Radar Systems

Radar Systems Lecture Notes (K.
Subhas) Unit 1: Basics of Radar and Radar equation
UNIT-1
BASICS OF RADAR
Introduction
Maximum Unambiguous Range
Simple form of Radar Equation
Radar Block Diagram and Operation
Radar Frequencies and Applications
Prediction of Range Performance
Minimum Detectable Signal
Receiver Noise
Modified Radar Range Equation
RADAR EQUATION
SNR
Envelop Detector
False Alarm time and Probability
Integration of Radar Pulses
Radar Cross Section of Targets (simple targets: sphere
and cone sphere)
Transmitter Power
PRF and Range Ambiguities
System Losses (qualitative treatment)
 Important Formulae
 Illustrative Problems
 Questions from Previous Year Examinations
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology (MRCET)
Department of ECE ( 2016-17 )
Radar Systems Lecture Notes (K.Subhas) Unit 1: Basics of Radar and Radar equation
BASICS OF RADAR
Introduction:
Basic principles and features:
Radar is a contraction of the words Radio Detection And Ranging. Radar is an
electromagnetic system for the detection and location of objects. It operates by
transmitting a particular type of waveform, a pulse-modulated sine wave for example,
and detects the nature of the echo signal.
Radar can see through conditions such as darkness, haze, fog, rain, and snow which is
not possible for human vision. In addition, radar has the advantage that it can measure
the distance or range to the object.
An elementary form of radar consists of a transmitting antenna emitting
electromagnetic Radiation generated by an oscillator of some sort, a receiving antenna,
and a signal receiver. A portion of the transmitted signal is intercepted by a reflecting
object (target) and is reradiated in all directions. The receiving antenna collects the
returned signal and delivers it to a receiver, where it is processed to detect the presence
of the target and to extract its location and relative velocity. The distance to the target is
determined by measuring the time taken for the Radar signal to travel to the target and
back. The direction, or angular position, of the target is determined from the direction
of arrival of the reflected wave front. The usual method of measuring the direction of
arrival is with narrow antenna beams.
If relative motion exists between target and radar, the shift in the carrier frequency of
the reflected wave (Doppler Effect) is a measure of the target's relative (radial) velocity
and may be used to distinguish moving targets from stationary objects. In radars which
continuously track the movement of a target, a continuous indication of the rate of
change of target position is also available.
It was first developed as a detection device to warn the approach of hostile aircraft and
for directing antiaircraft weapons. A well designed modern radar can extract more
information from the target signal than merely range.
Measurement of Range:
The most common radar waveform is a train of narrow, rectangular-shape pulses
modulating a sine wave carrier.
The distance, or range, to the target is determined by measuring the time TR taken by
the pulse to travel to the target and return.
Since electromagnetic energy propagates at the speed of light c (3 x 108 m/s) the range
R is given by : R= cTR / 2
The factor 2 appears in the denominator because of the two-way propagation of radar.
With the range R in kilometers or nautical miles, and TR in microseconds, the above
relation becomes: R(km) = 0.15 X TR ( µS )
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( 1 mile = 0.8689 nautical mile or 1.6 km

1 nautical mile = 1.15078 miles or 1.8412 km )
Maximum unambiguous range:
Once the transmitter pulse is emitted by the radar, sufficient time must elapse to allow any
echo signals to return and be detected before the next pulse is transmitted. Therefore, the rate
at which the pulses may be transmitted is determined by the longest range at which targets are
expected. If the pulse repetition frequency is too high, echo signals from some targets might
arrive after the transmission of the next pulse, and ambiguities in measuring range might result.
Echoes that arrive after the transmission of the next pulse are called second-time-around (or
multiple-time-around) echoes. Such an echo would appear to be at a much shorter range than
the actual. The range beyond which targets appear as second-time-around echoes (or the
farthest target range that can be detected by a Radar without ambiguity) is called the maximum
unambiguous range and is given by: R unambig. = C /2fp
Where fp = pulse repetition frequency, in Hz. (PRF)
This can also be explained with the following simple relations.

TR is the time elapsed between transmission pulse and Echo pulse.
TR = 2R/C where R= Range of target
TR increases with Range R and in extreme case Echo pulse merges with next Transmitted
Pulse. Then TR becomes equal to TP Where TP= Pulse repetition period
TR max = TP= 2 R max /C and so R max = CTP/2 = C/2fP = R unambig
Therefore R unambig is directly proportional to the Pulse period TP ( or Inversely

proportional to the PRF fp)
Simple form of Radar Equation:
The radar equation

Relates the range of a Radar to the characteristics of the transmitter, receiver, antenna, target,
and environment.
Useful as a means for determining the maximum measurable distance from the radar to the
target
It serves both as a tool for understanding radar operation and as a basis for radar design.
Derivation of the simple form of radar equation:
If the power of the radar transmitter is denoted by Pt and if an isotropic antenna is used (one
which radiates uniformly in all directions) the power density (watts per unit area) at a distance R
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from the radar is equal to the transmitter power divided by the surface area 4πR2of an
imaginary sphere of radius R with radar at its centre, or
Power density from anisotropic antenna = Pt /4πR2
Radars employ directive antennas to direct the radiated power Pt into some particular
direction. The gain G of an antenna is a measure of the increased power radiated in the
direction of the target as compared with the power that would have been radiated from
an isotropic antenna. It may be defined as the ratio of the maximum radiation intensity
from the given antenna to the radiation intensity from a lossless, isotropic antenna with
the same power input. (The radiation intensity is the power radiated per unit solid angle
in a given direction.)Then the power density at the target from an antenna with a
transmitting gain G is given by
Power density from directive antenna = Pt.G/4πR2
The target intercepts a portion of the incident power and reradiates it in various
directions. The measure of the amount of incident power intercepted by the target and
reradiated back in the direction of the radar is denoted as the radar cross section σ, and
is defined by the relation
Power density of echo signal at radar = (Pt .G/4πR2)(σ) /4πR2 )
The radar cross section σ has units of area. It is a characteristic of the particular target
and is a measure of its size as seen by the radar. The radar antenna captures a portion
of the echo power. If the effective area of the receiving antenna is denoted as Ae , then
the power Pr . received by the radar is given by
Pr = (Pt .G/4πR2).( σ/4πR2 ). Ae
= (Pt .G. Ae. σ)/ (4π)2.R4
The maximum radar range Rmax is the distance beyond which the target cannot be
detected. It occurs when the received echo signal power Pr just equals the minimum
detectable signal Smin.
Therefore
Rmax = [ (Pt .G. Ae. σ)/ (4π)2. Smin ]1/4 …..(1)
This is the fundamental form of the radar equation. Note that the important antenna
parameters are the transmitting gain and the receiving effective area.
Antenna theory gives the relationship between the transmitting gain and the receiving effective
area of an antenna as:
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G = 4π Ae /λ2
Since radars generally use the same antenna for both transmission and reception, the above
relation between gain G and affective aperture area Ae can be substituted into the above
equation, first for Ae and then for G, to give two other forms of the radar equation.
Rmax = [ (Pt .G2. λ2. σ)/ (4π)3. Smin ]1/4 ……(2)
Rmax = [ (Pt . Ae2. σ)/ 4π. λ2. Smin ]1/4…….(3)
These three forms (eqs.1, 2, and 3) illustrate the need to be careful in the interpretation of the
radar equation. For example, from Eq. (2) it might be thought that the range of radar varies as
λ1/2, but Eq. (3) indicates a λ-1/2relationship, and Eq. (1) shows the range to be independent of λ.
The correct relationship depends on whether it is assumed the gain is constant or the effective
area is constant with wavelength.
Limitations of the simple form of Radar equation:
Does not adequately describe the performance of practical radar.
Many important factors that affect range are not explicitly included.
In practice, the observed maximum radar ranges are usually much smaller than what
would be predicted by the above equations, sometimes by as much as a factor of two.
There are many reasons for the failure of the simple radar equation to correlate with actual
performance and these will be explained subsequently in the modified Radar range equation.
Radar block diagram and operation:
The operation of a typical pulse radar is described with the help of a simple block diagram
shown in the figure below. The transmitter is an oscillator, such as a magnetron, that is
“pulsed” (turned on and off) by the modulator to generate a repetitive train of pulses. The
magnetron has been the most widely used of the various microwave generators for radar. A
typical radar for the detection of aircraft at ranges of 100 or 200 nmi employs a peak power of
the order of one megawatt, an average power of several kilowatts, a pulse width of several
microseconds, and a pulse repetition frequency of several hundred pulses per second. The
waveform generated by the transmitter travels via a transmission line to the antenna, where it
is radiated into space.
A single antenna is generally used for both transmitting and receiving. The receiver must be
protected from damage caused by the high power of the transmitter. This is the function of the
duplexer. The duplexer also serves to channel the returned echo signals to the receiver and not
to the transmitter. The duplexer consists of two gas-discharge devices, one known as a TR
(transmit-receive) and the other as ATR (anti-transmit-receive). The TR protects the receiver
during transmission and the ATR directs the echo signal to the receiver during reception. Solid-
state ferrite circulators and receiver protectors with gas-plasma TR devices and/or diode
limiters are also employed as duplexers. The receiver is usually of the super heterodyne type.
The first stage normally is a low-noise RF amplifier, such as a parametric amplifier or a low-
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noise transistor. The mixer and local oscillator (LO) convert the RF signal to an intermediate
frequency IF. Typical IF amplifier center frequencies are 30 or 60 MHz and will have a
bandwidth of the order of one megahertz.
The IF amplifier should be designed as a matched filter i.e., its frequency-response function
H(f) should maximize the peak-signal-to-mean-noise-power ratio at the output. This occurs
when the magnitude of the frequency-response function |H(f|is equal to the magnitude of
the echo signal spectrum |S(f)|, and the phase spectrum of the matched filter is the negative
of the phase spectrum of the echo signal. In a radar whose signal waveform approximates a
rectangular pulse, the conventional IF filter band pass characteristic approximates a matched
filter when the product of the IF bandwidth B and the pulse width τ is of the order of unity, that
is, Bτ = 1.
Fig 1.2: Block diagram of a pulse radar.
After maximizing the signal-to-noise ratio in the IF amplifier, the pulse modulation is extracted
by the second detector and amplified by the video amplifier to a level where it can be properly
displayed, usually on a cathode-ray tube (CRT). Timing signals are also supplied to the indicator
to provide the range zero. Angle information is obtained from the pointing direction of the
antenna.
Fig 1.3(a) PPI presentation displaying Range vs. Angle (intensity modulation)
(b) A-scope presentation displaying Amplitude vs. Range (deflection modulation)
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The most common form of cathode-ray tube display is the Plan Position Indicator, or PPI (Fig. a)
which maps in polar coordinates the location of the target in azimuth and range. This is an
intensity-modulated display in which the amplitude of the receiver output modulates the
electron-beam intensity (z axis) as the electron beam is made to sweep outward from the
center of the tube. The beam rotates in angle in response to the antenna position. Another
form of display is the A-scope, shown in Fig. b, which plots target amplitude (y axis) vs. range (x
axis), for some fixed direction. This is a deflection-modulated display. It is more suited for
tracking-radar application than for surveillance radar.
A common form of radar antenna is a reflector with a parabolic shape, fed (illuminated) from a
point source at its focus. The parabolic reflector focuses the energy into a narrow beam, just as
a searchlight or an automobile headlamp. The beam is scanned in space by mechanical pointing
of the antenna.
Radar frequencies and applications:

