Structure of the Atom

Introduction

Matters are made of tiny particles called atom. Atom is made of three particles; electron,
proton and neutron. These particles are called fundamental particles of an atom or sub atomic
particles.

Electron (e– - Electron is denoted by „e‟ and is a negatively charged particle. The absolute
−19
charge over an electron is equal to 1.6×10 of negative charge and is considered equal to –
1. The relative mass of electron is 1/1836. Since the mass of an electron is very small, thus it
is considered equal to 0. Electrons revolve round the nucleus of atoms. Discovered by
J.J.Thomson in 1897, calling it as Corpuscles.

Proton (p+) - Proton is denoted by „p‟ and is positively charged particle. The absolute charge
−19
over proton is 1.6×10 coulomb of positive charge and it is considered as unit positive
charge. Thus absolute charge over a proton is equal to +1. The absolute mass of a proton is
−24
equal to 1.6×10 g and considered equal to 1 as it is equal to the mass of 1 hydrogen atom.
Proton is present in the nucleus of atom. Discovered by Ernest Goldstein in 1886 calling it as
Canal Rays

Neutron (n) – Neutron is denoted by „n‟ and is a neutral particle. The absolute mass of
−24
neutron is 1.6×10 g. The relative mass of neutron is equal to 1. Neutron is present in the
nucleus of atom. J.Chadwick discovered this subatomic particle in 1932.

Nucleus contains both protons and neutrons.

Atomic Models
From the knowledge of subatomic particles like electron, proton and neutron in an atom,
various atomic models were proposed by different scientists.

Some of the atomic models: “Water melon model”

Thomson’s Model of Atom

He proposed that electrons are embedded the way black seeds of water melon are embedded;
in the sphere of positive charge. According to Thomson

(a) An atom consists of positively charged sphere in which electrons are embedded.

(b) The quanta of negative and positive charges are equal. The equal number of negative
charge and positive charge makes an atom electrically neutral.

Conclusion

Although this model explained neutrality of atom but couldn‟t able to explain other scientific
experiments conducted on atom. Hence it was discarded.
Rutherford’s Atomic Model

Ernest Rutherford in 1909 with his team bombarded very thin gold foil with α – particles. He
found that

 Most of the α – particles passed without any hindrance.

 Some of the α – particles deflected from their original path at noticeable angle.
 Very few of the α – particles bounced back at their original path.

On the basis of his observation, he proposed the model of atom. The Rutherford's Model of
Atom is as follows:

 Most of the part in an atom is empty.

 There is a positively charged center in atom, which contains nearly the whole mass of
atom. The centre is called nucleus.
 The size of nucleus is very small compared to an atom.
 Electrons revolve round the nucleus.
 Total positive charge in nucleus is same as total negative charge on all electrons of
atom, as atom has net zero charge.

The Rutherford‟s Experiment is also known as Geiger-Marsden Experiment.

Drawbacks of Rutherford Model

 According to Rutherford‟s Model, electron revolves round the positively charged

nucleus which is not expected to be stable. But a charged particle in an accelerated
motion along a circular path would lose energy because of radiation and finally would
fall into nucleus. This makes an atom unstable while atoms are quite stable.
 If atoms were not stable no matter would exist in nature.
 Rutherford model could not solve the problem of atomic mass of atom as it proposed
only the existence of protons in the nucleus.

However, the problem of atomic mass could be solved after the discovery of neutron.

Note: Only after this experiment Rutherford got credit of discovery of nucleus. The protons
and neutron, collectively known as „Nucleons‟ were present in the nucleus. It was found that
almost all mass of an atom resides in nucleus.
Bohr’s Model of Atom
Neils Bohr, a Danish physicist, in 1913 proposed model of atom which rectified the problems
left by Rutherford‟s Model. He proposed that
a. Electrons revolve round the heavy, small and positively charged nucleus in a fixed
discrete orbit.
b. He called these orbits as „stationary orbit‟.
c. Each stationary orbit is associated with fixed amount of energy, thus electrons do not
radiate energy as long as they keep on revolving around the nucleus in fixed orbit.
Energy is emitted or absorbed by an atom only when an electron moves from one
orbit to another.
The circular path around the nucleus is called orbit, energy level or shell. Energy level are
represented by letter – K, L, M, N, …. and so on.
Therefore,
st
 1 orbit is denoted by – K
nd
 2 orbit is denoted by – L
rd
 3 orbit is denoted by – M, and so on.
The orbits are denoted by 1, 2, 3, …. and so on.
Distribution of Electrons in an Orbit or Shell:
The distribution of electrons in an orbit can be obtained by using formulae 2n 2
where „n‟ is number of orbit.

