CHAPTER 2 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

2.1 Understand the concept of uniform flow and non-uniform flow in open channel

An open channel means a passage through which water flows with its surface freely
exposed to the atmosphere.

The channel may be open or may be provided with a cover or top.

In case the channel is provided with a cover or top, it must not be running full and the air
above the water surface is atmospheric pressure.

A pipe in which the water is not running full also act as a channel.

The section of a channel may be uniform or non-uniform.

For example a canal (terusan), a sewer (betung), etc. are channels of uniform section, while
rivers and streams are channels of non-uniform section.

We know in the case of flow through pipes, the flow of water is caused by a pressure
difference.
But in the case of flow through channels no pressure difference is built up.

The bed of the channel is provided with a slope in the direction of flow, and it is this slope
which causes the flow.
In other words the flow is due to gravity.

Open channels may be either natural channels or man-made channels.

All water ways formed by natural causes are natural channels.
Channels constructed for various purposes are artificial channels.
For example canals, flumes, culvert etc. are artificial channels.
Rectangular, trapezoidal and circular sections are the usually adopted sections for channels.
2.1.1 Describe uniform flow and non-uniform flow

In non-uniform flow, the depth of flow is different at different sections.

The mean velocity is different at different sections.
The water surface is not parallel to the bed of the channel.

Steady non-uniform flow. This means the discharge is constant.

The average velocity and depth of flow are different at different sections.
The depth of flow may gradually change in which case the flow is called gradually varied
flow.

source: http://www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/CIVE2400/OpenChannelHydraulics2.pdf

If the depth changes abruptly, the change is called local phenomenon.

A hydraulic jump is a local phenomenon.

Unsteady non-uniform flow. This means the rate of flow is different at different times.
At one instant the velocities are different at different sections.
Varied flow or non-uniform flow occurs when depth or velocity change over a distance, like in a
constriction or over a riffle.

Gradually varied (GVF) flow occurs when the change is small, and rapidly varied flow (RVF) occurs
when the change is large, for example a wave, waterfall, or the rapid transition from a stream
channel into the inlet of a culvert.

source:
http://www.fsl.orst.edu/geowater/FX3/help/8_Hydraulic_Reference/Open_Channel_Flow.htm
2.1.2 Explain hydraulic gradient, wet perimeter and hydraulic radius
When we use specific energy, we are really using Bernoulli's principle, where the total energy H = z +
E. Energy is conserved except for friction, and this causes H to decrease with distance at a rate s', so
the loss of head in a distance L is hL = Hs'L. s' can be found from Manning's formula: s' = [nV/R2/3]2.
For a fixed Q, the velocity V is found from the depth y by continuity, Q = VA(y). Therefore, for any
depth of water we can find the frictional head loss. If the bottom of the channel varies in elevation,
then E, which is the difference between H and y + z,
varies accordingly.
These ideas are summarized in the diagram at the
right, which shows a reach between 1 and 2 in which
the flow is uniform. The direction of flow is, of
course, the direction in which the energy line (EL)
falls. Note that the slope of the EL (s) is the same as
the bed slope (s'). The average velocity V has
adjusted itself to make this so, determining the depth
y from the known specific energy E or discharge Q.
This depth is the standard depth, and the velocity is
the standard velocity, for this flow. The hydraulic
grade line HGL is the water surface, which is also
parallel to the EL and the bed. The critical depth yc is
the lower boundary of the region for which the specific energy decreases with increasing depth
(subcritical flow) and the upper boundary of the region where the specific energy increases with a
decrease in depth (supercritical flow). The critical depth is the solution of the equation Q2/g = A3/b,
where b is the width of the water surface. For a rectangular channel of width b, Q2/g = b2y3, or yc =
[q2/g]1/3, where q is the discharge per unit width. In the diagram, y > yc, so the flow is subcritical.

2.1.3 Identify Manning’s Equation and coefficients for several types of surface channel
One the most commonly used equations governing Open Channel Flow is known as the Mannings’s
Equation. It was introduced by the Irish Engineer Robert Manning in 1889 as an alternative to the
Chezy Equation. The Mannings equation is an empirical equation that applies to uniform flow in
open channels and is a function of the channel velocity, flow area and channel slope.