Radar frequencies:
Conventional radars are operated at frequencies extending from about 220 MHz to 35 GHz, a
spread of more than seven octaves. These are not necessarily the limits, since radars can be,
and have been, operated at frequencies outside either end of this range.
The place of radar frequencies in the electromagnetic spectrum is shown in the figure below.
Some of the nomenclature employed to designate the various frequency regions is also shown
in this figure.
ELECROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
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Letter code designation of Radar frequencies:
Early in the development of radar, a letter code such as S, X, L, etc., was employed to designate
Radar frequency bands. Although it’s original purpose was to guard military secrecy, the
designations were maintained, probably out of habit as well as the need for some convenient
short nomenclature. This usage has continued and is now an accepted practice of radar
engineers. The table below lists the radar-frequency letter-band nomenclature adopted by the
IEEE. These are related to the specific bands assigned by the International Telecommunications
Union for radar. For example, although the nominal frequency range for L band is 1000 to 2000
MHz, a L-band radar is thought of as being confined within the region from 1215 to1400MHz
since that is the extent of the assigned band.
Table 1.1: Standard radar-frequency letter-band nomenclature

___________________________________________________________________________
Applications of Radar:
1. Military Use: Initial and important user of Radar
(i)Early warning of intruding enemy aircraft & missiles
(ii)Tracking hostile targets and providing location information to Air Defense systems
consisting of Tracking Radars controlling guns and missiles.
(iii)Battle field surveillance
(iv)Information Friend or Foe IFF
(v)Navigation of ships, aircraft, helicopter etc.
2. Civilian Use:
(i)Air Traffic Control (ATC)
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All airports are equipped with ATC Radars, for safe landing and take-off and guiding of aircraft
in bad weather and poor visibility conditions.
(ii)Aircraft Navigation
(a) All aircrafts fitted with weather avoidance radars. These Radars give warning
information to pilot about storms, snow precipitation etc. lying ahead of aircraft’s path.
(b) Radar is used as an altimeter to indicate the height of the aircraft or helicopter.
3. Maritime ship’s safety and Navigation:
(i)Radar used to avoid collision of ships during poor visibility conditions (storms, cyclones etc.)
(ii)Guide ships into seaports safely.
4. Meteorological Radar:
Used for weather warnings and forecasting. Provides sufficient advance information to civilian
administration for evacuation of population in times cyclones, storms etc.
Prediction of Range Performance:
The simple form of Radar equation derived earlier expresses the maximum radar range Rmax in
terms of radar and target parameters:
Rmax= [ (Pt .G. Ae. σ)/ (4π)2.Smin]1/4
Where Pt = transmitted power, watts

G = antenna gain
Ae = antenna effective aperture, m2
σ = radar cross section, m2
Smin = minimum detectable signal, watts
All the parameters are to some extent under the control of the radar designer, except for the
target cross section σ. The radar equation states that if long ranges are desired,
The transmitted power must be large,
The radiated energy must be concentrated into a narrow beam (high transmitting
antenna gain),
The received echo energy must be collected with a large antenna aperture (also
synonymous with high gain) and
The receiver must be sensitive to weak signals.
In practice, however, the simple radar equation does not predict the range performance of
actual radar equipment to a satisfactory degree of accuracy. The predicted values of radar
range are usually optimistic. In some cases, the actual range might be only half of that is
predicted.
Part of this discrepancy is due to
The failure of the above equation to explicitly include the various losses that can occur
throughout the system or
The loss in performance usually experienced when electronic equipment is operated in
the field rather than under laboratory-type conditions and
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Another important factor i.e the statistical or unpredictable nature of several of the
parameters in the radar equation.
The minimum detectable signal Smin and the target cross section σ are both statistical in nature
and must be expressed in statistical terms.
Other statistical factors which do not appear explicitly in the simple radar equation but
which have an effect on the radar performance are the meteorological conditions along
the propagation path and the performance of the radar operator, if one is employed.
The statistical nature of these several parameters does not allow the maximum radar range to
be described by a single number. Its specification must include a statement of the probability
that the radar will detect a certain type of target at a particular range.
Hence in order to cover these aspects, the simple radar equation will be modified to
include most of the important factors that influence radar range performance.
Minimum detectable signal:
The ability of a radar receiver to detect a weak echo signal is limited by the noise energy
that occupies the same portion of the frequency spectrum as does the signal energy and
accompanies the signal.
The weakest signal the receiver can detect is called the minimum detectable signal. It is
difficult to define minimum detectable signal (MDS) because of its statistical nature and
because the criterion for deciding whether a target is present or not is not too well
defined.
Detection is normally based on establishing a threshold level at the output of the
receiver (as shown by the dotted line in the figure below.)Whenever Rx output signal
which is a mixture of echo and noise crosses this threshold, then it is detected as a
target. This is called threshold detection.
Consider the output of a typical radar receiver as a function of time as shown in the
figure below which typically represents one sweep of the video output displayed on an
A-scope.
Fig 1.4: Typical envelope of the radar receiver output as a function of time. A, B, and C are
three targets representing signal plus noise. A and B are valid detections, but C is a missed
detection.
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The envelope has a fluctuating appearance due to the random nature of noise and
consists of three targets A, B and C of different signal amplitudes.
The signal at A is large which has much larger amplitude than the noise. Hence target
detection is possible without any difficulty and ambiguity.
Next consider the two signals at B and C, representing target echoes of equal amplitude.
The noise voltage accompanying the signal at B is large enough so that the combination
of signal plus noise exceeds the threshold and target detection is still possible.
But for the target C, the noise is not as large and the resultant signal plus noise does not
cross the threshold and hence target is not detected.
Threshold Level setting: Weak signals such as C would not be lost if the threshold level
were lower. But too low a threshold increases the likelihood that noise alone will rise
above the threshold and is taken as target. Such an occurrence is called a false alarm.
Therefore, if the threshold is set too low, false target indications are obtained, but if it is
set too high, targets might be missed. The selection of the proper threshold level is a
compromise that depends upon how important it is if a mistake is made either by
1. Failing to recognize a signal that is present (probability of a miss) or by
2. Falsely indicating the presence of a signal when it does not exist (probability
of a false alarm)
The signal-to noise ratio necessary to provide adequate detection is one of the
important parameters that must be determined in order to compute the minimum
detectable signal.
Although the detection decision is usually based on measurements at the video output,
it is easier to consider maximizing the signal-to-noise ratio at the output of the IF
amplifier rather than in the video. The receiver may be considered linear up to the
output of the IF. It is shown that maximizing the signal-to-noise ratio at the output of
the IF is equivalent to maximizing the video output. The advantage of considering the
signal-to-noise ratio at the IF is that the assumption of linearity may be made. It is also
assumed that the IF filter characteristic approximates the matched filter, so that the
output signal-to-noise ratio is maximized.
Receiver noise:
Noise is unwanted electromagnetic energy which interferes with the ability of the
receiver to detect the wanted signal thus limiting the receiver sensitivity.
It may originate within the receiver itself, or it may enter via the receiving antenna along with
the desired signal. If the radar were to operate in a perfectly noise-free environment so that no
external sources of noise accompanied the desired signal, and if the receiver itself were so
perfect that it did not generate any excess noise, there would still exist an unavoidable
component of noise generated by the thermal motion of the conduction electrons in the
ohmic portions of the receiver input stages. This is called thermal noise, or Johnson’s noise,
and is directly proportional to the temperature of the ohmic portions of the circuit and the
receiver band width. The available noise power generated by a receiver of bandwidth Bn(in
hertz) at a temperature T (degrees Kelvin) is given by :
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Available thermal-noise power = kTBn

-23
where k = Boltzmann's constant =1.38 x 10 J/deg. If the temperature T is taken to be290 K,
which corresponds approximately to room temperature (62 0F), the factor kT is 4 x 10--21W/Hz
of bandwidth. If the receiver circuitry were at some other temperature, the thermal-noise
power would be correspondingly different.
A receiver with a reactance input such as a parametric amplifier need not have any
significant ohmic loss. The limitation in this case is the thermal noise seen by the
antenna and the ohmic losses in the transmission line.
For radar receivers of the super heterodyne type (the type of receiver used for most
radar applications), the receiver bandwidth is approximately that of the intermediate-
frequency stages. It should be cautioned that the bandwidth Bn mentioned above is not
the 3-dB, or half-power, bandwidth commonly employed by electronic engineers. It is an
integrated bandwidth and is given by:
where H (f) = frequency-response characteristic of IF amplifier (filter) and fo = frequency of

maximum response (usually occurs at mid band).
The bandwidth Bn is called the noise bandwidth and is the bandwidth of an equivalent
rectangular filter whose noise-power output is same as the filter with characteristic
H(f).It is not theoretically same as the 3-dB bandwidth. The 3-dB bandwidth is widely
used since it is easy to measure. The measurement of noise bandwidth however
involves a complete knowledge of the response characteristic H(f). The frequency-
response characteristics of many practical radar receivers are such that the 3 dB and the
noise bandwidths do not differ appreciably. Therefore the 3-dB bandwidth may be used
in many cases as an approximation to the noise bandwidth.
The noise power in practical receivers is often greater than can be accounted for by
thermal noise alone and is due to mechanisms other than the thermal agitation of the
conduction electrons. The exact origin of the extra noise components is not important
except to know that it exists. Whether the noise is generated by a thermal mechanism
or by some other mechanism the total noise at the output of the receiver may be
considered to be equal to the thermal-noise power obtained from an “ideal“ receiver
multiplied by a factor called the noise figure.
The noise figure Fn of a receiver is defined by the equation:
Fn = No/ kTo BnGa
= (Noise output of practical receiver) / (Noise output of ideal receiver at std. temp To)
Where No = noise output from receiver, and Ga = available gain. The standard
temperature To is taken to be 290 K, according to the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers definition. The noise No is measured over the linear portion of the
receiver input-output characteristic, usually at the output of the IF amplifier before the
nonlinear second detector. The receiver bandwidth Bn is that of the IF amplifier in most
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receivers. The available gain Ga is the ratio of the signal out Soto the signal in Si and
kTo Bn is the input noise Ni in an ideal receiver. The above equation may be rewritten as:
Therefore, the noise figure may be interpreted, as a measure of the degradation of

signal-to noise-ratio as the signal passes through the receiver.
Modified radar equation:
Rearranging the above two equations for Fn , the input signal may be expressed as
If the minimum detectable signal Smin is that value of Si corresponding to the minimum ratio of
output (IF) signal-to-noise ratio (So/No )min necessary for detection, then
Substituting this expression for Smin into the earlier basic Radar equation results in the
following form of the modified radar equation:
………(4)
RADAR EQUATION
Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR):
The results of statistical noise theory will be applied to obtain:

The signal-to-noise ratio at the output of the IF amplifier necessary to achieve a specified
probability of detection without exceeding a specified probability of false alarm.
The output signal-to-noise ratio thus obtained is substituted into the final modified radar equation,
we have obtained earlier.
The details of system that is considered:
IF amplifier with bandwidth BIF followed by a second detector and a video amplifier with
bandwidth BV as shown in the figure below.
The second detector and video amplifier are assumed to form an envelope detector, that is, one
which rejects the carrier frequency but passes the modulation envelope.
To extract the modulation envelope, the video bandwidth must be wide enough to pass the
low-frequency components generated by the second detector, but not so wide as to pass the
high-frequency components at or near the intermediate frequency.
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The video bandwidth BV must be greater than BIF/2 in order to pass all the video modulation.
Figure 1.6: Envelope detector.
Step 1: To determine the Probability of false alarm when noise alone is assumed to be present as
input to the receiver:
The noise entering the IF filter (the terms filter and amplifier are used interchangeably) is assumed to be
Gaussian, with probability-density function given by
Where:
p(v) dv is the probability of finding the noise voltage v between the values of vandv + dv
ψ0 is the variance, or mean-square value of the noise voltage, and the mean value of v is taken
to be zero.
(Compare this with the Standard Probability density function of Gaussian noise
With σ2 replaced by ψ0and (x—x0) replaced by v with mean value of zero)
If Gaussian noise were passed through a narrowband IF filter whose Bandwidth is small compared with
its mid band frequency-the probability density of the envelope of the noise voltage output is shown by
Rice to be of the form of Rayleigh probability-density function
………..(6)
where R is the amplitude of the envelope of the filter output. The probability that the envelope of the
noise voltage will lie between the values of V1andV2is
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The probability that the noise voltage envelope will exceed the voltage threshold VT is
…………(7)
Whenever the voltage envelope exceeds the threshold VT, a target is considered to have been detected.
Since the probability of a false alarm is the probability that noise will cross the threshold, the above
equation gives the probability of a false alarm, denoted by Pfa.
The probability of false alarm as given above by itself does not indicate that Radar is troubled by the
false indications of Target. The time between the false alarms TFA is a better measure of the effect of
Noise on the Radar performance. (Explained with reference to the figure below)
The average time interval between crossings of the threshold by noise alone is defined as the false-
alarm time TFA
Where TK is the time between crossings of the threshold VT by the noise envelope, when the slope of
the crossing is positive.
The false-alarm probability may also be defined as the ratio of the duration of time the envelope is
actually above the threshold to the total time it could have been above the threshold, i.e.
…………. (8)
Fig 1.7: Envelope of receiver output illustrating false alarms due to noise.
Where tK and TK are shown in the Figure above. The average duration of a noise pulse is
approximately the reciprocal of the bandwidth B, which in the case of the envelope detector is BIF.
Equating eqs. 7 and 8 we get
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……….(9)
A plot of the above equation is shown in the figure below with (VT2/2 ψ0) as the abscissa. As can be
seen, average time between false alarms Tfa is directly proportional to the Threshold to noise ratio and
inversely proportional to the Bandwidth.
Fig. 1.8: Average time between false alarms as a function of the threshold level VT and the receiver
Bandwidth B. ψ0 is the mean square noise voltage
Step 2 :
To determine Probability of detection when a sine wave signal is present along with noise:
Thus far, a receiver with only a noise input was discussed. Next, consider a sine-wave signal of amplitude
A to be present along with noise at the input to the IF filters. The frequency of the signal is the same as
the IF mid band frequency fIF. The output of the envelope detector has a probability-density function
given by
………….(10)
where Io ( Z ) is the modified Bessel function of zero order and argument Z.
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When the signal is absent, A = 0 and the above equation for PDF for signal plus noise reduces to the
probability-density function for noise alone. This Equation is sometimes called the Rice probability-
density function.
The probability that the signal will be detected (which is the probability of detection) is the same as the
probability that the envelope R will exceed the predetermined threshold VT. The probability of detection
Pd is therefore:
……….(11)
(After the expression of PDF for Ps(R)[Eq. 10] is substituted into the first part of the above equation we
get the probability of detection as in [eqn.11]). But this equation cannot be evaluated by simple means,
and numerical & empirical techniques or a series approximation must be used.
The expression for Pd given by equation (11) after series expansion is a function of the signal amplitude
A, threshold voltage VT ,and mean noise power Ψ0 . In Radar systems analysis, it is more convenient to
use Signal to Noise power ratio (S/N) rather than signal to noise voltage ratio A/Ψ 0½.These are related
by:
The probability of detection Pd can then be expressed in terms of S/N , and Threshold- Noise ratio
VT2/2Ψ0.The probability of false alarm is also a function of VT2/2Ψ0 as given by : PFA = Exp( -VT2/2ψ0 ).
The two expressions for Pd and PFA can now be combined by eliminating the Threshold- Noise ratio
VT2/2Ψ0 that is common in both expressions so as to get a single expression relating the probability of
detection Pd ,Probability of false alarm PFA and signal to Noise ratio S/N.The result is plotted in the figure
below.
A much easier empirical formula developed by Albersheim for the relationship between S/N,PFA and Pd is
also given below :
S/N = A + 0.12AB + 1.7 B
Where A = ln [ 0.62/ PFA] and B = ln [ Pd /(1- Pd) ]
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Fig. 1.9: Probability of detection for a sine wave in noise as a function of the signal-to-noise (power)
ratio and the probability of false alarm
System design sequence:
Both the false-alarm timeTFA and the detection probabilityPdare specified by the system
requirements.
The radar designer computes the probability of the false alarm using the above Tfa& the relation
Pfa = 1/ Tfa . B
Then from the figure above or using the Albersheim’s empirical equation given above the
required signal-to-noise ratio to achieve the above Pfa & Pd is determined.
For example, suppose that the desired false-alarm time was 15 min and the IF bandwidth was 1 MHz.
This gives a false-alarm probability of 1.11 x 10-9. Figure above indicates that a signal-to-noise ratio of
13.1 dB is required to yield a 0.50 probability of detection, 14.7 dB for 0.90, and 16.5 dB for 0.999.
This is the signal-to-noise ratio that is to be used in the final modified Radar Equation we have obtained
earlier.
Page 18
Integration of Radar Pulses:
The relation between the signal to noise ratio, the probability of detection and the probability of false
alarm as shown in the figure or as obtained using the Albersheim’s empirical equation applies for a
single pulse only. However, many pulses are usually returned from any target on each radar scan and
can be used to improve detection. The number of pulses nB returned from a point target as the radar
antenna scans through its beam width is
nB = θB . fP / θ’S = θB . fP / 6 ωm
where θB= antenna beam width, deg

fP= pulse repetition frequency, Hz
θ’S = antenna scanning rate, deg/s
ωm= antenna scan rate, rpm
The process of summing all the radar echo pulses for the purpose of improving detection is called
integration.
Integration may be accomplished in the radar receiver either before the second detector (in the IF) or
after the second detector (in the video).
Integration before the detector is called pre detection or coherent integration. In this the phase
of the echo signal is to be preserved if full benefit is to be obtained from the summing process
Integration after the detector is called post detection or non coherent integration. In this phase
information is destroyed by the second detector. Hence post detection integration is not
concerned with preserving RF phase. Due to this simplicity it is easier to implement in most
applications, but is not as efficient as pre detection integration.
If n pulses, all of the same signal-to-noise ratio, were integrated by an ideal pre detection integrator, the
resultant or integrated signal-to-noise (power) ratio would be exactly n times that of a single pulse. If
the same n pulses were integrated by an ideal post detection device, the resultant signal-to-noise ratio
would be less than n times that of a single pulse. This loss in integration efficiency is caused by the
nonlinear action of the second detector, which converts some of the signal energy to noise energy in
the rectification process.
Due to its simplicity, Post detection integration is preferred many a times even though the integrated
signal-to-noise ratio may not be as high as that of Pre-detection. An alert, trained operator viewing a
properly designed cathode-ray tube display is a close approximation to the theoretical post detection
integrator.
The efficiency of post detection integration relative to ideal pre-detection integration has been
computed by Marcum when all pulses are of equal amplitude. The integration efficiency may be defined
as follows:
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Where n = number of pulses integrated
(S/N )1= value of signal-to-noise ratio of a single pulse required to produce a given probability
of detection(for n = 1)
(S/N )n = value of signal-to-noise ratio per pulse required to produce the same probability of
detection when n pulses ( of equal amplitude ) are integrated
The improvement in the signal-to-noise ratio when n pulses are integrated post detection is n.Ei(n) and
is the integration-improvement factor. It may also be thought of as the effective number of pulses
integrated by the post detection integrator. The improvement with ideal pre detection integration
would be equal to n. Integration loss in decibels is defined as Li(n) = 10 log [1/Ei(n)].
The integration-improvement factor (or the integration loss) is not a sensitive function of either the
probability of detection or the probability of false alarm.
The radar equation with n pulses integrated can be written
where the parameters are the same as in the earlier Radar equation except that (S/N)n, is the signal-to-
noise ratio of one of the n equal pulses that are integrated to produce the required probability of
detection for a specified probability of false alarm. Substituting the equation for integration efficiency
into the above Radar equation gives the final modified Radar equation including integration efficiency.
Radar Cross Section of Targets:
The radar cross section of a target is the (fictional) area intercepting that amount of power which when
scattered equally in all directions, produces an echo at the radar equal to that from the target. Or in
other terms
Where R= distance between radar and target
Page 20
Er= strength of reflected field at radar

