ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY

Analytic geometry, also called coordinate geometry, is

the study of geometry using the principles of algebra.
The Cartesian coordinate system is usually applied to
manipulate equations for planes, lines, curves, and
circles, often in two but sometimes in three dimensions
of measurement.
This section contains the most frequently used formulas,
rules, and definitions relating to the following:
1. Points and lines
2. Circles
3. Ellipses
4. Parabolas
5 . Hyperbolas
6. Polar Coordinates
7. Solid Analytical Geometry
8. Planes
9. The Straight Line in Space
10. Surfaces
 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY 133
Points and Lines

1. Distance between Two Points

I
0 x

The distance between two points 4 (xl,y1)

and P2( x 2 , y 2is) defined by the formula

d=J(x2-x1)2+(Y2-Y1)2
where
Ax = x2 -xl
AY = Y2 -Y1

2. Point of Division
The point of division is the point P(x, y ) which divides a
line segment Pl(x1, yl), P2(x2, y2) in a given ratio,

A=- 4p
pp2
Point P has the coordinates
134 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY
Points and Lines

x1 + h 2 Y1 +AY2
X= 7 Y=
l+il l+il

0' x

If P(x, y ) is the midpoint of line 4 ( x l ,y1), P2(x2,y 2) ,

il = 1 , then point P has the coordinates

x=- x1 +x2 Y1 +Y2

9 y=-
2 2

3. Inclination and Slope of a Line

 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY 135
Points and Lines

a) Inclination
The inclination of a line not parallel to the x-axis is
defined as the smallest positive angle measured from the
positive direction of the x-axis in a counterclockwise
direction to the line. If the line is parallel to the x-axis,
its inclination is defined as zero.

b) Slope
The slope of a line passing through two points
4 ( X l , Y1 )and p2 (x2 9 Y2 ) is
= tana = Y2
m -Y1
x2 -x1

4. Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

If line 11 is parallel with line 12, then their slopes are

equal:
m, = m 2
136 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY
Points and Lines

If line 11 and h are perpendicular, the slope of one

of the lines is the negative reciprocal of the slope of the
other line.
If ml is the slope of ZI and m3 is the slope of h, then

5. Angle Between Two Intersection Lines

Angle a , measured in a positive direction

counterclockwise from line Zi, whose slope is ml to the
line 12, whose slope is m2,is
m2 -m1
tana =
1+ mlmz

6. Triangle
The area of a triangle in terms of the vertices is
 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY 137
Points and Lines

The coordinates of the centroid 5' (center of gravity) of

the triangle are
x1+ x2 + x3
x, =
3
Y1 +Y2 +Y3
Y, = 3
7. The Equation for a Straight Line through a
Point

0' x

A straight line is completely determined if its gradient is

known and a point P ( x l ,y1) is given through which the
line must pass:
138 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY
Points and Lines

8. Slope-Intercept Form
A straight line is defined if its slope (gradient) m is
known and the y-intercept is (0, b). Its equation is

9. Equation for a Straight Line through Two

Points

+ P I (A. I,y I )

The equation of a straight strength line through two

defined points Pl(x1,y l ) , and P2(x2, y2) is

Y-Y1 -
- Y1 -Y2
X-X1 x1 - X 2

10. Intercept Form Equation of the Straight Line

 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY 139
Points and Lines

where
a = x-intercept
b = y-intercept

11. General Form of an Equation of a Straight

Line
AX + By + C = 0
where
A , B and C are arbitrary constants.