Manning’s Equation:

Where:
3
Q = Flow Rate, (ft /s) n = Manning’s Roughness Coefficient
v = Velocity, (ft/s) R = Hydraulic Radius, (ft)
2
A = Flow Area, (ft ) S = Channel Slope, (ft/ft)
Under the assumption of uniform flow conditions the bottom slope is the same as the slope of the
energy grade line and the water surface slope. The Manning’s n is a coefficient which represents the
roughness or friction applied to the flow by the channel. Manning’s n-values are often selected from
tables, but can be back calculated from field measurements. In many flow conditions the selection of
a Manning’s roughness coefficient can greatly affect computational results.

source: http://www.fsl.orst.edu/geowater/FX3/help/8_Hydraulic_Reference/Manning_s_Equation.htm

2.1.4 Calculate the flow rate, section dimension or channel slope using Manning’s Equation

Problem 1:
Find at what bed slope a 4 m wide rectangular channel be laid so that the flow is critical at a
normal depth of 1.25 m. Take N = 0.015.

Solution:
𝑑𝑑 = 1.25 𝑑

𝑑𝑑 = √𝑑𝑑𝑑 = √9.81 × 1.25 = 3.502 𝑑/𝑑

Discharge 𝑑 = 4 × 1.25 × 3.502 = 17.51 𝑑3 /𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑 = 4 × 1.25 = 5 𝑑2

𝑑 = 4 + 2 × 1.25 = 6.5𝑑2

𝑑 5 10
𝑑= = =
𝑑 6.5 13

𝑑 2/3 1/2
𝑑= 𝑑 𝑑 = 17.51
𝑑
5 10 2/3 1/2
( ) 𝑑 = 17.51
0.015 13
𝑑 = 3.915 × 10−3 𝑑𝑑 1 𝑑𝑑 255.43
2.1.5 Distinguish the best hydraulic cross section using Manning’s Equation

note 4.

2.2 Apply the concept of non-uniform flow in open channel

The specific energy head at any section of a channel is the sum of the depth of flow and the
kinetic head at that section.

If d is the depth of flow and v is the velocity at a section then the specific energy head E is
given by
𝑑2 𝑑2
E = d + 2𝑑 = d +
2𝑑𝑑2

The idea of specific energy was conceived by Bakhmeteff in 1911, leading to simplified
analysis of open channel flow problems.

2.2.1 Describe specific energy.

Bernoulli's theorem expresses the energy content of unit volume of fluid as U = ρgz + p + ρV2/2, and
states that it is constant along a streamline in the absence of dissipation. It is usually more convenient
to express the terms as lengths, or "heads," by dividing by γ = ρg: H = z + p/γ + V2/2g. The three
energy components are elevation, pressure, and velocity. All play a role in open-channel flow. For any
flow, there is an energy grade line that can be imagined above the flow, and its slope is S'. The water
surface is the hydraulic grade line (HGL), which is below the energy grade line by the velocity head
V2/2g. Below this is the bed grade line, with slope S, and (usually) below that is the horizontal datum,
the reference surface.
The streamlines of the flow are parallel. Along any streamline, z + p/γ + V2/2g is a constant. Let us
now assume z is the elevation of the bottom streamline, so that if the flow depth is y, the elevation of
the surface streamline is z + y. The gauge pressure here is zero, so Bernoulli's Equation for this
streamline is z + y + V2/2g = C. Now for the bottom streamline, the gauge pressure is γy, so that p/γ =
y, and Bernoulli's equation is z + y + V2 = C, where C has the same value as for the top streamline. At
any intermediate height y', z + y' + γ(y - y')/γ + V2/2g = C. Therefore, C, the energy per unit weight,
has the same value at any depth. The part y + V2/2g is called the specific energy E, and is the energy
per unit weight referred to the stream bed.
When a closed channel runs full, then the depth can no longer vary to accommodate the discharge,
and the pressure becomes different from the atmospheric pressure, and must be taken into account in
using Bernoulli's theorem. This is the fundamental difference between open channel flow and pipe
flow.
2.2.2 Interpret the graph of alternative depths of flow.