Ei= strength of incident field at target
For most common types of radar targets such as aircraft, ships, and terrain, the radar cross section does
not necessarily bear a simple relationship to the physical area, except that the larger the target size, the
larger will be the cross section.
Scattering and diffraction: are variations of the same physical process. When an object scatters an
electromagnetic wave, the scattered field is defined as the difference between the total field in the
presence of the object and the field that would exist if the object were absent (but with the sources
unchanged). On the other hand, the diffracted field is the total field in the presence of the object. With
radar backscatter, the two fields are the same, and one may talk about scattering and diffraction
interchangeably.
Radar cross section of a simple sphere: is shown in the figure below as a function of its circumference
measured in wavelengths.(2πa/λ where a is the radius of the sphere and λ is the wavelength). The plot
consists of three regions.
1. Rayleigh Region:
The region where the size of the sphere is small compared with the wavelength (2πa/λ 1) is
called the Rayleigh region.
The Rayleigh scattering region is of interest to the radar engineer because the cross sections of
raindrops and other meteorological particles fall within this region at the usual radar
frequencies. 2. Optical region:
It is at the other extreme from the Rayleigh region where the dimensions of the sphere are large
compared with the wavelength (2πa/λ 1). For large 2πa/λ, the radar cross section
2
approaches the optical cross section πa .
3. Mie or Resonance region:
Between the optical and the Rayleigh region is the Mie, or resonance, region. The cross section
is oscillatory with frequency within this region. The maximum value is 5.6 dB greater than the
optical value, while the value of the first null is 5.5 dB below the optical value. (The theoretical
values of the maxima and minima may vary according to the method of calculation employed.
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Figure 1.10: Radar cross section of the sphere. a = radius; λ= wavelength.
Since the sphere is a sphere no matter from what aspect it is viewed, its cross section will not be aspect-
sensitive. The cross section of other objects, however, will depend upon the direction as viewed by the
radar. (Aspect angle)
Radar cross section of a cone-sphere:
An interesting radar scattering object is the cone-sphere, a cone whose base is capped with a
sphere such that the first derivatives of the contours of the cone and sphere are equal at the
joint. Figure below is a plot of the nose-on radar cross section. The cross section of the cone-
sphere from the vicinity of the nose-on direction is quite low.
Scattering from any object occurs from discontinuities. The discontinuities, and hence the
backscattering, of the cone-sphere are from the tip and from the join between the cone and the
sphere.
The nose-on radar cross section is small and decreases as the square of the wavelength. The
cross section is small over a relatively large angular region. A large specular(having qualities of a
mirror)return is obtained when the cone-sphere is viewed at near perpendicular incidence to
the cone surface, i.e., when θ= 90 - α, where α= cone half angle. From the rear half of the cone-
sphere, the radar cross section is approximately that of the sphere.
The nose-on cross section of the cone-sphere varies, but its maximum value is approximately
0.4λ2 and its minimum is 0.01λ2 for a wide range of half-angles for frequencies above the
Rayleigh region. The null spacing is also relatively insensitive to the cone half-angle.
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Figure 1.11: Radar cross section of a cone sphere with 150 half angle as a function of the diameter in
Wave lengths.
In order to realize in practice the very low theoretical values of the radar cross section for a cone
sphere, the tip of the cone must be sharp and not rounded, the surface must be smooth
(roughness small compared to a wavelength), the join between the cone and the sphere must
have a continuous first derivative, and there must be no holes, windows, or protuberances on
the surface.
Shaping of the target, as with the cone-sphere, is a good method for reducing the radar cross
section. Materials such as carbon-fiber composites, which are sometimes used in aerospace
applications, can further reduce the radar cross section of targets as compared with that
produced by highly reflecting metallic materials.
Transmitter Power:
The peak power: The power Pt in the radar equation is called the peak power. This is not the
instantaneous peak power of a sine wave. It is the power averaged over that carrier-frequency cycle
which occurs at the maximum power of the pulse.
The average radar power Pav: It is defined as the average transmitter power over the pulse-repetition
period. If the transmitted waveform is a train of rectangular pulses of width τ and pulse-repetition
period Tp = 1/ f p , then the average power is related to the peak power by
Page 23
Duty cycle: The ratio Pav/Pt, τ/TP, or τ.fP is called the duty cycle of the radar. A pulse radar for detection
of aircraft might have typically a duty cycle of 0.001, while a CW radar which transmits continuously has
a duty cycle of unity.
Writing the radar equation in terms of the average power rather than the peak power, we get
The bandwidth and the pulse width are grouped together since the product of the two is usually of the
order of unity in most pulse-radar applications.
Pulse Repetition Frequencies and Range Ambiguities:
The pulse repetition frequency (prf) is determined primarily by the maximum range at which
targets are expected. If the prf is made too high, the likelihood of obtaining target echoes from
the wrong pulse transmission is increased. Echo signals received after an interval exceeding the
pulse-repetition period are called multiple time around echoes.
Consider the three targets labeled A, B, and C in the figure(a) below. Target A is located within
the maximum unambiguous range Runamb [= C.TP /2] of the radar, target B is at a distance
greater than Runamb but less than 2Runamb and the target C is greater than 2Runamb but less than
3Runamb The appearance of the three targets on an A-scope is shown in the figure (b)below. The
multiple-time-around echoes on the A-scope cannot be distinguished from proper target echoes
actually within the maximum unambiguous range. Only the range measured for target A is
correct; those for B and C are not.
One method of distinguishing multiple-time-around echoes from unambiguous echoes is to
operate with a varying pulse repetition frequency. The echo signal from an unambiguous range
target will appear at the same place on the A-scope on each sweep no matter whether the prf is
modulated or not. However, echoes from multiple-time-around targets will be spread over a
finite range as shown in the figure (c) below. The number of separate pulse repetition
frequencies will depend upon the degree of the multiple time around targets. Second-time
targets need only two separate repetition frequencies in order to be resolved.
Page 24
Fig. 1.12: Multiple-time-around echoes that give rise to ambiguities in range. (a) Three targets A, B
and C, where A is within Runamb, and B and Care multiple-time-around targets(b)the appearance of the
three targets on the A-scope (c) appearance of the three targets on the A-scope with a changing prf.
System Losses:
The losses in a radar system reduce the signal-to-noise ratio at the receiver output. They are two
kinds, predictable with certain precision beforehand and unpredictable. The antenna beam-
shape loss, collapsing loss, and losses in the microwave plumbing are examples of losses which
are predictable if the system configuration is known. These losses are real and cannot be
ignored.
Losses not readily subject to calculation and which are less predictable include those due to field
degradation and to operator fatigue or lack of operator motivation. They are subject to
considerable variation and uncertainty.
Plumbing loss: This is loss in the transmission lines which connects the transmitter output to the
antenna. (Cables and waveguides). At the lower radar frequencies the transmission line introduces little
loss, unless its length is exceptionally long. At higher radar frequencies, loss/attenuation will not be
small and has to be taken into account.
Connector losses: In addition to the losses in the transmission line itself, additional losses occurs at each
connection or bend in the line and at the antenna rotary joint if used. Connector losses are usually
small, but if the connection is poorly made, it can contribute significant attenuation. If the same
transmission line is used for both receiving and transmission, the loss to be inserted in the radar
equation is twice the one-way loss.
Duplexer loss: The signal suffers attenuation as it passes through the duplexer. Generally, the greater
the isolation required from the duplexer on transmission, the larger will be the insertion loss. Insertion
loss means the loss introduced when the component is inserted into the transmission line. For a typical
duplexer it might be of the order of 1 dB.
In S-band (3000 MHz) radar, for example, the typical plumbing losses will be as follows:
100 ft of RG-113/U A1 waveguide transmission line (two-way): 1.0 dB

Loss due to poor connections (estimate): 0.5 dB
Rotary-joint loss: 0.4 dB
Duplexer loss: 1.5 dB
Total plumbing loss: 3.4 dB
Beam-shape loss: The antenna gain that appears in the radar equation was assumed to be a constant
equal to the maximum value. But in reality the train of pulses returned from a target with scanning radar
is modulated in amplitude by the shape of the antenna beam. To properly take into account the pulse-
train modulation caused by the beam shape, the computations of the probability of detection (as
explained earlier) would have to be performed assuming a modulated train of pulses rather than
constant-amplitude pulses. But since this computation is difficult, a beam-shape loss is added to the
radar equation and a maximum gain is employed in the radar equation rather than a gain that changes
pulse to pulse.
Page 25
Scanning loss: When the antenna scans rapidly enough , the gain on transmit is not the same as the gain
on receive. An additional loss has to be computed, called the scanning loss. The technique for
computing scanning loss is similar in principle to that for computing beam-shape loss. Scanning loss is
important for rapid-scan antennas or for very long range radars such as those designed to view
extraterrestrial objects.
Collapsing loss: If the radar were to integrate additional noise samples along with the wanted Signal-to-
noise pulses, the added noise results in degradation called the collapsing loss.
Non ideal equipment: The transmitter power in the radar equation was assumed to be the specified
output power (either peak or average). However, all transmitting tubes are not uniform in quality, and
even any individual tube performance will not be same throughout its useful life. Also, the power is not
uniform over the operating band of frequencies. Thus, for one reason or another, the transmitted power
may be other than the design value. To allow for this variation, a loss factor of about 2 dB is introduced.
Receiver noise figure also varies over the operating frequency band. Thus, if the best noise figure over
the band is used in the radar equation, a loss factor has to be introduced to account for its poorer value
elsewhere in the frequency band.
If the receiver is not the exact matched filter for the transmitted waveform, a loss in Signal-to-noise
ratio will occur.
A typical value of loss for a non-matched receiver might be about 1 db. Because of the exponential
relation between the false-alarm time and the threshold level a slight change in the threshold can cause
a significant change in the false alarm time. In practice, therefore, it may be necessary to set the
threshold level slightly higher than calculated so as to insure a tolerable false alarm time in the event of
circuit instabilities. This increase in the threshold is equivalent to a loss.
Operator loss: An alert, motivated, and well-trained operator performs as described by theory.
However, when distracted, tired, overloaded, or not properly trained, operator performance will
decrease. The resulting loss in system performance is called operator loss.
Field degradation: When a radar system is operated under laboratory conditions by engineering
personnel and experienced technicians, the above mentioned losses give a realistic description of the
performance of the radar. However, when a radar is operated under field conditions the performance
usually deteriorates even more than that can be accounted for by the above losses. To minimize field
degradation Radars should be designed with built-in automatic performance-monitoring equipment.
Careful observation of performance-monitoring instruments and timely preventative maintenance will
minimize field degradation.
There are many causes of loss and inefficiency in a Radar. Although each of them may be small, the
sum total can result in a significant reduction in radar performance. It is important to understand the
origins of these losses, not only for better predictions of radar range, but also for the purpose of
keeping them to a minimum by careful radar design.
Page 26
Important formulae:
Range of a Radar R = cTR / 2

Maximum unambiguous Range R unambig. = C /2fp
Basic Radar equation : Rmax = [ (Pt .G. Ae. σ)/ (4π)2. Smin ]1/4
Gain of an antenna G = 4π Ae /λ2
Noise figure of a receiver Fn = No / kTo BnGa
Also given by
If the minimum detectable signal Smin is that value of Si corresponding to the minimum
ratio ofoutput (IF) signal-to-noise ratio (So/No )min necessary for detection, then
And modified Maximum possible range in terms of the IF amplifier output signal to
noise ratio and noise figure
Relationships between Probability of false alarm,Probability of detection and S/N :

 Pfa = 1/ Tfa . B
 PFA = Exp( -VT2/2ψ0 ).