For an equation in this form, the slope m andy-intercept

b are

b=--C
B

12. Normal Equation of a Straight Line

A straight line is defined if the length of the

perpendicular (p) from origin (0.0) to the line is known,
140 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY
Points and Lines

and if the angle ( p) which this perpendicular makes

with the x-axis, is known.
The normal form of the equation of the straight line is

xcosp + y sinp - p = 0

The normal form of equation Ax + By + C = 0 is

A B C
=O
f 4- +f -4 +f
where
A
cosp =
-4
f
B
sin9 =
f 4 m
C
-P=
f -4
13. Distance From a Line to a Point
The distance from a line 1to a point Pi (xi, yi) is
perpendicular distance d.
Since the coordinates of point Pi (xi, yi) satisfy the
equation for 11,
x1cosp+yy,s i n p - ( p + d ) = 0,
 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY 141
Circles

solving for d,

d = x1cosp + y1sinp - p ,
or
Ipx1 + BY1 + CI
d=
llA2+Bz.
14. Circles

A circle is represented by an equation of the second

degree. A circle is completely defined if its center M ( p ,
q) and radius Y are known.
142 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY
Circles

a) The equation of a circle:

( x - p ) 2 + ( ~ . - q=) r~2

If the center of a circle is at the origin the equation

becomes
x2 + y 2= r 2
The general equation of a circle is

x 2 + y 2 + Dx+ E y + F = 0 , or

2
D2+E2-4F
(x+;)2 +(y+;) = 4

The center of the circle is at the point M

and the radius of circle is

1
r = -40’
2
+E 2 -4F

If D 2 + E - 4F > 0, the circle is real.

If D 2 + E - 4F < 0, the circle is imaginary.

If D 2 + E - 4F = 0, there is no circle.
 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY 143
Ellipses

b) The tangent t at point Pl(x1,y l ) :

r 2 -(X-PXx1 - P ) + q
Y=
Y1-4

15. Ellipses
An ellipse is a curve in which the sum of the distances
from any point on the curve to two fixed points is
constant. The two fixed points are called foci (plural of
focus).

a) The equation of an ellipse:

2
(X-P) + ( Y - d 2 -1=o
a2 b2

If the center is at the origin, the equation becomes

144 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY
Ellipses

x2 y2
-+,=1
a2 b

In either case, the general form of the equation of the

ellipse is
Ax2+By2+Dx+Ey+f=0

b) Eccentricity:
e=Ja2-b2, (a>b)
c) Vertex radii:
b2 a2
rh=-, r,=-
a b
d) Basic property:
~~

FIP+F,P = 2a
where
4 ,F2 = focal points

e) The equation of a tangent t at point Pi(xi, yi):

b2 (XI - P X X - X J + y1
y=-a2’ Y1-4
 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY 145
Parabolas

16. Parabolas
A parabola is the set of all points in a plane equidistant
from a given line L (the conic section directrix) and a
given point F not on the line (the focus). The focal
parameter (i.e., the distance between the directrix and
focus) is therefore given asp.
The surface of revolution obtained by rotating a parabola
about its axis of symmetry is called a paraboloid.

1
L = direcirix S = tangent at the vrrtek

a) The equation of a parabola:

(x - x0l2 = 2P(Y -Yo) or

2
(x-2) =-2p

b) Basic equation:
y=ax 2 +bx+c=O
146 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY
Hyperbolas

c) Vertex radius:
r=p
d) Basic property:

e) Equation of a tangent at point P1 (xl, yl):

2(Yl - Yo x x - x1)
Y= + Y1
x1 -xo

17. Hyperbolas
A hyperbola is the set of all points P (x, y ) in the plane,
the difference of whose distances from two fixed points
F1 and El is some constant. The two fixed points are
called the foci.

c
a

-
 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY 147
Hyperbolas

a) Equation of a hyperbola:

(X-XoY - (Y -YoY - 1 = o
a’ b’
If the point of intersection of asymptotes is at the origin,
the equation is

b) Basic equation:

AX’ +By’Cx+Dy+E=O

c) Eccentricity:
e = J x F

d) The equation of asymptotes:

b
y=f-x.
a
e) The equation of a tangent at point P1 (xl, yl):

b2 (xl- x,,)(x - xl)

Y = l + Y1
a Y1 -Yo

f ) Vertex radius:

r = -b’
a
148 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY
Polar Coordinates