We can express E as a function of Q easily, using Q = AV: E = y + Q2/2gA2. For simplicity, consider
a rectangular channelof width b, for which A = by. Then E = y + q2/2gy2, expressing E as a function
of the discharge q and the depth y, or q = y√[2g(E - y)], expressing q as a function of E and y.
We can also plot y/yc as a function of E for a constant discharge q, as shown at the left.
The critical depth yc = (q2/g)1/3, where q is the discharge per unit width.
If x = y/yc, then E/yc = x + 1/2x2.
Critical depth corresponds to y/yc = 1, for which E/yc = 3/2.
The point a corresponds to an upper-stage or tranquil flow. Line segment hf represents y/yc, while line
segment fa represents the kinetic energy V2/2gyc.
Note that the specific energy is a minimum at the critical depth. This minimum value will, of course,
depend on the discharge.
We also note that Vc2/gyc = 1. The dimensionless term V/√(gy) is called the Froude number F. It
expresses the relative strength of inertial and gravitational forces, and was first used in ship modelling
in the estimation of wave drag effects. If the Froude numbers of two flows are the same, then these
effects will be similar. In the present case, F = 1 corresponds to critical flow, F < 1 to subcritical flow,
and F > 1 to supercritical flow.
2.2.3 Compute critical depth and Froude Number.

Problem 2:
Water flows at the rate of 16 m3/sec in a channel 10 metres wide at a velocity of 1.6 metres
per second. Calculate the specific energy head. Find also the critical depth, the critical
velocity and the minimum value of the specific energy head corresponding to this discharge
in the channel.

Solution:
Q = 16 m3/sec, b = 10 metres, v = 1.6 metre/sec

𝑑 16
Area of flow, A = 𝑑 = 1.6 = 10 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑2

Width of the channel = 10 metres

10
Depth of flow = d = 10 = 1 metre

𝑑2 1.62
Specific energy head = E = 𝑑 + 2𝑑 = 1 + 2×9.81 = 1.1302 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑 16
Discharge per unit width = q = 𝑑 = 10 = 1.6 𝑑3 /𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

3 2 3 2
𝑑 1.6
Critical depth 𝑑𝑑 = √ 𝑑 = √9.81 = 0.639 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Critical velocity = 𝑑𝑑 = √𝑑𝑑𝑑 = √9.81 × 0.639 = 2.503 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑

3 3
Minimum specific energy head = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 2 𝑑𝑑 = 2 × 0.639 = 0.9585 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Problem 3:
A discharge of 18m3/sec flows through a rectangular channel 6 m wide at a depth of 1.6 m.
Find (i) The specific head, (ii) The critical depth (iii) State whether the flow is subcritical or
supercritical.

Solution:
Velocity of flow corresponding to the given depth of flow
18
𝑑= = 1.875 𝑑/𝑑
6 × 1.6

𝑑2 1.8752
(i) Specific energy head, E= 𝑑 + 2𝑑 = 1.6 + 2×9.81 = 1.779 𝑑
18
Discharge per m width of the channel, q= = 3𝑑3 /𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑
6

3 2 3 2
𝑑 3
(ii) Critical depth, 𝑑𝑑 = √ 𝑑 = √9.81 = 0.972 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 (iii) Since the given depth of flow is greater than the critical depth, the flow is subcritical.

Froude Number
Type of flow Depth of flow d 𝑑
𝑑𝑑 =
√𝑑𝑑
Critical flow d=dc Fr = 1
Subcritical flow or tranquil
d>dc Fr< 1
flow or streaming flow
Supercritical flow or rapid
d<dc Fr> 1
flow or shooting flow
2.2.4 Explain critical flow, subcritical flow and supercritical flow.

