
and the concrete was characterized according to the table given in ASTM 1202 [19].
The porosity test was done by drying the concrete disc samples (100 mm in diameter and 50-mm
thick) at 100 ± 5 ◦ C until constant weight was achieved. After drying the samples to constant weight,
they were placed in desiccator under vacuum for three hours followed by immersion in the de-aired
distilled water for one hour to attain saturated sample of concrete. Porosity of concrete was measured
by Equation (1):
Wss − Wd
P= × 100 (1)
Wss − Ww
Materials 2019, 12, 299 6 of 19

where Wss is the weight of the saturated sample in air, Wd is the weight of oven-dried sample, Ww is
the weight of sample in water, and P is the porosity of concrete in percentage.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Effect of Cement Replacement on the Properties of Concrete at 28 Days

The effect of ultrafines and silica fume on the compressive strength for different water to
cementitious ratios ranging from 0.25, 0.3, 0.35, 0.4 are shown in Figure 4. Figure 4a shows the
results of different dosages of ultrafines in different water-to-cement ratios. For all water-to-cement
ratios, no reduction was observed in the compressive strength of the matrix with dosages less than
10% of ultrafine. There was a slight increase in the compressive strength with the replacement of 8% of
cement with ultrafine. However, once the dosage of ultrafine was increased from 10%, a decrease in
compressive strength was observed at the age of 28 days. Such a decrease in compressive strength
was more pronounced in higher water-to-cement ratios. The maximum reduction in compressive
strength for 15%, 25%, and 35% replacement of ultrafine was observed to be 16%, 24%, and 28%
respectively at the age of 28 days for w/c ratio of 0.4. Such a reduction in strength may be attributed
due to the availability of lesser pozzolanic reaction of ultrafines. The results show that there is a
slight increase with lower dosage until 8% replacement of ultrafines, which may be attributed due to
the fact that optimum packing of paste at the micro level is in accordance with other studies [20–23].
Silica fume is a very fine material and normally used as a property enhancing material. The effect of
three different dosages of silica fume with four different water-to-cement ratios is shown in Figure 4b
at the age of 28 days. The hardened properties of concrete can directly be related to chemical and
physical mechanisms through which silica fume functions. The physical mechanism by which silica
fume affects concrete consists of reduction in bleeding, facilitation of nucleation site, and enhanced
particle packing of solids. Change of pore structure, paste aggregate transition zone, and chemical
compositions are incorporated due to the addition of silica fume in concrete. More of the enhancement
in mechanical properties of concrete are due to increased bond strength of paste and aggregate [24].
The increase in the strength of concrete is reported by many studies [25–27] to be 30 to 100 percent
depending upon the mix type, dosage of silica fume, use of superplasticizer, type of aggregate, cement
type, and curing regime. The major physical effect of silica fume in concrete is improvement in
packing of particle because finer silica fume particles can fill the spaces in between cement grains
just as sand fills the gap between coarse aggregate particles. The particle size distribution of concrete
mixture is shown in Figure 4c. This filling of spaces between cement grain particles is valid only
once sufficient amount of super plasticizer is available to neutralize the attractive surface forces [28].
Figure 4b is showing that the addition of three dosages of silica fume has increased the compressive
strength of concrete with four different water-to-cement ratios 0.25, 0.3, 0.35, 0.4 at the age of 28 days.
The increase in compressive strength for 8%, 10%, and 12% replacement at water-to-cement ratio
of 0.25 is 2%, 5%, and 9%, respectively. At the water-to-cement ratio of 0.3 and the replacement
of silica fume with dosages of 8%, 10%, and 12%, the increases in compressive strength were 3%,
5%, and 11%, respectively. At the water-to-cement ratio of 0.35 and the replacement of silica fume
with dosages of 8%, 10%, and 12%, the increases in compressive strength were 6%, 7%, and 12%,
respectively. At the water-to-cement ratio of 0.4 and the replacement of silica fume with dosages of 8%,
10%, and 12%, the increases in compressive strength were 8.5%, 11%, and 18%, respectively. As it can
be observed from the abovementioned results, a maximum increase in the compressive strength of
concrete of 18% was observed for the water-to-cement ratio of 0.4 at a replacement level of 12% of silica
fume. It can be observed that as the water-to-cement ratio of matrix increased, the addition of silica
fume was pronounced in the enhancement of compressive strength, which may be attributed because
at higher water-to-cement ratios, the more porosity between the cement grains is available. These
micro-gaps between cement particle were supposed to be filled by the silica fume particles, and hence,
the compressive strength of the material enhanced. At the lower water-to-cement ratios of 0.25 and
Materials 2019, 12, 299 7 of 19

0.30, the matrix structure was already been well compacted while achieving the workability of material
by the addition of superplasticizer, but still these finer particles were enhancing the strength properties
of Materials
concrete as shown in Figure 4b.
2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 21

100
90 Con C5 C8 C10 C15 C25 C35
Compressive Strength (MPa)

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
w/c ratio
(a)
120
Con S8 S10 S12
100
Compressive Strength (MPa)

80

60

40

20

0
0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
w/c ratio
(b)
100
90
80
70
Passing (%)

60
50 PSD of mixture
40
30
20
10
0
10 1 0.1 0.01
Particle Size (mm)
(c)
Figure
Figure 4. 4. Compressivestrength
Compressive strengthvs.
vs.w/c
w/c ratio for
for ultrafine
ultrafineand
andsilica
silicafume
fumedosages.
dosages.(a)(a)
Compressive
Compressive
strength vs. w/c ratio for UF dosages; (b) compressive strength vs. w/c ratio for SF dosages;
strength vs. w/c ratio for UF dosages; (b) compressive strength vs. w/c ratio for SF dosages; (c)(c)
particle
particle
size distribution of concrete mixtures.
size distribution of concrete mixtures.