18. Polar Coordinates

Let x and y be Cartesian axes in the plane and let P be a

point in the plane other than the origin. The polar
coordinates of point P are Y (the radial coordinate) and 8
(the angular coordinate, often called the polar angle),
and they are defined in terms of Cartesian coordinates by

x = rcosB
y = rs i n8
where
distance (Y = OP > 0)
Y = the radial
B = the counterclockwise angle from the x-axis
In terms of x and y they are
Y = J m

e = tan-' ):(
 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY 149
Introduction to Solid Analytical Geometry

19. Cartesian Coordinates

l z

OP=p, p 2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2

x = pcosa, y = p cosp, z = p cosy

cos2a+ cos2 p + cos2 y = 1
X Y Z
c o s a = -, cosp =-, cosy = -, or
P P P

Z
150 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY
Introduction to Solid Analytical Geometry

20. Distance between Two Points

a) Distance between two points P1 and P2:

b) Point of division
If the point P (x,y, z) divides the line Pi(xi,yi, zi) to
P2 (x2,y2,22) in the ratio
4P r
-= - , then
PP, 1

X=
X1+% Y1 +vz,z = z1+ rz2
l + r ’’= l+r l+r
 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY 151
Introduction to Solid Analytical Geometry

c) Direction of a line
The direction cosines of P1P2 are

21. Angle between Two Lines

The angle between two lines that do not meet is defined
as the angle between two intersecting lines, each of
which is parallel to one of the given lines.
152 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY
Introduction to Solid Analytical Geometry

If OPi and OP2 are two lines through the origin parallel
to the two given lines, and 0 is the angle between the
lines, from triangle OPiP2, by the law of cosines law,

case = P: +P: - d 2
2PlP2
now
p; =x; + y ; + z ;
p,’ =x; + y 22 + z 22

d 2 = (x2 - xl)’ + ( y 2- yl)’ + (z2- z1

Substituting and simplifying

X1
c0sa1 = -, cosa, =-
x2
P1 P2

Y2
cosp, = -,
Y1 COSP, =-
PI P2
cosy, = -,
Z1 COSY, = -
=2
Pl P2
 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY 153
Planes

22. Every Plane

Every plane is represented by an equation of the first
degree in one or more of the variables x, y, z.

a) The equation of a plane:

Ax+By+Cz+D=O, [(A,B,C)#O]

b) The equation of a system of planes passing through

apoint(x,,y,,z,):

A(x - x,)+ B ( y - y o ) + C(Z- z 0 ) =0

23. Line Perpendicular to Plane

A line will be perpendicular to a plane
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 if and only if the direction
numbers a, b, c of the line are proportional to the
coefficients of x, y, z in the equation of the plane.
Hence:

24. Parallel and Perpendicular Planes

a) Given two planes
A,x + Bly + Clz + D,= 0, and
A,x + B,y + C,z + D, = 0 ,
154 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY
Planes

The planes are parallel if and only if the coefficients of

x, y, z, are proportional. Hence,
A1 -
- Bl -
- Cl
A2 B2 c
2

b) Two planes are perpendicular if

A,A2 + B,B + C,C2 = 0

25. Distance of a Point from a Plane

The distance between a point Pi (x,,y , ,z, ) and a plane
Ax+By+Cz+D=O is

Ax, + By, + Cz, + D

J A 2 + B 2 + C2

26. Normal Form

The normal form of the equation of a plane is

xcosa + y cosp + zcosy - p =0

where
p = the perpendicular distance from the
origin to the plane
a, p, y = the direction angles of that
perpendicular distance
 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY 155
Planes

The normal form of the equation of the plane

A x + B y + C z + D = O is

Ax +By + cz + D
=O
+ J A 2 + B 2+ C 2

The sign of the radical is taken opposite to that of D so

that the normal distancep will be positive.

27. Intercept Form

The intercept form equation of a plane is

-X+ - +Y- = I Z
a b c
where
a, byc = the x,y, z intercepts respectively.

28. Angle between Two Planes

The angle between two planes

156 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY
The Straight Line in Space

A,x + B,y + C,z + D, = 0, and

A,x + B,y + c,z + D, = 0
is determined by

A,A, + B,B2 + c,c,

cOse = JmJ-
29. The Straight Line in Space
The line of intersection of the two planes

A,x + B,y + C,z + D,= 0, and

A,x + B2y + c,z + D, = 0
is a straight line in space.