The curve of q as a function of y for a fixed E is plotted at the right. We notice that q is a double-
valued function of y, and has a maximum possible value qm.
The corresponding depth y can be found by differentiating q with respect to y and setting the
derivative equal to zero. The result is yc = 2E/3, called the critical depth.
The corresponding value of q, qm = √(gyc3) is the critical flow, and Vc = qc/yc is the critical velocity.
For depths greater than the critical depth, the velocity is smaller than the critical velocity. Flow in this
region is called subcritical.
For depths smaller than the critical depth, the velocity is greater than the critical velocity. Flow in this
region is called supercritical. Note that the sub- and super- refer to the velocity of flow.
The same discharge q is possible with given E in either region. In the upper region, we have greater
flow area, in the lower region greater flow velocity. Because the frictional resistance varies rapidly
with velocity, subcritical uniform flow is associated with gentle slopes, supercritical uniform flow
with steep slopes.
 2.3 analyze the occurrence of hydraulic jumps

2.3.1 Explain hydraulic jumps

Shooting flow is an unstable type of flow.

If due to certain forced situation, a shooting flow exists in a certain region, it will ultimately
convert itself into the stable streaming flow on the downstream side.
During such a transformation there will occur a sudden rise in water surface.
Such a sudden rise in water surface is called a standing wave or a hydraulic jump.

Hydraulic jump is the flow transforms itself to the streaming flow by increasing its depth or
rise in water level which occurs during the transformation of the unstable shooting flow to
the stable streaming flow.

It is formed when the depth at upstream side is less than the critical depth, the flow is said
to be a shooting flow or flow from high velocity change to low velocity or streaming flow.

For a hydraulic jump to occur the existing flow should be a shooting flow i.e. the depth of
flow should be less than the critical depth or the Froude number is greater than 1.

Range of Fr1 Description of the hydraulic jumps Classification

Equal to 1 No jump occurs. Flow is critical -
Surface undulations – No sharp or abrupt
1 – 1.7 Undular jump
rise of water level seen
Jump is seen as a series of rollers on the
1.7 – 2.5 Weak jump
surface
Surface shows oscillations without showing
periodicity. Large surface waves on
2.5 – 4.5 Oscillatary jump
downstream side. Downstream bank
channel likely to be damaged
A clear distinct steady hydraulic jump is
formed. There is considerable dissipation of
4.5 – 9 Steady jump
energy due to the jump. The downstream
flow is smooth
Powerful jump occurs. There is large
Greater than
dissipation of energy due to the jump. Strong jump
9
Down stream flow is rugged
2.3.2 Classify the used of hydraulic jumps

a. to dissipate energy

b. for chemical diffusion

c. for aeration

d. to increase flow level

2.3.3 Analyze open channel problem using specific energy methods and Manning’s Equation

We know that the depth of flow after the hydraulic jump is given by

𝑑1 𝑑1 8𝑑21
𝑑2 = − + √1+
2 2 𝑑𝑑1

𝑑1
𝑑2 = (√1 + 8𝑑2𝑑1 − 1)
2

It may be noted that

(i) Froude number before jump is always greater than 1
(ii) Froude number after the jump is always less than 1
(iii) The hydraulic jump is an irreversible and discontinuous process
Height of the standing wave or hydraulic jump.
This is the difference of water levels between two sections before and after the hydraulic
jump.
Height of standing wave = (𝑑2 − 𝑑1 )

Length of hydraulic jump.

This cannot be calculated analytically.
The exact point of commencement of the jump and the exact point where it ends are not
well defined. For purpose of analysis we may assume the length of the hydraulic jump to be
5 to 7 times the height of the jump.