Number of electrons in K-shell i.e. in 1st orbit.

Here n = 1
Therefore,
2 2
2n =2×1 =2
Thus, maximum number of electrons in K-shell i.e. 1st shell = 2

Number of electrons in L-shell, i.e. in 2ndorbit

Here n = 2, therefore,
2 2
2n =2×2 =8
Thus, maximum number of electrons in L-shell = 8

Number of electrons in M-shell, i.e. in 3rd orbit

Here n = 3, therefore,
2 2
2n =2×3 =18
Thus, maximum number of electrons in M-shell = 18

Number of electrons in N-shell, i.e. in 4th shell

Here n = 4, therefore,
2 2
2n =2×4 =32
Thus, maximum number of electrons in N-shell = 32

Number of electrons in O-shell, i.e. in 5th shell

Here n = 5, therefore,
2 2
2n =2×5 =50
Thus, maximum number of electrons in O-shell = 50
Number of electrons in P-shell, i.e. in 6th shell
Here n = 6, therefore,
2 2
2n =2×6 =72
Thus, maximum number of electrons in P-shell = 72
In similar way maximum number of electrons in any shell can be calculated.
 A higher number of n means the orbit is farther from the nucleus. The orbit which is
farther from the nuclues has higher level of energy. The orbit which is nearer the
nucleus has lower level of energy.
 When an electron continues to move in a definite orbit, it does not lose energy.
 When an atom gets energy from any external source then an electron jumps to a
higher energy level.
 When an electron loses some energy, it jumps down to a lower energy level.

Atomic Number
Atomic number is the fundamental properties of an atom. Every atom is identified by its
unique atomic number. Atomic number is denoted by „z‟.
Atomic number is equal to the number of protons present in an atom.
Since an atom is electrically neutral, thus number of protons and number of electrons are
equal to make an atom electrically neutral.
Atomic number = Number of protons = Number of electrons

Example:
The atomic number of Hydrogen is 1, helium is 2, lithium is 3, beryllium is 4, boron is 5,
carbon is 6, nitrogen is 7, oxygen is 8, etc.

Sample exercise:
(1) Atomic number of calcium is 20. Calculate the number of electrons and protons in
calcium.
Solution:
Since, Atomic number = Number of protons = Number of electrons
Therefore,
Number of electrons in calcium = 20
Number of protons in calcium = 20

(2) Number of protons in sodium atom is 11, find the atomic number and number of electrons
in a sodium atom.
Solution:
Since, Atomic number = Number of protons = Number of electrons
Therefore,
Atomic number of sodium = 11
Number of electrons in sodium = 11

Mass Number or Atomic Mass

Mass number of an atom is defined as the sum of the number of protons and number of
neutrons. Mass number is nearly equal to the atomic mass of an atom. So, it is denoted by „A‟
Since, protons and neutrons reside in the nucleus, thus they are also known as nucleons.
This means
Mass number of an atom = Number of protons + Number of neutrons
Representation of an atom:
Or z E A E is symbol of element.
14
Ex. Nitrogen is written as 7N
Where 14 is the mass number and 7
is the atomic number.