4.2. Age Effect on the Compressive Strength of Concrete

There are different parameters that affect the rate of gain of strength with time. Among those
parameters, the type and strength class of cement, amount and type of mineral admixture and
Materials 2019, 12, 299 8 of 19

4.2. Age Effect on the Compressive Strength of Concrete

There are different parameters that affect the rate of gain of strength with time. Among those
parameters, the type and strength class of cement, amount and type of mineral admixture and additions,
water-to-binder ratio and curing conditions. The relationship presented for the time–strength has
assumptions of moist curing and normal temperature. For a constant water-to-cement ratio, the
higher strength was predicted for longer exposure of moist curing condition, considering that the
anhydrous cement particles were going on under hydration. There was no increase in strength with
time observed, as the water was lost through the capillaries due to air-curing conditions [29]. There
is no significant increase or minimum increase in compressive strength with addition of silica fume
after the age of 28 days [24]. There is very limited literature available which has reported the apparent
reduction in compressive strength due to the addition of silica fume in concrete at an age of more
than 90 days [30–33]. The ACI 234 reported that reduction in compressive strength may be due to
testing machines or other factors which affect strength [24]. The compressive strength development
for concrete with ultrafine and with different water-to-cement ratios are presented in Figure 5. Two
empirical equations provided by the ACI Committee 209 [34] and CEB-FIP Models Code [35] were used
to compare the strength development rate over time in this study. The ACI Committee 209 recommends
the following relationship in Equation (2) for moist-cured concrete made with normal Portland cement
(ASTM Type I):  
t
f cm (t) = f c (28) (2)
4 + 0.85 t
The CEB-FIP Models Code [35] suggests the following relationship in Equation (3) for concrete
specimens cured at 20 ◦ C: s
" !#
28
f cm (t) = exp s 1 − f c (28) (3)
t/t1

where f cm (t) means compressive strength at age t days; f c (28) means 28-day compressive strength;
s = coefficient depending on the cement type, such as s = 0.20 for high early strength cements, s = 0.25
for normal hardening cements; s = 0.38 for slow hardening cements and t1 = 1 day. For control mix
with water to cement ratio 0.25, as shown in Figure 5a, the increase in compressive strength with age
after 28 days was observed to be lesser than the ACI-209 Model and CEB-FIP model. The addition of
ultrafine has shown positive improvement in strength as the curing period increases. The addition of
ultrafines even at higher dosages of replacement with cement has gained compressive strength with
time. However, for a water-to-cement ratio of 0.30 as shown in Figure 5b, the gain in compressive
strength was almost similar to both ACI-209 and CEB-FIP Models without addition of ultrafines.
The major gain in compressive strength was observed by the addition of ultrafine at later ages after
90 days even with higher dosages. Figure 5c,d at water-to-cement ratios of 0.35 and 0.40 has shown
gain of strength of concrete with time. At the early age of 28 days, with an increase in ultrafines, the
compressive strength of concrete decreased. The general trend of rate of gain of strength with time
increased for all dosages of ultrafines, which may be attributed due to hydration of anhydrous particles
of cement and very slow hydration of ultrafine quartz leading to a drastic increase in compressive
strength. It can also be observed from Figure 5 that compressive strength for almost 10% percent
replacement of ultrafines with cement has no negative effect on the strength properties of concrete.
It may be due to packing of ultrafine grain particles in between the cement and achieving maximum
packing of material at the micro-level of mixture to attained gain in compressive strength. The rate of
gain of strength with all water-to-cement ratios was observed from all the dosages of ultrafines.
Materials 2019, 12, 299 9 of 19
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 21

120 120
W30
Compressive Strength (MPa)

Compressive Strength (MPa)

100 100

80 80
W25
60 60

40 Con25 5 40 Con30 5
8 10 8 10
20 15 25 15 25
20
35 ACI 35 ACI
CEB-FIP CEB-FIP
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400
Age (days) Age (days)
(a) (b)
100 100
W40
Compressive Strength (MPa)

80 Compressive Strength (MPa) 80

60 60
W35
40 40 Con40 5
Con35 5
8 10 8 10
20 15 25 20 15 25
35 ACI 35 ACI
CEB-FIP CEB-FIP
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400
Age (days) Age (days)
(c) (d)
Figure
Figure 5.5. Compressive
Compressivestrength
strengthvs.
vs.age
ageforfor
different
differentultrafine dosages
ultrafine dosages with different
with w/cw/c
different ratios: (a)
ratios:
compressive strength vs. age for different ultrafine dosages at w/c 0.25; (b) compressive strength
(a) compressive strength vs. age for different ultrafine dosages at w/c 0.25; (b) compressive strength vs. vs.
age
age for
for different ultrafine dosages
different ultrafine dosages at
at w/c
w/c 0.30;
0.30; (c)
(c) compressive
compressive strength
strength vs.
vs. age
age for
for different
different ultrafine
ultrafine
dosages
dosages atat w/c
w/c0.35;
0.35;(d)
(d)compressive
compressivestrength
strength vs.
vs. age
agefor
fordifferent
different ultrafine
ultrafine dosages
dosages at
at w/c
w/c0.40.
0.40.