30. Parametric Form Equations of a Line

 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY 157
The Straight Line in Space

x = x l +ilcosa
y = y1 + i l c o s p
z = z l+Acosy
or
-=-,+ail, y = y l + b i l , z=zl+cil

where
a, p, y = the direction angles of the line L
a, b, c = the direction numbers of the line L
A = the variable length 4 P
31. Symmetric Form Equations of a Line
The equations of the line passing through point
Pi(xi, yi, zi) have the form

x--1 - Y-
- - Y l ---z--1
cosa cosp cospy’
or

---1 - Y - Y l ---z--1
a b C
where
a , p, y = the direction angles of the line,
a, b, c = the direction numbers of the line
158 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY
The Straight Line in Space

32. Two Points Form Equations of a Line

The equations of the straight line through points
Pi(xi, yi, z i ) and P2(x2,y2,z2) are

33. Relative Directions of a Line and Plane

A line whose direction numbers are a, b, c and the plane
Ax+By+Cz+D=O are

a) Parallel when and only when

Aa + Bb + CC= 0 , and

b) Perpendicular when and only when

34. The Sphere

 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY 159
Surfaces

The sphere is a three-dimensional surface, all points of

which are equidistant from a fixed point called the
center. The equation of a sphere with center at (0, 0, 0)
and radius r is
x 2 + y 2+ z 2 = r 2

If the center of the sphere is at (h, k,j ) the equation has

the form
+(y-k)Z + ( z - j ) 2 = r 2

35. The Ellipsoid

The ellipsoid is a three-dimensional surface, all plane
sections of which are ellipses or circles.
‘t

The equation of a ellipsoid with center at (0, 0,O) and a,

b, and c are unequal is
x2 y 2 z2
-+,+,=1
a2 b c
If a # b, but b = c, the ellipsoid is an ellipsoid of
revolution.
If the center of the ellipsoid is (outside of origin) at (h,
k,j ) and its axes are parallel to the coordinate axes, the
equation has the form,
160 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY
Surfaces

(x - h)’
+ ( y-k)2 + ( z - j)’ = 1
a2 b’ C2
If the center of the ellipsoid is at the origin, this equation
becomes
x2 y 2
-+-+-=I 2’

a2 b2 c2

36. Hyperboloid
A hyperboloid is a quadric surface generated by rotating
a hyperbola around its main axis.

a) Hyperboloid of one sheet:

If the equation has the sign of one variable changed, as

in
x’ y 2
-+---=1 2’

a2 b’ c2
 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY 161
Surfaces

the surface is called a hyperboloid of the sheet.

If a = b, the surface is a hyperboloid of revolution of one
sheet.

b) Hyperboloid of two sheets:

zt

The equation of a hyperboloid of two sheets is

x2 y 2 z 2
=1
a2 b2 c 2

37. Elliptic Paraboloid

162 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY
Surfaces

This is the locus of an equation of the form

xL yL
y+y = 2cz
a b

The section by a plane z = k is an ellipse that increases

in size as the cutting plane recedes from the xy-plane.
If c > 0, the surface lies wholly above the xy-plane.
If c < 0, the surface lies wholly below the xy-plane.
If a = b, the surface is a surface of revolution.

38. Hyperbolic Paraboloid

This is the locus of an equation of the form

x’ y’
= 2cz, (c > 0)
a’ b2
 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY 163
Surfaces

39. Cylindrical Surface

A cylindrical surface is generated by a straight line that
moves along a fixed curve and remains parallel to a
fixed straight line. The fixed curve is called the directrix
of the surface and the moving line is the generatrix of
the surface.

If the directrix is the ellipse for which the standard form

for the equation is b 2 x 2+ a 2 y 2= a 2 b 2 the
, equation
of the cylinder is
x2 y 2
-+-=I
a2 b2