 Albersheim empirical relationship between S/N, PFA and Pd:
S/N = A + 0.12AB + 1.7 B
Where A = ln [ 0.62/ PFA] and B = ln [ Pd /(1- Pd) ]
The radar equation with n pulses integrated :
Integration efficiency :
Final Radar equation including Integration efficiencywith n pulses integrated:
Page 27
Illustrative Problems:
Example1: A certain Radar has PRF of 1250 pulses per second. What is the maximum
unambiguous range? Max. Unambiguous Range is given by
R unambig. = C /2fp
R unambig. = 3x10 /2x1250 mtrs = 120X103mts = 120Kms
8
Example 2: A ship board radar has 0.9 micro sec transmitted pulse width. Two small boats in
the same direction are separated in range by 150 mts. Will the radar detect the two boats as
two targets?
Radar Range Resolution: The range resolution of a Radar is its ability to distinguish two
closely spaced targets along the same line of sight (LOS). The Range resolution is a function of
the pulse length, where the pulse length LP= c x τ/2(Two way range corresponding to the
pulse width)
Radar Range resolution = 3x108x0.9x10-6/2 = 135 mtrs.
Since the boats are at 150 Mts. apart, which is greater than the range Resolution of 135mtrs.,
the radar can detect the 2 boats as 2 separate targets.
Example 3: A Pulse Radar transmits a peak power of 1 Mega Watt. It has a PRT equal to 1000
micro sec and the transmitted pulse width is 1 micro sec. Calculate (i)Maximum unambiguous
range (ii) Average Power (iii)Duty Cycle (iv) Energy transmitted & (v)Bandwidth
(i) Maximum unambiguous range = c.TP /2 = 3x108x1000x10-6/2 = 150x103 mtrs = 150 Kms
(ii) Average Power = PP x τ / TP= 1x106 1x10-6 /1000x10-6= 1000 watts = 1kw
(iii)Duty Cycle = τ / TP= 1x10-6 /1000x10-6= 0.001
(iv) Energy transmitted = PP x τ (Peak power xTime ) = 1x106 x1x10-6= 1 Joule
(v)Bandwidth = 1/τ = 1/10-6= 1Mhz
Example4: The Bandwidth of I.F. Amplifier in a Radar Receiver is 1 MHZ. If the Threshold to
noise ratio is 12.8 dB determine the False Alarm Time.
Tfa = False Alarm Time Tfa = [1/BIF ] Exp VT2/2ψ0 where BIF = 1X 106 HZ
Page 28
Threshold to Noise Ratio = 12.8 dB
i.e. 10 Log10[VT2/2ψ0] = 12.8db
VT2/2ψ0= Antilog10 [12.8/10] = 19.05
Tfa= 1/(1X 106) Exp 19.05 = 187633284/106= 187.6 Seconds
Example5: The probability density of the envelope of the noise voltage output is given by the Rayleigh
probability-density function
where R is the amplitude of the envelope of the filter output for R 0. If Pfa needed is 10-5.
Determine the Threshold Level.
The probability of false alarm PFA in terms of the threshold voltage level is given by :
PFA= Exp(-VT2/2ψ0 ) = 10-5
Taking logarithms on both the sides we get
- 5 Log e10 = (-VT2/2ψ0 )
5 x 2.3026 = (VT2/2ψ0 )
VT2 = 11.5 x 2 ψ0
V T= 23 x ψ0= x ψ0
Example 6: The bandwidth of an IF amplifier is 1 MHz and the average false-alarm time that could be
tolerated is 15 min. Find the probability of a false alarm.
The relationship between average false-alarm time TFA, probability of a false alarm PFA and the IF
bandwidth B is given by :
Pfa = 1/ Tfa . B
Substituting B = 1 MHz ie 106 and Tfa=15 mnts. i.e. 900 secs. we get PFA=1.11 X 10—9
Example 7: What is the ratio of threshold voltage to the rms value of the noise voltage necessary to
achieve this false-alarm time?
2
This is found out using the relationship PFA = Exp (-VT /2ψ0 )
from which the ratio of Threshold voltage to rms value of the noise voltage is given by
VT/ ψ0 = 2 ln (1/Pfa ) = 2 ln 9X108 = 6.45 = 16.2dB
Page 29
Example 8: Typical parameters for a ground-based search radar are : 1. Pulse repetition frequency :300
Hz, 2. Beam width : 1.50, and 3. Antenna scan rate: 5 rpm (300/s). Find out the number of pulses
returned from a point target on each scan.
Solution : The number of pulses retuned from a point target on each scannBis given by:
nB = θB . fP / θ’S = θB . fP / 6 ωm
Substituting the above values we get : nB = 1.5 x 300 / 30 = 15
Questions from Previous Year Examinations:
1.(a) Derive Radar range equation in terms of MDS (minimum detectable signal) (b) What is
maximum unambiguous range? How is it related with PRF?
2.(a) Explain the various system losses in a Radar (b) The bandwidth of The IF amplifier in a
Radar is 1 Mhz and the threshold noise ratio is 13 db. Determine the false alarm time.
3.(a) Explain the basic principles of Radar and discuss about various parameters which improve
the performance of the Radar (b) Discuss about Radar frequencies and list out the Applications
of Radars.
4.(a) In a Radar receiver the mean noise voltage is 80 mv and the IF BW is 1 Mhz. If the tolerable
false alarm time is 25 mnts., calculate the threshold voltage level and the probability of false
alarm. (b) Bring out the advantages of Integration of Radar pulses.
5 (a) Discuss about the factors that influence the prediction of Radar range. (b) Define noise
bandwidth of a radar receiver. How does it differ from 3-dB band width? Obtain the expression
for minimum detectable signal in terms of noise bandwidth, noise figure and other relevant
parameters. [8+8]
6. (a) Write the simplified version of radar range equation and explain how this equation does
not adequately describe the performance of practical radar? (b) What are the specific bands
assigned by the ITU for the Radar? What the corresponding frequencies? [8+8]
7. (a) Explain how the Radar is used to measure the range of a target? (b) Draw the block
diagram of the pulse radar and explain the function of each block. [8+8]
8. (a) A low power, short range radar is solid-state throughout, including a low-noise RF
amplifier which gives it an overall noise figure of 4.77dB. If the antenna diameter is 1m, the IF
bandwidth is 500kHz, the operating frequency is 8 GHz and the radar set is supposed to be
capable of detecting targets of 5m2 cross sectional area at a maximum distance of 12 km, what
must be the peak transmitted pulse power? (b) The average false alarm time is a more
significant parameter than the false alarm probability. Give the reasons. (c) Why post detection
integration is not as efficient as pre-detection integration of radar pulses? [8+4+4]
Page 30
9. (a) Explain the functioning and characteristics of PPI display and A-Scope. [8]
10. (a) Explain how the Radar is used to measure the direction and position of target? (b) What
are the peak power and duty cycle of a radar whose average transmitter power is 200W, pulse
width of 1µs and a pulse repetition frequency of 1000Hz? [8+8]
11. (a) Explain how a threshold level is selected in threshold detection? (b) How to find the
number of pulses that returned from a point target as the radar antenna scans through its
beam width? (c) Why most of the radar receivers are considered as envelop detectors while
calculating the SNR? [6+4+6]
12. (a) Obtain the SNR at the output of IF amplifier of Radar Receiver for a specified probability
of detection without exceeding a specified probability of false alarm. (b) Explain how system
losses will affect on the Radar Range? [8+8]
13. (a) What are the different range of frequencies that a radar can operate and give their
applications? (b) What are the basic functions of radar? In indicating the position of a target,
what is the difference between azimuth and elevation? [8+8]
14. (a) Describe how pulse repetition frequency of a Radar system controls the range of it’s
detection? (b) Explain how the Transmitted power affects the range. *8+8+
15. (a) Draw the block diagram of a pulsed radar and explain it’s operation. (b) What are the
desirable pulse characteristics and the factors that govern them in a Radar system? [10+6]
16. (a) Explain the radar cross section of the sphere. (b) Discuss in brief about pulse repetition
frequency and range ambiguities.
17. (a) Define Range resolution and explain the parameters which affect the range resolution.
(b)Distinguish between Monostatic and Bistatic Radars (c) Explain RCS of target. [6+5+4]
Page 31
Radar Systems Lecture Notes (K.Subhas) Unit 2: CW and Frequency Modulated Radar
UNIT-2
CW AND FREQUENCY MODULATED RADAR
Doppler effect
CW radar block diagram
Isolation between Transmitter and receiver
Nonzero IF receiver
Receiver Bandwidth requirements
Applications of CW Radar
Illustrative problems
FM-CW RADAR
Introduction
Range and Doppler Measurement
Block Diagram and characteristics ( Approaching and
Receding targets)
FM-CW Altimeter
Multiple frequency CW Radar
 Important Formulae
 Illustrative Problems
 Questions from Previous Year Examinations
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology ( MRCET )

Department of ECE ( 2016-17 ) Page 1
CW AND FREQUENCY MODULATED RADAR

Doppler Effect:
A technique for separating the received signal from the transmitted signal when there is relative motion
between radar and target is based on recognizing the change in the echo-signal frequency caused by the
Doppler effect.
It is well known in the fields of optics and acoustics that if either the source of oscillation or the observer
of the oscillation is in motion, an apparent shift in frequency will result. This is the Doppler effect and is
the basis of CW radar. If R is the distance from the radar to target, the total number of wavelengths λ
contained in the two-way path between the radar and the target are 2R/λ.The distance R and the
wavelength λ are assumed to be measured in the same units.
Since one wavelength corresponds to an phase angle excursion of 2πradians, the total phase angle
excursion Ø made by the electromagnetic wave during its transit to and from the target is 4πR/λ
radians. If the target is in motion, R and the phase Ø are continually changing. A change in Ø with
respect to time is equal to frequency. This is the Doppler angular frequency ωd and is given by:
ωd = 2πfd = dØ/dt = d(4πR/λ) /dt = (4π/λ) . dR/dt = (4π/λ). Vr = 4π.Vr / λ
where fd is the Doppler frequency shift in Hz, and Vr = relative velocity of the target with respect to the
Radar. The Doppler frequency shift fd is given by
fd = 2Vr / λ = 2Vrf0 / c
where f0 is the transmitted frequency and c is the velocity of propagation of the electromagnetic waves
(same as that of light) = 3 X 108m/s. If fd is in hertz. Vr in knots, and λ in meters then the Doppler
frequency fd is given by
fd = 1.03 Vr / λ
A plot of this equation is shown in the figure below
Figure: Doppler frequency fdas a function of radar frequency and target relative velocity.

The relative velocity may be written as Vr= V .cos θ where V is the target speed and θ is angle
made by the target trajectory and the line joining radar and target. When θ=0 the Doppler
frequency is maximum. The Doppler is zero when the trajectory is perpendicular to the radar
line of sight (θ= 900).
The CW radar is of interest not only because of its many applications, but its study also serves
as a means for better understanding the nature and use of the Doppler information contained
in the echo signal, whether in a CW or a pulse radar (MTl) application. In addition to allowing
the received signal to be separated from the transmitted signal, the CW radar provides a
measurement of relative velocity which may be used to distinguish moving targets from
stationary objects or clutter.
CW radar:
Consider the simple CW radar as illustrated by the block diagram of Figure below. The
transmitter generates a continuous (unmodulated) oscillation of frequency fo, which is radiated
by the antenna. A portion of the radiated energy is intercepted by the target and is scattered,
some of it in the direction of the radar, where it is collected by the receiving antenna. If the
target is in motion with a velocity Vr relative to the radar, the received signal will be shifted in
frequency from the transmitted frequency fo by an amount +/-fd as given by the equation :
fd = 2Vr / λ = 2 Vr f0 / c . The plus sign associated with the Doppler frequency applies if the
distance between target and radar is decreasing (approaching target) that is, when the received
signal frequency is greater than the transmitted signal frequency. The minus sign applies if the
distance is increasing (receding target). The received echo signal at a frequency fo +/- fd enters
the radar via the antenna and is heterodyned in the detector (mixer) with a portion of the
transmitter signal fo to produce a Doppler beat note of frequency fd. The sign of fd is lost in this
process.
The purpose of the Doppler amplifier is to eliminate echoes from stationary targets and to
amplify the Doppler echo signal to a level where it can operate an indicating device. It’s
frequency response characteristic is shown in the figure (b) below. The low-frequency cutoff
must be high enough to reject the d-c component caused by stationary targets, but yet it must
be low enough to pass the smallest Doppler frequency expected. Sometimes both conditions
cannot be met simultaneously and a compromise is necessary. The upper cutoff frequency is
selected to pass the highest Doppler frequency expected.