Figure 6 shows the results of mixes with different level level of

of replacement
replacement of of silica
silica fume.
fume. Results
revealed from Figure 6a–d that early strength of control mixtures with all the water-to-cement ratios
were almost in accordance with ACI-209 and CEB-FIP models. The The addition
addition of of silica
silica fume
fume in the
concrete hashassignificantly
significantlyincreased
increased thethe early
early ageage strength
strength of silica
of silica fume fume
concreteconcrete with respect
with respect to
to control
control
mixtures.mixtures.
Whereas,Whereas,
there is there is almost
almost no significant
no significant increase
increase in the
in the strength
strength at later
at later ages
ages oror rathera
rather
adecrease
decrease inin the
the compressive
compressive strength,
strength, which
which maymay
be be
duedue to the
to the factfact
thatthat a major
a major hydration
hydration process
process has
has
beenbeen completed
completed within
within early early
agesages of hydration.
of hydration. Early
Early ageage increase
increase in strength
in strength withwith replacement
replacement of
of silica
silica fume
fume may
may bebe
duedue firstlytotoananincrease
firstly increaseininpacking
packingof ofparticles
particlesat atthe
the micro-level,
micro-level, and secondly
to a chemical reaction of silica fume causing an increase in bond strength between aggregate and
cementitious
cementitious matrix.
matrix.TheThereplacement
replacementofofcement cementwith
withsilica fume
silica fume has improved
has improved thethe
paste structure
paste of
structure
the matrix,
of the which
matrix, whichis is
evident
evident from
from thethefailure
failurepattern
patternofofconcrete
concreteas asshown
shownin in Figure
Figure 7.7. This
This figure
shows a clear failure of aggregate in concrete prepared for all all water-to-cement
water-to-cement ratios. It is evident
that at lower water-to-cement ratios, higher finer particles and improved bond strength paste with
aggregate have improved compressive strength strength making
making more
more packed
packed interfacial
interfacial transition
transitionzones.
zones.
 Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 21
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Materials 100 11 of 21

(MPa)
120 100

(MPa)
100
(MPa) 80
W30

(MPa)
Strength

100 W25 80

Strength
80 60 W30
Strength

W25

Strength
80 60
Compressive

60 40

Compressive
Compressive

60 Con25 8 40 Con30 8

Compressive
40 20
10 12 10
Con30 8 12
Con25 8
40 ACI CEB-FIP 20
10 12 10ACI 12CEB-FIP
20 ACI CEB-FIP 0
0 100 200 300 400 0 ACI
100 200 300 CEB-FIP
400
20 0
Age (days) Age (days)
0 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400
Age (days)
(a) Age (days)
(b)
90 (a) 90 (b)
(MPa)

(MPa)
90
80 90
80
(MPa)

(MPa)
80
70 80
70
Strength

W35
Strength
70
60 70
60
W40
Strength

W35
Strength
60 60
50 50 W40
50 50
Compressive

40 40
Compressive
Compressive

40 40
Compressive

30 30
Con35 8 Con40 8
30 30
20 Con35 8 20 Con40 8
10 12 10 12
20 20
10 10 12 10 10 12
ACI CEB-FIP ACI CEB-FIP
10 10 ACI CEB-FIP
0 ACI CEB-FIP 0
00 100 200 300 400 0 0 100 200 300 400
0 100 Age (days)
200 300 400 0 100 Age (days)
200 300 400
Age (days) Age (days)
(c) (d)
(c) (d)
Figure 6. Compressive strength vs. age for different silica fume dosages with different w/c ratios: (a)
Figure
6. 6. Compressivestrength
Compressive strength vs. ageageforfor
different silica fume dosages with different w/c ratios: (a)
Figure
compressive strength vs. age forvs. different different
silica silica
fume dosages fume dosages
at w/c with
0.25; (b) different
compressive w/c ratios:
strength
compressive
(a)vs.
compressive strength
strength vs. age
vs.fume for different
age dosages
for different silica fume
silica dosages at w/c 0.25; (b) compressive strength
age for different silica at w/c 0.30;fume dosages at strength
(c) compressive w/c 0.25; vs.(b)
agecompressive
for differentstrength
silica
vs. age for different silica fume dosages at w/c 0.30; (c) compressive strength vs. age for different silica
vs.fume
age for different
dosages silica
at w/c fume
0.35; (d)dosages at w/c
compressive 0.30; (c)
strength vs.compressive strength
age for different vs.fume
silica age for different
dosages silica
at w/c
fume dosages at w/c 0.35; (d) compressive strength vs. age for different silica fume dosages at w/c
fume dosages
0.40. at w/c 0.35; (d) compressive strength vs. age for different silica fume dosages at w/c 0.40.
0.40.