A hydraulic jump occurs in site in the following conditions:

(i) When water moving in shooting flow impacts with water having a larger depth with
streaming flow.
(ii) On the downstream sides of sluices.
(iii) At the foot of spillways.
(iv) Where the gradient suddenly changes from a steep slope to a flat slope.
Let Fr1 and Fr2 be the numbers before and after the hydraulic jump.
𝑑 𝑑
We know, 𝑑𝑑1 = 1 and 𝑑𝑑2 = 2
√𝑑𝑑1 √𝑑𝑑2
𝑑1 𝑑𝑑2 2
=( )3
𝑑2 𝑑𝑑1
𝑑1 2
=
𝑑2
√1 + 8𝑑2𝑑1 − 1

3/2
2
𝑑𝑑2 = 𝑑𝑑1 [ ]
2
√1 + 8𝑑𝑑1 − 1

If the depth d2 after the hydraulic jump is known, the depth d1 before the hydraulic jump
can be determined by
𝑑2 𝑑22 2𝑑2
𝑑1 = − + √ +
2 4 𝑑𝑑2

Or
𝑑2 𝑑22 2𝑑22 𝑑2
𝑑1 = − + √ +
2 4 𝑑

Or
𝑑2
𝑑1 = (√1 + 8𝑑2𝑑2 − 1)
2

Problem 4:
A sluice gate discharges water into a horizontal rectangular channel with a velocity of 10
m/sec and a depth of flow of 1 m. Determine the depth of flow after the hydraulic jump and
the consequent loss in total head.

Solution:
d1 = 1 m; v1 = 10 m/sec
 𝑑1 𝑑2 2𝑑21 𝑑1 1 1 2×100×1
Depth after the jump = 𝑑2 = − + √ 41 + = − 2 + √4 + = 4.043 𝑑
2 𝑑 9.81

𝑑 10
Alternatively, 𝑑𝑑1 = = = 3.1927
√𝑑𝑑1 √9.81×1
𝑑1 1
𝑑2 = (√1 + 8𝑑2𝑑1 − 1) = (√1 + 8 × 3.19272 − 1) = 4.043 𝑑
2 2

𝑑1 𝑑1 = 𝑑2 𝑑2
𝑑1 1
𝑑2 = 𝑑1 = × 10 = 2.473 𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑2 4.043
𝑑2 𝑑2 102 2.4732
Loss of head due to jump, 𝑑𝑑 = (𝑑1 + 2𝑑1 ) − (𝑑2 + 2𝑑2 ) = (1 + 2×9.81) − (4.043 + 2×9.81)
= 6.0968 – 4.3547 = 1.7421 m

(𝑑2 −𝑑1 )3 (4.043−1)3

Loss of head due to jump, 𝑑𝑑 = = = 1.7424 𝑑
4𝑑1 𝑑2 4×1×4.043

Problem 5:
Water flows at the rate of 1 m3/sec along a channel of rectangular section 1.60 metres in
width. Calculate the critical depth. If a standing wave occurs at a point where the upstream
depth is 0.25 metre, what would be the rise in water level produced and the power lost in
the standing wave?
Solution:
Q = 1 m3/sec; b = 1.60 metre, d =0.25 metre

𝑑 1
Discharge per unit width q= 𝑑 = 1.6 = 0.625 𝑑3 /𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

3 2 3 2
𝑑 0.625
Critical depth = 𝑑𝑑 = √ 𝑑 = √ 9.81 = 0.341 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑1 𝑑2 2𝑑2 0.25 0.252 2×0.6252

Depth after the jump = 𝑑2 = − + √ 41 + 𝑑𝑑 = − +√ + 9.81×0.25
2 1 2 4
= -0.125 + 0.578 = 0.453 metre

Rise in water level = d2 – d1 = 0.453 – 0.250 = 0.203 metre

𝑑 0.625
Velocity before jump = v1 = 𝑑 = = 2.5 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑
1 0.25

𝑑 0.625
Velocity after jump = v2 = 𝑑 = 0.453 = 1.38 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑
2

𝑑2 2.52
Specific energy head before jump E1= 𝑑1 + 2𝑑1 = 0.25 + 2×9.81 = 0.568 𝑑

𝑑2 1.382
Specific energy head after jump E2= 𝑑2 + 2𝑑2 = 0.453 + 2×9.81 = 0.550 𝑑
Loss of head due to jump, 𝑑𝑑 = 0.568 – 0.550 = 0.018 m

3
(𝑑2 −𝑑1 )3 (0.453−0.250)
Or, alternatively loss of energy head, 𝑑𝑑 = = = 0.018 𝑑
4𝑑1 𝑑2 4×0.25×0.453

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 9810×1×0.018
Power lost = = = 0.177 𝑑𝑑
1000 1000

Problem 6:
Water flows in a rectangular channel 0.60 metres wide at a depth of 0.18 m, at a Froude
number 2.75. Find (i) The specific energy head (ii) The critical depth (iii) The sequent depth
and (iv) Head lost due to hydraulic jump (v) Power lost.