Figure : Simple CW radar block diagram (b) response characteristic of beat-frequency

amplifier
Isolation between transmitter and receiver:
Isolation between transmitter and receiver is an important aspect to be studied and addressed
in simple CW radars where a single antenna serves the purpose of both transmission and
reception as described above. The related important aspects are explained below.
In principle, a single antenna may be employed since the necessary isolation between
the transmitted and the received signals is achieved via separation in frequency as a
result of the Doppler Effect. In practice, it is not possible to eliminate completely the
transmitter leakage. However, transmitter leakage is neither always undesirable. A
moderate amount of leakage entering the receiver along with the echo signal supplies
the reference necessary for the detection of the Doppler frequency shift. If a leakage
signal of sufficient magnitude were not present, a sample of the transmitted signal has
to be deliberately introduced into the receiver to provide the necessary reference
frequency.
There are two practical effects which limit the amount of transmitter leakage power
which can be tolerated at the receiver. These are:
(1) The maximum amount of power the receiver input circuitry can withstand before
it is physically damaged or its sensitivity reduced (burnout) and

(2) The amount of transmitter noise due to hum, microphonics, stray pick-up
&instability which enters the receiver from the transmitter and affects the
receiver sensitivity.
Hence additional isolation is usually required between the transmitter and the receiver if the
sensitivity is not to be degraded either by burnout or by excessive noise. The amount of
isolation required depends on the transmitter power and the accompanying transmitter noise
as well as the ruggedness and the sensitivity of the receiver. For example, If the safe value of
power which might be applied to a receiver is 10 mW and if the transmitter power is 1 kW, the
isolation between transmitter and receiver must be at least 50 dB.
The amount of isolation needed in a long-range CW radar is more often determined by
the noise that accompanies the transmitter leakage signal rather than by any damage
caused by high power. For example, suppose the isolation between the transmitter and
receiver is such that 10 mW of leakage signal appeared at the receiver. If the minimum
detectable signal is 10-l3watt (100 dB below 1mW), the transmitter noise must be at
least 110 dB (preferably 120 or 130 dB) below the transmitted carrier.
The transmitter noise of concern in Doppler radar includes those noise components that
lie within the same frequency range as the Doppler frequencies. If complete elimination
of the direct leakage signal at the receiver could be achieved, it might not entirely solve
the isolation problem since echoes from nearby fixed targets (clutter) can also contain
the noise components of the transmitted signal.
The receiver of a pulsed radar is isolated and protected from the damaging effects of
the transmitted pulse by the duplexer, which short-circuits the receiver input during the
transmission period. Turning off the receiver during transmission with a duplexer is not
possible in a CW radar since the transmitter is operated continuously.
In CW Radars Isolation between transmitter and receiver might be obtained with a
single antenna by using a hybrid junction, circulator, turnstile junction, or with separate
polarizations. Separate antennas for transmitting and receiving might also be used.
 The amount of isolation which can be readily achieved between the arms of
practical hybrid junctions such as the magic-T, rat race, or short-slot coupler is of
the order of 20 to 30 dB. In some instances, when extreme precision is exercised,
an isolation of perhaps 60 dB or more might be achieved. But one limitation of the
hybrid junction is the 6-dB loss in overall performance which results from the
inherent waste of half the transmitted power and half the received signal power.
Both the loss in performance and the difficulty in obtaining large isolations have
limited the application of the hybrid junction to short-range radars.
 Ferrite isolation devices such as the circulator do not suffer the 6-dB loss inherent
in the hybrid junction. Practical devices have isolation of the order of 20 to 50 dB.
Turnstile junctions achieve isolations as high as 40 to 60 dB.
 The use of orthogonal polarizations for transmitting and receiving is limited to
short range radars because of the relatively small amount of isolation that can be
obtained.
An important factor which limits the use of isolation devices with a common antenna is
the reflections produced in the transmission line by the antenna. The reflection
coefficient from a mismatched antenna with a voltage standing-wave ratio ς is |ρ|=(ς-

l) / (ς+1). Therefore, if an isolation of 20 dB is to be obtained, the VSWR must be less
than 1.22. If 40 dB of isolation is required, the VSWR must be less than 1.02.
The largest isolations are obtained with two antennas: one for transmission, the other
for reception-physically separated from one another. Isolations of the order of 80 dB or
more are possible with high-gain antennas. The more directive the antenna beam and
the greater the spacing between antennas, the greater will be the isolation. A common
radome enclosing the two antennas should be avoided since it limits the amount of
isolation that can be achieved.
Additional isolation can be obtained by properly introducing a controlled sample of the
transmitted signal directly into the receiver. The phase and amplitude of this “buck-off”
signal are adjusted to cancel the portion of the transmitter signal that leaks into the
receiver. An additional 10 dB of isolation might be obtained.
The transmitter signal is never a pure CW waveform. Minute variations in amplitude
(AM) and phase (FM) can result in sideband components that fall within the Doppler
frequency band. These can generate false targets or mask the desired signals. Therefore,
both AM and FM modulations can result in undesired sidebands. AM sidebands are
typically 120 dB below the carrier, as measured in a 1 kHz band, and are relatively
constant across the usual Doppler spectrum of interest. The normal antenna isolation
plus “feed through nulling" usually reduces the AM components below receiver noise in
moderate power radars. FM sidebands are usually significantly greater than AM, but
decrease with increasing offset from the carrier. These can be avoided by stabilizing the
output frequency of the CW transmitter and by feeding back the extracted FM noise
components so as to reduce the original frequency deviation.
Intermediate-frequency receiver:
Limitation of Zero IF receiver:

The receiver in the simple CW radar shown earlier is in some respects analogous to a super
heterodyne receiver. Receivers of this type are called homodyne receivers, or super heterodyne
receivers with zero IF. The function of the local oscillator is replaced by the leakage signal from
the transmitter. Such a receiver is simpler than the one with a more conventional intermediate
frequency since no IF amplifier or local oscillator is required. However, this simpler receiver is
not very sensitive because of increased noise at the lower intermediate frequencies caused by
flicker effect. Flicker-effect noise occurs in semiconductor devices such as diode detectors and
α
cathodes of vacuum tubes. The noise power produced by the flicker effect varies as 1/f where
α is approximately unity. This is in contrast to shot noise or thermal noise, which is independent
of frequency. Thus, at the lower range of frequencies (audio or video region), where the
Doppler frequencies usually are found, the detector of the CW receiver can introduce a
considerable amount of flicker noise, resulting in reduced receiver sensitivity. For short-range,
low-power, applications this decrease in sensitivity might be tolerated since it can be
compensated by a modest increase in antenna aperture and/or additional transmitter power.

But for maximum efficiency with CW radar, the reduction in sensitivity caused by the simple
Doppler receiver with zero IF cannot be tolerated.
Non zero IF Receiver:
The effects of flicker noise are overcome in the normal super heterodyne receiver by using an
intermediate frequency high enough to make the flicker noise small compared with the normal
receiver noise. This results from the inverse frequency dependence of flicker noise. Figure
below shows the block diagram of a CW radar whose receiver operates with a nonzero IF.
Separate antennas are shown for transmission and reception. Instead of the usual local
oscillator found in the conventional super heterodyne receiver, the local oscillator (or reference
signal) is derived in the receiver from a portion of the transmitted signal mixed with a locally
generated signal of frequency equal to that of the receiver IF. Since the output of the mixer
consists of two sidebands on either side of the carrier plus higher harmonics, a narrowband
filter selects one of the sidebands as the reference signal. The improvement in receiver
sensitivity with an intermediate-frequency super heterodyne might be as much as 30 dB over
the simple zero IF receiver discussed earlier.
Figure: Block diagram of a CW Doppler radar with nonzero IF receiver, also called sideband
super heterodyne Receiver.
Receiver bandwidth requirements:
One of the requirements of the Doppler-frequency amplifier in the simple CW radar (Zero IF) or
the IF amplifier of the sideband super heterodyne (Non Zero IF) is that it has to be wide enough
to pass the expected range of Doppler frequencies. In most cases of practical interest the
expected range of Doppler frequencies will be much wider than the frequency spectrum

occupied by the signal energy. Consequently, the use of a wideband amplifier covering the
expected Doppler range will result in an increase in noise and a lowering of the receiver
sensitivity. If the frequency of the Doppler-shifted echo signal were known beforehand,
narrowband filter-that is just wide enough to reduce the excess noise without eliminating a
significant amount of signal energy might be used. If the waveforms of the echo signal are
known, as well as its carrier frequency, a matched filter could also be considered.
Several factors tend to spread the CW signal energy over a finite frequency band. These must
be known if an approximation to the bandwidth required for the narrowband Doppler filter is
to be obtained.
If the received waveform were a sine wave of infinite duration, its frequency spectrum would
be a delta function as shown in the figure (a) below and the receiver bandwidth would be
infinitesimal. But a sine wave of infinite duration and an infinitesimal bandwidth cannot occur
in nature. The more normal situation is an echo signal which is a sine wave of finite duration.
The frequency spectrum of a finite-duration sine wave has a shape of the form
[sinπ(f-f0)δ]/π(f-f0)] where f0 and δ are the frequency and duration of the sine wave,
respectively, and f is the frequency variable over which the spectrum is plotted (Fig b).
Figure: Frequency spectrum of CW oscillation of (a) infinite duration and ( b ) finite duration
Note that this is the same as the spectrum of a pulse of sine wave, the only difference being the
relative value of the duration δ. In many instances, the echo is not a pure sine wave of finite
duration but is perturbed by fluctuations in cross section, target accelerations, scanning
fluctuations, etc., which tend to broaden the bandwidth still further. Some of these spectrum
broadening-effects are considered below.
Causes for Spectrum broadening:
Spread due to finite time on target: Assume a CW radar with an antenna beam width of
θB deg. scanning at the rate of θ’S deg/s. The time on target (duration of the received
signal) is δ = θB/θS sec. Thus, the signal is of finite duration and the bandwidth of the
receiver must be of the order of the reciprocal of the time on target (θ’S /θB). Although
this is not an exact relation, it is a good enough approximation for purposes of the
present discussion. If the antenna beam width is 20 and the scanning rate is 360/s (6
rpm), the spread in the spectrum of the received signal due to the finite time on target
would be equal to 18 Hz, independent of the transmitted frequency.
In addition to the spread of the received signal spectrum caused by the finite time on
target, the spectrum gets widened due to target cross section fluctuations. The
fluctuations widen the spectrum by modulating the echo signal. The echo signal from a
propeller-driven aircraft can also contain modulation components at a frequency
proportional to the propeller rotation. The frequency range of propeller modulation
depends upon the shaft-rotation speed and the number of propeller blades. It is usually
in the vicinity of 50 to 60 Hz for World War 2 aircraft engines. This could be a potential
source of difficulty in a CW radar since it might mask the target's Doppler signal or it
might cause an erroneous measurement of Doppler frequency. In some instances,
propeller modulation can be of advantage. It might permit the detection of propeller-
driven aircraft passing on a tangential trajectory, even though the Doppler frequency
shift is zero.
The rotating blades of a helicopter and the compressor stages of a jet engine can also
result in a modulation of the echo and a widening of the spectrum that can degrade the
performance of a CW Doppler radar.
If the target's relative velocity is not constant, a further widening of the received signal
spectrum occurs. If ar is the acceleration of the target with respect to the radar, the
signal will occupy a bandwidth
If, for example, ar is twice the acceleration due to gravity, the receiver bandwidth is
approximately 20 Hz when the Radar wavelength is 10 cm.
When the Doppler-shifted echo signal is known to lie somewhere within a relatively wideband
of frequencies, a bank of narrowband filters as shown below spaced throughout the frequency
range permits a measurement of frequency and improves the signal-to-noise ratio.
The bandwidth of each individual filter should be wide enough to accept the signal
energy, but not so wide as to introduce more noise. The center frequencies of the filters
are staggered to cover the entire range of Doppler frequencies.