Failure of
Failure of
aggregate
aggregate
Improvedpacking
Improved packing
ofaggregate.
of aggregate.
Improved
Improved
packing
packing of
of Failure
Failure ofof
aggregate.
aggregate. aggregate
aggregate

(a) (b)
(b)
Figure
Figure 7. 7.
Figure 7.Typical
Typical
Typical failureofof
failure
failure concreteunder
ofconcrete under compression:
under compression:(a)
compression: (a) failure
(a)failure ofofof
failure silica
silica fume
fume
silica concrete;
concrete;
fume (b)(b)
concrete; typical
typical
(b) typical
failure
failure of
of concrete
concrete with
with ultrafines.
ultrafines.
failure of concrete with ultrafines.

4.3.
4.3.4.3. Rapid
Rapid Chloride
Chloride
Rapid Ion
Chloride Ion
Ion PenetrabilityofofConcrete
Penetrability
Penetrability Concrete
Concrete

The effect of adding ultrafine and silica fume on the chloride ion penetrability of concrete
according to ASTM 1202 are presented by rapid chloride permeability test (RCPT) values for different
Materials 2019, 12, 299 11 of 19

water-to-cement ratios as shown in Figure 8. Mixtures with higher water-to-cement ratios have shown
higher charge passes through the matrix. Maximum charge pass was observed through the higher
water-to-cement ratio of 0.4. It is observed from Figure 8a that the increase in dosage of ultrafines has
significantly reduced the passing charge through the matrix. The ASTM 1202 limits are also represented
in Figure 8a to show the range of material for passing charge through the matrix. It can clearly be
observed from the results that adding 8% ultrafine in the matrix for all water to cementitious ratios
reduced the passing charge through the concrete to be lesser than the low limit of ASTM 1202. Also,
it can be observed that for water-to-cement ratios of 0.3 and 0.25 with the addition of 8% ultrafines or
more, the charge pass through concrete material is below the very low limit as per the ASTM 1202.
In addition, it can be noted that using more than 15% ultrafines with all water-to-cement ratios resulted
in significant reduction in RCPT below the very low limit. The reduction in the charge passes through
the matrix caused by the increased dosage of ultrafines may be attributed to the fact that micro-level
pores in between cement particles have been filled with ultrafines, achieving maximum packing of
material at the ultrafine level. The concrete mixtures with all the water-to-cement ratios followed a
general trend of logarithmic function, and replacement dosages of ultrafines is shown in Figure 8a.
In general, the RCPT was influenced by addition of ultrafines, even for higher water-to-cement
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 21
ratios.

5000
W40 W35
W30 W25
4000
Negligible Limit Very Low Limit
RCPT (Coulombs)

Low Limit
3000
y = −1534ln(x) + 3501.6
R² = 0.99
2000

1000

0
0 5 8 10 15 25 35
%age Replacement of UF (by cement weight)
(a)
2000
Con40 Con35

Con30 Con25
1500
RCPT (Coulombs)

Negligible Limit Very Low Limit

1000

500

0
8 10 12
%age Replacement of SF (by cement weight)
(b)

FigureFigure 8. Rapid
8. Rapid chloride
chloride ionion penetrability(coulombs)
penetrability (coulombs) for
fordifferent
differentdosages of UF
dosages of and
UF SF with
and SF different
with different
w/c ratios: (a) RCPT (coulombs) for different dosages ultrafines with different w/c ratios; (b) RCPT
w/c ratios: (a) RCPT (coulombs) for different dosages ultrafines with different w/c ratios; (b) RCPT
(coulombs) for different dosages SF with different w/c ratios.
(coulombs) for different dosages SF with different w/c ratios.
4.4. Porosity
The effect of adding ultrafine and silica fume in the concrete on the porosity according to RIlEM
CPC 11.3 with different water-to-cement ratios are shown in Figure 9a and 9b, respectively. Concrete
mixtures with higher water-to-cement ratios have shown higher porosity through the matrix.
Maximum porosity was observed through the higher water-to-cement ratio of 0.4. It can be observed
Materials 2019, 12, 299 12 of 19

The addition of silica fume on the chloride ion penetrability of concrete according to ASTM
1202 with different water-to-cement ratios is shown in Figure 8b. Concrete mixtures with higher
water-to-cement ratios have shown higher charge passes through the matrix, as can be observed for
the water-to-cement ratio of 0.4. It can be observed from Figure 8b that the addition of silica fume has
significantly reduced the passing charge through the matrix. The ASTM 1202 limits are also represented
in Figure 8b to show the range of material for passing charge through the matrix. It can clearly be
observed from the results that adding 8% silica fume in the matrix for all water-to-cementitious ratios
reduced the passing charge through the concrete to be lesser than the very low limit of ASTM 1202.
It can also be observed that the increase in dosage of silica fume has reduced the charge passing
through matrix, which may be attributed because micro-level pores in between cement particles have
been filled with silica fume, achieving maximum packing of material at the micro-level. The second
reason may be attributed to the pozzolanic reaction, which improves the microstructure of concrete,
making concrete denser. Many other researchers [36–38] who investigated the pozzolanic effect of
silica fume have confirmed this improvement in the microstructure. With the increase in dosage of
silica fume from 8% to 12%, there is no significant improvement in charge pass. A general trend of
logarithmic function governing the behavior of all mixtures with different levels of replacements of
silica fume is shown in Figure 8b. In general, the RCPT was influenced by the addition of silica fume,
even for higher water-to-cement ratios.