Example
(1) Atomic mass of aluminium is 27 u and atomic number is 13, find the number of protons
and number of neutrons in aluminium.
Solution:
Since,
Atomic number = 13
Therefore, number of proton = 13
We know that; Atomic mass (Mass number) = Number of protons + Number of neutrons
Therefore,
27 u = 13 + n
Or, n = 27 – 13 = 14
Therefore, number of proton = 13 and number of neutron = 14

(2) The atomic number of carbon is 6 and number of neutron is equal to 6. Find the atomic
mass or mass number of carbon.
Solution:
Since atomic number of carbon = 6
Therefore, number of proton = 6
Now, Atomic mass = number of proton + number of neutron
Or, Atomic mass or mass number = 6 + 6 = 12 u
Thus, mass number or atomic mass of carbon = 12u

(3) The atomic number of oxygen is 8 and number of neutron is equal to 8. Find the atomic
mass or mass number of oxygen.
Solution:
Since atomic number of oxygen = 8
Therefore, number of proton = 8
Now, Atomic mass = number of proton + number of neutron
Or, Atomic mass or mass number = 8 + 8 = 16 u
Thus, mass number or atomic mass of oxygen = 16u
Why do some elements have more neutrons than protons?
The reason is that protons, being charged particles, repel each other. As you get to heavier
elements, with each new proton you add, there is a larger repulsive force. The nuclear force
is attractive and stronger than the electrostatic force, but it has a finite range. So you need to
add extra neutrons, which do not repel each other, to add extra attractive force. This is why
you get more neutrons than protons.

Arrangement of electrons in an atom – Electronic Configuration

The maximum number of electrons can be obtained by 2n2; where „n‟is the orbit number.
Thus after knowing the maximum number of electrons for a particular shell, the arrangement
of electrons in an atom can be identified. It is called Bohr Bury Schemes.

Rules to write the electronic configuration of an atom

2
 Maximum number of electrons in an orbit is calculated by 2n , where „n‟ is number of
orbit and may be equal to 1, 2, 3 , . . . .
 Electrons occupy the next orbit only after filling the inner orbit completely.
 The maximum number of electrons in outermost orbit will not be more than 8.

Ex Calcium:Ca20 = 2 (K), 8 (L), 8(M), 2(N)

But Ca20 = 2,8,10 is wrong although „M‟ Shell can contain upto 18 electrons. So, the
outermost shell can`t hold more than 2 electrons and the penultimate shell can`t hold more
than 8 electrons unless the preceding inner shell (antepenultimate shell) is filled completely
2
obeying 2n rule.

Electronic configuration of Hydrogen

Atomic number of hydrogen = 1
Therefore number of electrons = 1
Maximum number of electrons in 1st orbit = 2
Since, hydrogen has only one electron, therefore, it will reside in 1st orbit.

Thus electronic configuration of hydrogen

Number of orbit present in hydrogen = 1

Electronic configuration of Helium

Atomic number of helium = 2
Therefore number of electrons = 2

Therefore, electronic configuration of helium is

Number of orbit in helium atom = 1

Electronic configuration of Lithium

Atomic number of Lithium = 3
Therefore number of electrons = 3
Since the maximum number of electrons in 1st orbit is equal to 2, therefore, after
accommodating 2 electrons in 1st orbit, the third electron will go in 2nd orbit.
Thus, electronic configuration of lithium is
Number of orbit in Lithium atom = 3.

Electronic configuration of Beryllium

Atomic number of beryllium = 4.
Therefore number of electrons = 4.

Thus, electronic configuration of Beryllium is

Number of orbit in beryllium = 2
Electronic configuration of Boron
Atomic number of boron = 5
Therefore number of electrons = 5

Thus, electronic configuration of boron is

Number of orbit in boron = 2

Electronic configuration of Carbon

Atomic number of carbon = 6
Therefore number of electrons = 6

Thus, electronic configuration of carbon is

Number of orbit in carbon = 2

Electronic configuration of Nitrogen

Atomic number of nitrogen = 7.
Therefore number of electrons = 7

Thus, electronic configuration of nitrogen is

Number of orbit in nitrogen = 2

Electronic configuration of Oxygen

Atomic number of oxygen = 8.
Therefore number of electrons = 8.