Figure: (a) Block diagram of IF Doppler filter bank (b) frequency-response characteristic of
Doppler filter bank.
A bank of narrowband filters may be used after the detector in the video of the simple
CW radar instead of in the IF. The improvement in signal-to-noise ratio with a video
filter bank is not as good as can be obtained with an IF filter bank, but the ability to
measure the magnitude of Doppler frequency is still preserved. Because of fold over, a
frequency which lies to one side of the IF carrier appears, after detection, at the same
video frequency as one which lies an equal amount on the other side of the IF.
Therefore the sign of the Doppler shift is lost with a video filter bank, and it cannot be
directly determined whether the Doppler frequency corresponds to an approaching or
to a receding target. (The sign of the Doppler maybe determined in the video by other
means.) One advantage of the fold over in the video is that only half the number of
filters are required than in the IF filter bank.
A bank of overlapping Doppler filters, whether in the IF or video, increases the
complexity of the receiver. When the system requirements permit a time sharing of the
Doppler frequency range, the bank of Doppler filters may be replaced by a single
narrowband tunable filter which searches in frequency over the band of expected
Doppler frequencies until a signal is found.

Applications of CW radar:
Measurement of the relative velocity of a moving target, as in the police speed monitor
or in the rate-of-climb meter for vertical-take-off aircraft.
Control of traffic lights, regulation of tollbooths, vehicle counting.
As a sensor in antilock braking systems, and for collision avoidance.
In railways, as a speedometer to replace the conventional axle-driven tachometer. In
such an application it would be unaffected by errors caused by wheel slip on
accelerating or wheel slide when braking.
Monitoring the docking speed of large ships.
Measurement of the velocity of missiles, ammunition, and baseballs.
Advantages and disadvantages of CW Radars:

The principal advantage of CW Doppler radar over the other (non radar) methods of
measuring speed is that there need not be any physical contact with the object whose
speed is being measured. In industry this is used to measure turbine-blade vibration, the
peripheral speed of grinding wheels, and the monitoring of vibrations in the cables of
suspension bridges.
Most of the above applications can be satisfied with a simple, solid-state CW source
with powers in tens of milli watts
High-power CW radars for the detection of aircraft and other targets have been
developed and have been used in such systems as the Hawk missile systems. (Shown
below)
The difficulty of eliminating the leakage of the transmitter signals into the receiver has
limited the utility of unmodulated CW radar for many long-range applications.
The CW radar, when used for short or moderate ranges, is characterized by simpler
equipment than a pulse radar. The amount of power that .can be used with a CW radar
is dependent on the isolation that can be achieved between the transmitter and
receiver since the transmitter noise that finds its way into the receiver limits the
receiver sensitivity. (The pulse radar has no similar limitation to its maximum range
because the transmitter is not operative when the receiver is turned on.)
Major disadvantage of the simple CW radar is its inability to obtain a measurement of
range. This limitation can be overcome by modulating the CW carrier, as in the
frequency-modulated radar.
Some anti-air-warfare guided missile systems employ semi active homing guidance in
which a receiver in the missile receives energy from the target, the energy having been
transmitted from an “illuminator" external to the missile. The illuminator will be at the
launch platform. CW illumination has been used in many successful systems. An
example is the Hawk tracking illuminator shown in the figure below. It is tracking radar
as well as an illuminator since it must be able to follow the target as it travels through
space.

CW radar allows operation in the presence of clutter and has been well suited for low altitude
missile defense systems. A block diagram of a CW tracking illuminator is shown in the figure
above. Note that following the wide-band Doppler amplifier is a speed gate, which is a narrow-
band tracking filter that acquires the targets Doppler and tracks its changing Doppler frequency
shift.
Figure: Block diagram of a CW tracking-illuminator
FM-CW RADAR
Introduction:
The inability of the simple CW radar to measure range is mainly due to the lack of a Timing
mark. The timing mark permits the time of transmission and the time of return to be recognized
but it increases the spectrum of the transmitted waveform. The sharper or more distinct the
mark, the more accurate the measurement of the transit time. But the more distinct the timing
mark, the broader will be the transmitted spectrum. This follows from the properties of the
Fourier transform. Therefore a finite spectrum of necessity must be transmitted if transit time
or range is to be measured. The spectrum of a CW transmission can be broadened by the

application of a modulation - amplitude, frequency, or phase. An example of an amplitude

modulation is the pulse radar. A widely used technique to insert a timing mark is to frequency-
modulate the carrier. The timing mark is the changing frequency. The transit time is
proportional to the difference in frequency between the transmitter signal and the echo signal.
The greater the transmitter frequency deviation in a given time interval, the more accurate is
the measurement of the transit time but the transmitted spectrum also becomes larger.
Range and Doppler measurement:
In the frequency-modulated CW radar (abbreviated FM-CW), the transmitter frequency is

changed as a function of time in a known manner. Assume that the transmitter frequency
increases linearly with time, as shown by the solid line in the figure below.
Figure: Frequency-time relation-ships in FM-CW radar. Solid curve represents transmitted

signal; dashed curve represents echo. (a) Linear frequency modulation (b) triangular
frequency modulation(c) beat note of (b).
If there is a reflecting object at a distance R, the echo signal will return after a time T = 2R/c.
The dashed line in the figure represents the echo signal. When the echo signal is heterodyned
with a portion of the transmitter signal in a nonlinear element such as a diode, a beat note fb
will be produced. If there is no Doppler frequency shift, the beat note (difference frequency) is
a measure of the target's range and fb= fr where fr, is the beat frequency only due to the target's
range. If the rate of change of the carrier frequency is f0(dot) then the beat frequency is given
by:
In any practical CW radar, the frequency cannot be continually changed in one direction only.
Periodicity in the modulation is necessary, as in the triangular frequency-modulation waveform

shown in fig.b. The modulation need not necessarily be triangular. It can be saw tooth,
sinusoidal, or some other shape. The resulting beat frequency as a function of time is shown in
fig.c for triangular modulation. The beat note is of constant frequency except at the turn-
around region. If a frequency change of Δf is modulated at a rate fm , then the beat frequency is
fr = (2R/c).2fm.Δf = 4Rfm.Δf /c
Or R = c fr / 4fm.Δf ……..[Eq.1]
Thus the measurement of the beat frequency determines the range R.
A block diagram illustrating the principle of the FM-CW radar is shown in the figure below. A
portion of the transmitter signal acts as the reference signal required to produce the beat
frequency. It is introduced directly into the receiver via a cable or other direct connection.
Figure: Block diagram of FM-CW radar
Ideally the isolation between transmitting and receiving antennas is made sufficiently large so
as to reduce to a negligible level the transmitter leakage signal which arrives at the receiver via
the coupling between antennas. The beat frequency is amplified and limited to remove any
amplitude fluctuations. The frequency of the amplitude-limited beat note is measured with a
cycle-counting frequency meter calibrated in distance.
In the above, the target was assumed to be stationary. If this assumption is not applicable, a
Doppler frequency shift will be superimposed on the FM range beat note and an erroneous
range measurement results. The Doppler frequency shift causes the frequency-time plot of the
echo signal to be shifted up or down as shown in the figure (a). On one portion of the
frequency-modulation cycle the beat frequency (fig. b) is increased by the Doppler shift, while
on the other portion, it is decreased.

Figure: Frequency-time relationships in FM-CW radar when the received signal is shifted in
frequency by the Doppler effect (a) Transmitted (solid curve) and echo (dashed curve) (b)
beat frequency
If for example, the target is approaching the radar, the beat frequency f b(up) produced during
the increasing or up portion of the FM cycle will be the difference between the beat
frequency due to the range fr and the Doppler frequency shift fd .Similarly, on the decreasing
portion, the beat frequency fb (down) is the sum of the two.
The range frequency fr may be extracted by measuring the average beat frequency; that is,
½[fb(up)+ fb (down)] = fr. If fb(up) and fb(down) are measured separately, for example, by
switching a frequency counter every half modulation cycle, one-half the difference between the
frequencies will yield the Doppler frequency. This assumes fr> fd . If, on the other hand, fr<fd,
such as might occur with a high-speed target at short range, the roles of the averaging and the
difference-frequency measurements are reversed; the averaging meter will measure Doppler
velocities, and the difference meter measures range.

FM-CW Altimeter:
The FM-CW radar principle is used in the aircraft radio altimeter to measure height above the surface of
the earth. The large backscatter cross section and the relatively short ranges required of altimeters
permit low transmitter power and low antenna gain. Since the relative motion between the aircraft and
ground is small, the effect of the Doppler frequency shift also may usually be neglected.
The band from 4.2 to 4.4GHz is reserved for radio altimeters, although they have in the past operated at
UHF. The transmitter power is relatively low and can be obtained from a CW Magnetron, a backward-
wave oscillator, or a reflex klystron, but now they have been replaced by the solid state transmitter.
The altimeter can employ a simple homodyne receiver, but for better sensitivity and stability the super
heterodyne is preferred whenever its more complex construction can be tolerated. The block diagram
of the FM-CW radar with a sideband super heterodyne receiver is shown in the figure below.
Figure: Block diagram of a FM-CW radar using sideband super heterodyne receiver
A portion of the frequency-modulated transmitted signal is applied to a mixer along with the oscillator
signal. The selection of the local-oscillator frequency is a bit different from that in the usual super
heterodyne receiver. The local-oscillator frequency fIF is the same as the intermediate frequency used in
the receiver, whereas in the conventional super heterodyne the LO frequency is of the same order of
frequency as the RF signal.
The output of the mixer consists of the varying transmitter frequency fo(t) plus two sideband
frequencies, one on either side of fo(t) and separated from fo(t)by the local-oscillator frequency fIF. The
filter selects the lower sideband, fo(t) -- fIF and rejects the carrier and the upper sideband. The side band
that is passed by the filter is modulated in the same fashion as the transmitted signal. The sideband filter
must have sufficient bandwidth to pass the modulation, but not the carrier or other sideband. The
filtered sideband serves the function of the local oscillator.