4.4. Porosity
The effect of adding ultrafine and silica fume in the concrete on the porosity according to RIlEM
CPC 11.3 with different water-to-cement ratios are shown in Figure 9a,b, respectively. Concrete
mixtures with higher water-to-cement ratios have shown higher porosity through the matrix.
Maximum porosity was observed through the higher water-to-cement ratio of 0.4. It can be observed
from Figure 9a,b that the increase in dosage of ultrafines and silica fume has significantly reduced
the porosity of the matrix for all water-to-cement ratios. At higher water-to-cement ratios, there was
lesser improvement in porosity due to the addition of ultrafines (Figure 9a) and silica fume (Figure 9b),
which may be attributed due to lesser available micro-pores due to lower amounts of cement quantities
in the concrete mixtures. However, better improvements in the porosity was observed for the lower
water-to-cement ratios of 0.25 and 0.3; the decrease in porosity was observed to be even 50% at a
replacement dosage of 25 to 35% of ultrafine in concrete. Addition of silica fume reduced porosity in the
range of 40–60% for water-to-cement ratios of 0.25–0.3 and in the range of 25–40% for water-to-cement
ratios of 0.35–0.4. Such improvement can be attributed due to the fact that ultrafines are filling
the micro-pores resulting in increasing the density of paste at the micro-level. This reduction of
porosity becomes more significant at higher cement content or high paste volume mixtures with lower
water-to-cement ratios that can reach 60%, whereas at higher water-to-cement ratios of 0.35 and 0.4,
maximum reduction in porosity is observed to be around 35%, as shown in Figure 9a. A general trend
of exponential function showing the reduction in porosity for all concrete mixtures and replacement
dosages of ultrafines and silica fume are shown in Figure 9a,b, respectively. By the comparison of
Figure 9a,b, it can clearly be observed that 8% silica fume has reduced porosity by even more than 25%
replacement of ultrafines, which lead to the fact that it has double effect on the microstructure. This
is due firstly to improvement in packing of material at the micro-level because of finer particles and
secondly to improvement of the microstructure due to pozzolanic reaction of silica fume.
mixtures and replacement dosages of ultrafines and silica fume are shown in Figure 9a and 9b,
respectively. By the comparison of Figure 9a and 9b, it can clearly be observed that 8% silica fume
has reduced porosity by even more than 25% replacement of ultrafines, which lead to the fact that it
has double effect on the microstructure. This is due firstly to improvement in packing of material at
the micro-level
Materials because of finer particles and secondly to improvement of the microstructure due
2019, 12, 299 to19
13 of
pozzolanic reaction of silica fume.

12.0
W40 W35 W30 W25
10.0
y = 11.94e−0.07x
R² = 0.99
8.0

Porosity (%)
6.0

4.0

2.0

0.0
0 5 8 10 15 25 35
%age Replacement of UF (by cement weight)
(a)
12.0

10.0
W40 W35 W30 W25

y = −0.38ln(x) + 7.36
8.0 R² = 0.99
Porosity (%)

6.0

4.0

2.0

0.0
8 10 12
%age Replacement of SF (by cement weight)
(b)

Figure 9. Porosity
Porosity (%)
(%) for
for different
different dosages
dosages of
ofUF
UFand
andSFSFwith
withdifferent
differentw/c
w/cratios:
ratios:(a)(a)
porosity (%)
porosity (%)forfor
different dosages
dosages of ultrafines with different w/c ratios; (b) porosity (%) for different dosages
ultrafines with different w/c ratios; (b) porosity (%) for different dosages of of SFSF
with
with different w/c ratios.
w/c ratios.