Thus, electronic configuration of oxygen is

Number of orbit in oxgyen = 2

Electronic configuration of Fluorine
Atomic number of fluorine = 9
Therefore number of electrons = 9
Thus, electronic configuration of fluorine is

Number of orbit in fluorine = 2

Electronic configuration of Neon

Atomic number of neon = 10
Therefore number of electrons = 10
Thus, electronic configuration of neon is

Number of orbit in Neon = 2

Electronic configuration of Sodium
Atomic number of sodium = 11
Therefore number of electrons = 11
Since, in 2nd orbit the maximum number of electrons is equal to 8
and there are 11 electrons in sodium atom, thus the eleventh
electron will go in third orbit.
Thus, electronic configuration of sodium is
Number of orbit in sodium = 3

Electronic configuration of Magnesium

Atomic number of magnesium = 12
Therefore number of electrons = 12
Thus, electronic configuration of magnesium is
Number of orbit in magnesium = 3.

Electronic configuration of Aluminium

Atomic number of aluminium = 13.
Therefore number of electrons = 13.
Thus, electronic configuration of aluminium is

Number of orbit in aluminium = 3

Electronic configuration of Silicon

Atomic number of silicon = 14
Therefore number of electrons = 14
Thus, electronic configuration of silicon is

Number of orbit in silicon = 3

Electronic configuration of Phosphorous (P)

Atomic number of phosphorous = 15
Therefore number of electrons = 15
Thus, electronic configuration of phosphorous is

Number of orbit in phosphorous = 3

 Electronic configuration of Sulphur (S)
Atomic number of sulphur = 16
Therefore number of electrons = 15
Thus, electronic configuration of sulphur is

Number of orbit in sulphur = 3

Electronic configuration of Chlorine (Cl)

Atomic number of chlorine = 17
Therefore number of electrons = 17
Thus, electronic configuration of chlorine is
Number of orbit in chlorine = 3

Electronic configuration of Argon (Ar)

Atomic number of argon = 18
Therefore number of electrons = 18
Thus, electronic configuration of argon is
Number of orbit in argon = 3

Electronic configuration of Potassium (K)

Atomic number of potassium = 19
Therefore number of electrons = 19
Since, maximum number of electrons in outermost orbit will
not be more than 8, thus the 19th electron of potassium atom
will reside in 4th orbit.
Thus, electronic configuration of potassium is
Number of orbit in potassium = 4

Electronic configuration of Calcium (Ca)

Atomic number of calcium = 20
Therefore number of electrons = 20
Thus, electronic configuration of calcium is

Number of orbit in calcium = 4

Valency: Valency can be defined as combining capacity of an atom.

You have read that noble gases have fully filled outermost shell. Due to this, they are stable
and they do not react with other elements. Other elements also tend to attain stable
configuration by completing the octet in their outermost orbit. This is important to note that,
the number of electrons in the outermost orbit of an element is closer to octet. An element can
lose or gain electron in order to complete the octet. This tendency of losing or gaining
electrons imparts valency to an element.
Valency is the ability of an atom to lose or gain electrons or combining capacity, while
valence of electrons is the no. of electrons in its outermost shell.

Let us take example of hydrogen. Hydrogen can readily lose or gain an electron. So, its
valency is one. Now, let us take example of Hydrochloric Acid (HCl). One atom of chlorine
combines with one atom of hydrogen to form hydrochloric acid. In this case, hydrogen loses
one electron and thus gets +1 charge. On the other hand, chlorine gains an electron and thus
gets – 1 charge. So, valency of hydrogen and chlorine are one.

Example:

Hydrogen molecule: Hydrogen has only one electron in its outermost orbit, thus it requires
one more electrons to complete its outermost orbit. Therefore, in order to complete outermost
orbit, hydrogen shares one electron with another hydrogen atom and form H2 (hydrogen
molecule).