Solution:
b = 0.60 m, d1 = 0.18 metre, Fr1 =2.75

𝑑1
𝑑𝑑1 = = 2.75, 𝑑1 = 2.75√9.81 × 0.18 = 3.654 𝑑/𝑑
√𝑑𝑑1

𝑑2 3.6542
Specific energy head E1= 𝑑1 + 2𝑑1 = 0.18 + 2×9.81 = 0.861 𝑑

𝑑3
Discharge per m width, q= 𝑑1 𝑑1 = 0.18 × 3.654 = 0.658 𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑
𝑑
3 2 3 2
𝑑 0.658
Critical depth = 𝑑𝑑 = √ 𝑑 = √ 9.81 = 0.353 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑1 0.18 2
Sequent depth 𝑑2 = (√1 + 8𝑑2𝑑1 − 1) = (√1 + 8 × 2.75 − 1) = 0.616 𝑑
2 2

(𝑑2 −𝑑1 )3 (0.616−0.180)3

Head loss due to hydraulic jump = 𝑑𝑑 = = = 0.187 𝑑
4𝑑1 𝑑2 4×0.18×0.616

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 9810×0.658×0.6×0.018
Power lost = = = 0.697 𝑑𝑑
1000 1000

Problem 7:
Water flows at 3.75 m3/sec per metre width along a rectangular channel. The depth of flow
at a certain section is 1 metre. If a hydraulic jump occurs on the downstream side, find the
depth of flow after the jump.

Solution:
d1 = 1 metre, q = 3.25 m3/sec per metre width

𝑑1 𝑑2 2𝑑2 1 12 2×3.752
Depth after the jump = 𝑑2 = − + √ 41 + 𝑑𝑑 = − 2 + √ 4 +
2 1 9.81×1
= -0.5 + 1.77 = 1.27 metre
Problem 8:
A rectangular channel 6 metres wide conveys water at 11.50 cumec at a depth of 0.30
metre. If a hydraulic jump occurs, find the depth of flow after the jump.

Solution:
d1 = 0.30 metre, Q = 11.50 m3/sec, b = 6 m

𝑑 11.50
Discharge per metre width =q= 𝑑 = = 1.917 𝑑3 /𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
6

𝑑1 𝑑2 2𝑑2 0.30 0.302 2×1.9172

Depth after the jump = 𝑑2 = − + √ 41 + 𝑑𝑑 = − +√ +
2 1 2 4 9.81×0.3
= -0.15 + 1.59 = 1.44 metre

Problem 9:
A sluice spans a channel of rectangular section 18 metres wide and has an opening 0.75
metre deep and discharge 46.44 m3/sec of water. If a standing wave is formed on the
downstream side of the sluice, determine the probable height of the crest above the upper
edge of the sluice. Find also the loss of energy head due to the jump.

Solution:
d1 = 0.75 metre, Q = 46.44 m3/sec, b = 18 metres

46.44
Discharge per metre width =q= = 2.58 𝑑3 /𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
18

𝑑1 𝑑2 2𝑑2 0.75 0.752 2×2.582

Depth after the jump = 𝑑2 = − + √ 41 + 𝑑𝑑 = − +√ + 9.81×0.75
2 1 2 4
= -0.375 + 1.396 = 1.021 metre

Height of the crest of the standing wave above the upper edge of the sluice = d 2 – d1
= 1.021 – 0.750 = 0.271 metre

3
(𝑑2 −𝑑1 )3 (1.021−0.750)
Loss of energy head = 𝑑𝑑 = = 4×0.750×1.021 = 0.0065 𝑑
4𝑑1 𝑑2