4.5.
4.5. Relationship between RCPT
Relationship between RCPT and
and Porosity
Porosity
There
There isis aa link
link between
between RCPT
RCPT and
and porosity
porosity ofof concrete.
concrete. The
The porosity
porosityisisthe
thetotal
totalpores
poresavailable
availablein
the concrete whereas RCPT is the total charge pass through the concrete mixture.
in the concrete whereas RCPT is the total charge pass through the concrete mixture. Figure 10 Figure 10 shows
shows the
relationship between
the relationship RCPTRCPT
between and porosity of concrete
and porosity with different
of concrete water-to-cement
with different ratios and
water-to-cement different
ratios and
dosages
differentofdosages
replacements of ultrafines
of replacements ofand silica fume.
ultrafines It is worth
and silica fume.noting that higher
It is worth notingdosages of replacement
that higher dosages
of ultrafines has shown to reduce both porosity and RCPT values. A power function is a governing
trend between porosity and RCPT values of all replacements of ultrafines in all water-to-cement ratios
of concrete as shown in Figure 10a, with an R2 of more than 0.8. Figure 10b shows the relationship of
different dosages of silica fume in different water-to-cement ratios with an R2 of more than 0.9. It shows a
strong relationship between porosity and RCPT values for silica fume concrete. The data was plotted and
a best-fit relationship between porosity and RCPT values was a power function. It clearly shows that an
increase in porosity shows an increase in RCPT values for all replacement levels of silica fume.
to-cement ratios of concrete
of replacement as has
of ultrafines shownshownin Figure
to reduce 10a, with
both an Rand
porosity of more
RCPT than
values.0.8. Figurefunction
A power 10b shows
the relationship
is a governing of trend
different dosages
between of silica
porosity fumevalues
and RCPT in different water-to-cement
of all replacements ratiosinwith
of ultrafines an R2 of
all water-
more to-cement
than 0.9. ratios
It shows a strong
of concrete relationship
as shown in Figurebetween
10a, withporosity
an R2 of and
moreRCPT
than 0.8.values
Figurefor10bsilica
shows fume
concrete. The data was
the relationship plotted dosages
of different and a best-fit
of silicarelationship between
fume in different porosity and
water-to-cement RCPT
ratios with values
an R was
2 of a
power more than 0.9.
function. It It shows
clearly a strong
shows that relationship
an increase between
in porosity
porosity shows and
an RCPT values
increase in for silica
RCPT fume
values
Materials 2019, 12, 299 14 of 19 all
for
concrete. The data was
replacement levels of silica fume. plotted and a best-fit relationship between porosity and RCPT values was a
power function. It clearly shows that an increase in porosity shows an increase in RCPT values for all
replacement levels of12.0
silica fume.

12.0
10.0
10.0
8.0 y = 0.9323x0.301
R² = 0.8156

Porosity (%)
8.0 y = 0.9323x0.301
6.0 R² = 0.8156

Porosity (%)
6.0
4.0
4.0
C5 C8 C10
2.0 C5 C8 C10
2.0
C15 C25 C35
C15 C25 C35
0.0
0.0
0 0 500500 1000
1000 1500
1500 2000
2000 2500
2500 3000
3000
RCPT
RCPT(Coulombs)
(Coulombs)
(a)
(a)
12 12

10 10

8
8
Porosity (%)
Porosity (%)

6
6
y = 0.21x0.54
4 yR²
= =0.21x
0.90
0.54

4 R² = 0.90
2 S8 S10 S12
2 S8 S10 S12
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
0
0 200 RCPT
400 (Coulombs)
600 800 1000
RCPT(b)
(Coulombs)
Figure 10. Porosity
Figure (%) vs.
10. Porosity (%)RCPT (Coulombs)
vs. RCPT relationship
(Coulombs) for different
relationship
(b) dosages
for different SF andSF
dosages UF:and
(a) UF:
porosity
(a)
porosity
(%) vs. RCPT(%) vs. RCPT relationship
(Coulombs) (Coulombs) relationship
for differentfor different
dosages UF;dosages UF; (b)
(b) porosity (%)porosity
vs. RCPT(%)(Coulombs)
vs. RCPT
Figure 10. Porosity
(Coulombs)
relationship (%) vs.
for relationship
different RCPT
for
dosages SF.(Coulombs)
different dosages SF.relationship for different dosages SF and UF: (a)
porosity (%) vs. RCPT (Coulombs) relationship for different dosages UF; (b) porosity (%) vs. RCPT
5. Predictive
(Coulombs) Models
5. Predictive Models for different dosages SF.
relationship

5.1. Predictive Model of Compressive Strength for Different Water-to-Cement Ratios

5.1. Predictive Model of Compressive Strength for Different Water-to-Cement Ratios
5. Predictive Models
Predictive model
Predictive forfor
model thethe
compressive
compressivestrength
strengthofofconcrete
concretewith
with different water-to-cementratios
different water-to-cement ratios
5.1.
wasPredictive
given
was byModel
given Abramof Compressive
by Abram[39], which
[39], isStrength
which one
is one for
ofofthe Different
thesignificantWater-to-Cement
significantadvancements Ratios
in
advancements in concretetechnology
concrete technology[40].
[40].
Characteristics andand
Characteristics proportioning
proportioning ofofmaterials
materialsand
andconcrete,
concrete, curing,
curing, and parameters oftesting
parameters of testingare
are
Predictive model for the compressive strength of concrete with different water-to-cement ratios
major
major factors,
factors, which
which areare affecting
affecting precise
precise measurementsofofcompressive
measurements compressive strength.
strength. Abram’s
Abram’smodel
modelfor
for
was given by Abram [39], which is one of the significant advancements in concrete technology [40].
prediction
prediction of compressive
of compressive strength
strength cancanbebe expressedasasfollow:
expressed follow:
Characteristics and proportioning of materials and concrete, curing, and parameters of testing are
major factors, which are affecting precise measurements
A of compressive strength. Abram’s model for
f c0 = x (4)
prediction of compressive strength can be expressed B as follow:

where f c0 is compressive strength of concrete, A and B are empirical constants catering effects of
aggregate, type of cementitious matrix, admixture, curing, testing condition, and age of concrete.
Materials 2019, 12, 299 15 of 19