In the case of LiCl (Lithium chloride); Lithium has three electrons in its outermost orbit and
chlorine has seven electrons in its outermost orbit. Thus in order to make outermost orbit
completely filled lithium loses one electrons and chlorine gains one electron. After losing one
electron, lithium has two electrons in its outermost orbit and after gaining one electron,
chlorine has eight electrons in its outermost orbit. And they form LiCl (Lithium chloride)

Isotopes

Elements having same atomic number but different atomic masses are known as Isotopes.
They also have similar chemical properties but different physical properties. There are two
main types of isotopes, and these are radioactive isotopes and stable isotopes. Stable isotopes
have a stable combination of protons and neutrons, so they have stable nuclei and do not
undergo decay. While, radioactive isotopes are unstable and emit alpha, beta and gamma
radiations. These radiations are harmful to living beings. If used with high precautions they
are useful for mankind.

Example:

Carbon-12, Carbon-13, Carbon-14 are thee isotopes of carbon atom. Here 12, 13 and 14 are
the atomic masses of isotopes of carbon respectively. Since, atomic number is the unique
property of an atom, thus the atomic number of carbon is 6 even in the case of three types of
carbon (isotopes)
12 13 14
6Carbon, 6Carbon, 6Carbon,
Hydrogen-1, Deuterium–2, Tritium-3 are three isotopes of hydrogen.

Uses of Isotopes:

Carbon–14 (C-14) is used in carbon dating. This technology is utilised for finding the age of
materials found in archaeological excavation. This helps in determining the periods of
various events in history. Even fossil's age can be determined by using this technology.

An isotope of uranium is used as fuel in nuclear reactor. Uranium 235

An isotope of cobalt is used in treatment of cancer. Cobalt 60

An isotope of iodine is used in treatment of goitre. Iodine 131

Leaks in underground pipelines can be detected by the injection of a beta radioactive

isotope. This is achieved by adding a small amount of a radioisotope which is a source of
beta radiation to the fluid.

Isotopes which emit gamma radiation is injected or swallowed by a person to detect cancer or
blood clot.

Isobars:

Atoms having same atomic mass but different atomic numbers are known as Isobars.
40
Example: 18Ar (Argon), 40 K, 40 S 40Cl and 4020Ca (Calcium)

Both the elements have same atomic mass equal to 40 but different atomic numbers, i.e.
argon has atomic number equal to 18 and calcium has atomic number equal to 20.

Fractional Mass number of elements: If an element is a mixture if isotopes, it may have

fractional mass number.
For example: Chlorine exists in two different isotopic forms i.e. and in the ration
of 3:1 i.e 75% and 25%. The varying mass numbers are 35 and 37 respectively. For
calculating Mass number of chlorine, percentage of the isotopic form is used to calculate the
average mass.
Elements that have no isotopes
A few of the elements have no naturally occurring isotopes (or at least so little that
any others are of no importance). These are:

 Beryllium-9
 Fluorine-19
 Sodium-23
 Aluminum-27
 Phosphorus-31
 Scandium-45
 Manganese-55
 Cobalt-59
 Arsenic-75
 Yttrium-89
 Niobium-93
 Rhodium103
 Iodine-127
 Cesium-133
 Praseodymium-141
 Terbium-159
 Holmium-165
 Thulium-169
 Gold-197
 Bismuth-209

Hydrogen 1H, 2H Sodium 23

Na

Helium 3He, 4He Magnesium 24

Mg, 25Mg, 26Mg

Lithium 6Li, 7Li Aluminium 27

Al

Beryllium 9Be Silicon 28

Si, 29Si, 30Si

10
Boron B, 11B Phosphorus 31
P
 12
Carbon C, 13C Sulfur 32
S, 33S, 34S, 36S

14
Nitrogen N, 15N Chlorine 35
Cl, 37Cl

16
Oxygen O, 17O, 18O Argon 36
Ar, 38Ar, 40Ar

19 39
Fluorine F Potassium K, 41K

20
Neon Ne, 21Ne, 22Ne Calcium 40
Ca, 42Ca, 43Ca, 44Ca,
46
Ca

50
Chromium Cr, 52Cr, 53Cr, 54Cr

55
Manganese Mn

54
Iron Fe, 56Fe, 57Fe, 58Fe

59
Cobalt Co

58
Nickel Ni, 60Ni, 61Ni, 62Ni, 64Ni

63
Copper Cu, 65Cu

64
Zinc Zn, 66Zn, 67Zn, 68Zn,
70
Zn