Parameters A and B were given as 96.55 and 8.2 for Abram’s model [29,30]. To utilize this formula into
this present study, a modification factor w is introduced in Equation (5) as follow:

A
f c0 = (5)
Bx
A modification factor, w, is computed by the best-fit of experimental data of compressive strength
versus the water-to-cementitious ratio for all the mixtures at the age of 28 days. Figures 5b and 11a
show the experimental and proposed trends with upper limit (UL) and lower limit (LL) for the silica
fume and ultrafine effect on the different water-to-cement ratios. The w-value for ultrafines with
different dosages in different water-to-cement ratios was 1.39. The w-value for concrete with different
dosage of silica fume with different water-to-cementitious ratio was 1.63. Finally, the w-value for
upper limit (UL) and lower limit (LL) for concrete with ultrafines are 1.05 and 1.65, respectively, and
the Materials
upper limit (UL)
2018, 11, and
x FOR lower
PEER limit (LL) of w-value for silica fume are 1.45 and 1.75, respectively.
REVIEW 17 of 21

120

100
Comp. Str. (MPa)

80

60

40 Con C5
C8 C10
C15 C25
20 C35 Abram Model
Proposed UF Mod UL Proposed
LL Proposed
0
0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45
w/c ratio
(a)
120

100
Comp. Str. (MPa)

80

60

40
Con S8
S10 S12
20
Abram Model Proposed SF Mod
UL Proposed LL Proposed
0
0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45
w/c ratio
(b)
Figure
Figure 11. 11. Strength
Strength vs.vs.
w/cw/cratio
ratiofor
fordifferent
differentultrafine
ultrafine dosages
dosages atat 28
28 days:
days:(a)
(a)strength
strengthvs.
vs.w/c
w/cratio
ratio
for different UF dosages at 28 days; (b) strength vs. w/c ratio for different SF dosages at 28
for different UF dosages at 28 days; (b) strength vs. w/c ratio for different SF dosages at 28 days. days.

5.2.5.2.
Predictive Models
Predictive forfor
Models RCPT
RCPTand
andPorosity
PorosityBased
Basedon
on Compressive Strength
Compressive Strength

It isItalso
is also very
very importanttotoknow
important knowthe
therelationship
relationship between
between permeation-related
permeation-relatedproperties and
properties and
compressive strength of concrete because usually, quality of concrete and its fitness for construction
compressive strength of concrete because usually, quality of concrete and its fitness for construction
is judged based on the compressive strength. So, it is important to have a relationship between
compressive strength and permeation-related properties. Figure 12 shows relationships between
compressive strength and permeation-related properties of ultrafines and silica fume with different
replacement dosages. A predictive model has been proposed to find the compressive strength by
using RCPT and porosity of concrete for different levels of replacements of ultrafines fillers as given
Materials 2019, 12, 299 16 of 19

is judged based on the compressive strength. So, it is important to have a relationship between
compressive strength and permeation-related properties. Figure 12 shows relationships between
compressive strength and permeation-related properties of ultrafines and silica fume with different
replacement dosages. A predictive model has been proposed to find the compressive strength by
using RCPT and porosity of concrete for different levels of replacements of ultrafines fillers as given in
Equation (6).   
(1 + 4α)
R, P = w (6)
f c0 (1+4α)
R stands for RCPT and P for porosity value, whereas w is constant which varies for different
dosages of ultrafines for RCPT and porosity of concrete. α is the percentage replacement of ultrafines
in the concrete. The predictive proposed model is drawn in Figure 12a with the upper and lower
bound values. The relationship between RCPT and compressive strength for ultrafine dosages is
shown in Figure 12a. It can be observed that the developed model is in good agreement with the
available literature [41], as shown in Figure 12a. The developed model has different values of w for
RCPT and compressive strength with different replacement dosages of ultrafines with R2 ranging
from 0.80 to 0.95. The value of w for RCPT varies from 250 × 103 to 1150 × 103 from low replacement
levels of 5% to 35% of ultrafines in concrete, respectively. The relationship porosity and compressive
strength for ultrafine dosages is shown in Figure 12b. The developed predictive model is the governing
relationship for porosity and compressive strength with different replacement dosages of ultrafines
with R2 ranging from 0.80 to 0.95. The value of w for porosity varies from 1.1 × 103 to 28 × 103 from
low replacement levels of 5% to 35% of ultrafines in concrete, respectively. A predictive model has
been proposed to find the compressive strength by using RCPT and porosity of concrete for different
levels of replacements of silica fume as shown in Equation (7).
 
(w)
R, P = (7)
f c0 B(1+4α)

R and P stands for RCPT and porosity value, respectively, whereas w and B are constants which
vary for different dosages of silica fume for RCPT and porosity of concrete. α is the percentage
replacement of silica fume in the concrete. The proposed predictive model for compressive strength
and RCPT value for different dosages of silica fume is drawn in Figure 12c with the upper and lower
bound values. The relationship between RCPT and compressive strength for silica fume dosages
is shown in Figure 12c. The developed model has different values of w for RCPT and compressive
strength with different replacement dosages of ultrafines with R2 ranging from 0.96 to 0.98. The value
of w for RCPT varies from 2.23 × 108 to 1.47 × 1011 with replacement levels of 8% to 12% of silica fume
in concrete, respectively. Comparison of the results with other researchers shows good agreement with
developed predictive models [7], as shown in Figure 12d. The value of B for RCPT varies from 2.27
to 3.04 from replacement level of 8% to 12% of silica fume in concrete, respectively. The relationship
porosity and compressive strength for ultrafine dosages is shown in Figure 12d. The developed
predictive model is the governing relationship for porosity and compressive strength with different
replacement dosages of ultrafines with R2 ranging from 0.93 to 0.95. The value of w for porosity varies
from 3.7 × 103 to 30 × 103 with replacement levels of 8% to 12% of silica fume in concrete, respectively.
The value of B for RCPT varies from 1.13 to 1.42 with replacement levels of 8% to 12% of silica fume in
concrete, respectively.
Materials 2019, 12, 299 17 of 19
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 21

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 12. Compressive
Compressivestrength
strengthvs.vs.permeation-related
permeation-relatedproperties of SF
properties of and UF UF
SF and particle: (a)
particle:
compressive strength vs. RCPT (Coulombs) relationship for different dosages UF;
(a) compressive strength vs. RCPT (Coulombs) relationship for different dosages UF; (b) (b) compressive
strength vs. porosity
porosity (%) relationship for different dosages UF; (c) compressive
compressive strength
strength vs.
vs. RCPT
(Coulombs) relationship
(Coulombs) relationship
forfor different
different dosages
dosages SF; (d)SF; (d) compressive
compressive strength
strength vs. vs.(%)porosity
porosity (%)
relationship
relationship
for for different
different dosages SF. dosages SF.

6. Conclusions
6. Conclusions
The conclusions of the work can be summarized as follow:
The conclusions of the work can be summarized as follow:
â Maximum increase of 12% in compressive strength with 12% partial replacement of silica fume
wasMaximum
observed,increase
whereasofpartial
12% in compressive
replacement ofstrength
cement withwith 35%
12% dosage
partial of
replacement of silica
ultrafines showed
fume
about was decrease
a 28% observed,inwhereas
compressivepartial replacement
strength. of cement
This decrease in with 35% dosagestrength
the compressive of ultrafines
was
showed about a 28% decrease in compressive strength. This decrease in the
attributed to a non-pozzolanic activity of inactive ultrafine filler. However, partial replacement ofcompressive
strength
cement withwas attributed
ultrafine to ashowed
up to 8% non-pozzolanic
around a activity
5% increaseof inactive ultrafinestrength.
in compressive filler. However,
partial replacement of cement with ultrafine up to 8% showed
â All the mixtures with silica fume and ultrafines have produced higher compressive around a 5% increase
strengthin
compressive
than strength.
given by Abram’s predictive model, and the increase in compressive strength with partial
replacement
All the mixtures
of silicawith
fumesilica
and fume andwas
ultrafine ultrafines
63% and have
38%,produced higher
respectively, compressive
as compared strength
to Abram’s
than given by
predictive equation. Abram’s predictive model, and the increase in compressive strength with
â Thepartial replacement
partial replacement of of
silica
8% fume andfume
of silica ultrafine
has was 63%the
yielded andRCPT
38%, respectively,
value to a very as compared
low limit
to Abram’s predictive equation.
and low porosity for all water-to-cement ratios. However, the partial replacement with 8%
of ultrafines
The partialhas
replacement
yielded RCPTof 8%toofasilica
very fume has yielded
low limit the RCPT value
at a water-to-cement to aof
ratio very
0.3,low
butlimit
at a
and low porosity
replacement level of for
15%allultrafines.
water-to-cement
Concrete ratios. However,
mixture with allthe partial replacement
water-to-cement ratioswith 8% of
yielded a
ultrafines has yielded
very low limit of RCPT value. RCPT to a very low limit at a water-to-cement ratio of 0.3, but at a
Materials 2019, 12, 299 18 of 19

â The relationships for RCPT and porosity of all mixtures was attained which suggested that there
is strong correlation between porosity and RCPT for both ultrafines and silica fume, as expected.
â Predictive models have been proposed for RCPT and porosity by compressive strength with
consideration of dosage of replacements of ultrafines and silica fume using experimental data.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.I.K. and W.A.; methodology, M.I.K., W.A. and S.M.; validation,
M.I.K., W.A. and S.M.; formal analysis, W.A.; investigation, W.A.; resources, M.I.K., and S.M.; writing—original
draft preparation, W.A.; writing—review and editing, M.I.K., and S.M.; supervision, M.I.K., and S.M.; project
administration, M.I.K.; funding acquisition, M.I.K.
Funding: This research was funded by Deanship of Scientific Research, KING SAUD UNIVERSITY, grant
number RGP-VPP-105.
Acknowledgments: The Authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research at King Saud
University for funding the work through the research group project No. RGP-VPP-105.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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