When an echo signal is present, the output of the receiver mixer is an IF signal of frequency (fIF+fb)
where fbis composed of the range frequency fr and the Doppler velocity frequency fd. The IF signal is
amplified and applied to the balanced detector along with the local-oscillator signal fIF. The output of the
detector contains the beat frequency (range frequency and the Doppler velocity frequency), which is
amplified to a level where it can actuate the frequency-measuring circuits.
In the above figure, the output of the low-frequency amplifier is divided into two channels: one feeds an
average-frequency counter to determine the range, and the other feeds a switched frequency counter
to determine the Doppler velocity (assuming fr>fd). Only the averaging frequency counter need be used
in an altimeter application, since the rate of change of altitude is usually small.
A target at short range will generally result in a strong signal at low frequency, while one at long range
will result in a weak signal at high frequency. Therefore the frequency characteristic of the low
frequency amplifier in the FM-CW radar may be shaped to provide attenuation at the low frequencies
corresponding to short ranges and large echo signals. Less attenuation is applied to the higher
frequencies, where the echo signals are weaker.
Multiple-frequency CW Radar:
Although it was indicated earlier that CW radar can not measure range, it is possible under some
circumstances to do so by measuring the phase of the echo signal relative to the phase of the
transmitted signal. Consider a CW radar radiating a single-frequency sine wave of the form sin2πfot(The
amplitude of the signal is taken to be unity since it does not influence the result) the signal travels to
the target at a range R and returns to the radar after a time T = 2R/c where c is the velocity of
propagation. The echo signal received at the radar is sin [2πfo(t –T)]. If the transmitted and received
signals are compared in a phase detector, the output is proportional to the phase difference between
the two and is given by :
Δφ= 2πf0T =4πfoRlc.
The phase difference may therefore be used as a measure of the range, or
………… [ Eq. 2]
However, the measurement of the phase difference Δφ is unambiguous only if Δφ does not exceed 2π
radians. Substituting Δφ = 2π into the above equation (Eq.1) gives the maximum unambiguous range as
λ/2.At radar frequencies this unambiguous range is much too small to be of any practical interest.
Unambiguous range may be extended considerably by utilizing two separate CW signals differing slightly
in frequency. The unambiguous range in this case corresponds to half wavelength at the difference
frequency.
The transmitted waveform is assumed to consist of two continuous sine waves of frequency f1 and f2
separated by an amount Δf. For convenience, the amplitudes of all signals are set equal to unity. The
voltage waveforms of the two components of the transmitted signal v1T and v2T may be written as

where Ø1 and Ø2 are arbitrary (constant) phase angles. The echo signal is shifted in frequency by the
Doppler Effect. The form of the Doppler-shifted signals corresponding to the two frequencies f1 and f2
are:
Where Ro = range to target at a particular time t = to(range that would be measured if target were
not moving)
fd1 = Doppler frequency shift associated with frequency f1
fd2 = Doppler frequency shift associated with frequency f2
Since the two RF frequencies f1and f2are approximately the same (that is f2=f1+ Δf, where Δf <<f 1)the
Doppler frequency shifts fd1and fd2 can be assumed to be equal to each other.
Therefore we may writefd1= fd2= fd
The receiver separates the two components of the echo signal and heterodynes each received signal
component with the corresponding transmitted waveform and extracts the two Doppler-frequency
components given below:
The phase difference between these two components is
Hence
which is same as that of Eq..2, with Δf substituted in place of fo.
Important aspects of Multi Frequency Radar:
The two frequencies of the two-frequency radar were described as being transmitted
simultaneously. They may also be transmitted sequentially in some applications by rapidly
switching a single RF source.
A large difference in frequency between the two transmitted signals improves the accuracy of
the range measurement since large Δf means a proportionately large change in ΔØ for a given
range. However, there is a limit to the value of Δf since ΔØ cannot be greater than 2π radians if
the range is to remain unambiguous. The maximum unambiguous range Runamb is

Therefore Δf must be less than c/2Runamb.Note that when Δf is replaced by the pulse repetition rate, the
above equation gives the maximum unambiguous range of a pulse radar.
A qualitative explanation of the operation of the two-frequency radar may be had by
considering both carrier frequencies to be in phase at zero range. As they progress outward
from the radar, the relative phase between the two increases because of their difference
infrequency. This phase difference may be used as a measure of the elapsed time. When the
two signals slip in phase by one cycle, the measurement of phase, and hence range, becomes
ambiguous.
The two-frequency CW radar is essentially a single-target radar since only one phase difference
can be measured at a time. If more than one target is present, the echo signal becomes
complicated and the meaning of the phase measurement becomes doubtful.
The theoretical rms range error with which range can be measured with the two-frequency CW
radar was estimated to be
Where E = energy contained in received signal and No = noise power per hertz of bandwidth.
The above Equation indicates that the greater the separation Δf between the two frequencies, the lesser
will be the rms error.
However if the frequency difference Δf increases unambiguous Range decreases. The selection of
Δf represents a compromise between the requirements of accuracy and ambiguity. Both accurate
and unambiguous range measurements can be made by transmitting three or more frequencies
instead of just two.
For example, if the three frequencies f1,f2 and f3are such that f3 – f1 = k( f2–f1) where k is a factor of the
order of 10 or 20, the pair of frequencies f3, f1(with greater Δf)gives an ambiguous but accurate range
measurement while the pair of frequencies f2, f1(with lesser Δf) resolve the ambiguities in the
measurement of Range. Likewise, further accuracy improvement with out reducing the ambiguous
range can be obtained by adding more frequencies. As more frequencies are added the spectrum and
target resolution approach that obtained with a pulse or an FM-CW waveform
Important Formulae:
Relation between Relative velocity Vr and Doppler frequency fd : fd = 2Vr / λ = 2Vrf0 / c

Relation between reflection coefficient and VSWR ς : | = (ς- l) / (ς+1).
Change in Doppler frequency due to target’s acceleration:
In a FM CW Radar:
 Target’s Range velocity fr is given by (Assuming there is no Doppler shift):
fr = 4Rfm.Δf /c

Where fm = modulating frequency and Δf = frequency swing

 Target’s Range velocity fr and Doppler frequency fd are given by (with Doppler shift
for Approaching target):
fr = ½[fb(up)+ fb (down)] and fd = ½[ fb (down) - fb(up)]
where :
Illustrative problems:
Example1: Determine the Range and Doppler velocity of an approaching target using a triangular
modulation FMCW Radar. Given : Beat frequency fb(up) = 15KHz and fb (down) = 25KHz , modulating
frequency : 1MHz, Δf : 1KHz and Operating frequency : 3Ghz
Solution:
We know fr = ½[fb(up)+ fb (down)] = ½( 15+25) = 20 Khz
fd = ½[ fb (down) - fb(up)] = ½( 25-15) = 5 Khz
The Range R in terms of fr , fm and Δf is given by : R = c fr / 4fm.Δf
= (3x108)20x103 / 4(1x106x1x103) mtrs = 1500 mtrs = 1.5 Kms
Example 2: What should be the VSWR of a mismatched antenna if an isolation of 20 dB is to be obtained

between the receiver and the transmitter in a CW Radar using a common antenna .
Solution : Isolation 20 db corresponds to a reflection coefficient of 0.1
[Since 20 log 10 (1/ρ) = 20 , log 10 (1/ρ) = 1 , 1/ρ = 10 and ρ = 0.1]
From the Relation between reflection coefficient ρ and VSWR ς : | ρ | = (ς- l) / (ς+1) we can
get
ς = (1+ ρ ) /(1- ρ ) and using the value of the reflection coefficient of 0.1 in this relation we
get
VSWR = (1+0.1)/(1-0.1) = 1.1/0.9 = 1.22
Questions from Previous Year Examinations:

1.The transmitter power is 1 KW and safe value of power which might be applied to a receiver is 10mW.
Find the isolation between transmitter and receiver in dB. Suggest the appropriate isolator.
2.(a) What is the Doppler effect? What are some of the ways in which it manifests itself? What
are its radar applications?
(b) what is the relation between bandwidth and the acceleration of the target with respect to
radar?
3.(a) How to find the target speed from Doppler frequency?
(b) Write the applications of CW Radar.
(c) What are the factors that limit the amount of isolation between Transmitter and Receiver
of CW Radar? [4+6+6]
4.(a) Explain the operation of the two frequency CW Radar.
(b) How to select the difference between the two transmitted signals of CW radar? [8+8]
5.(a) With the help of a suitable block diagram explain the operation of a CW Radar with non
zero IF amplifier
(b) list down and explain the applications of CW radar
6.(a) Draw the block diagram of a FMCW Radar using side band super heterodyne receiver and
explain it’s operation.
(b) With a transmit (CW) frequency of 5GHz, calculate the Doppler frequency seen by a
Stationary Radar when the target radial velocity is 100 km/h (62.5 mph)? [10+6]

Radar Systems Lecture Notes (K Subhas) Unit-3 : MTI and Pulse Doppler Radar
UNIT- 3
MTI AND PULSE DOPPLER RADAR
 Introduction
 Principle of Operation
 MTI Radar with Power Amplifier Transmitter and Power
Oscillator Transmitter
 Delay Line Cancellers- Filter Characteristics
 Blind Speeds
 Double Cancellations
 Staggered PRFs
 Range Gated Doppler Filters
 MTI Radar Parameters
 Limitations to MTI Performance
 MTI vs. Pulse Doppler Radar
Page 1
Department of ECE (2017-18)
MTI AND PULSE DOPPLER RADAR
Introduction:
The Doppler frequency shift [fd =2Vr / λ] produced by a moving target may be used in a pulse radar just
as in the CW radar, to determine the relative velocity of a target or to separate desired moving targets
from undesired stationary objects (clutter). Although there are applications of pulse radar where a
determination of the target's relative velocity is made from the Doppler frequency shift, the use of
Doppler to separate small moving targets in the presence of large clutter has been of greater interest.
Such a pulse radar that utilizes the Doppler frequency shift as a means of discriminating moving targets
from fixed targets is called a MTI(moving target indication) or a pulse Doppler radar. The two are based
on the same physical principle, but in practice there are differences between MTI and Pulse Doppler
radar.
 The MTI radar usually operates with ambiguous Doppler measurement (so-called blind speeds)
but with unambiguous range measurement (no second-time around echoes).
 A pulse Doppler radar operates with ambiguous range measurement but with unambiguous
Doppler measurement. Its pulse repetition frequency is usually high enough to operate with
unambiguous Doppler (no Blind speeds) but at the expense of range ambiguities.
Salient Features of MTI:
 MTI is a necessity in high-quality air-surveillance radars that operate in the presence of clutter.
 Its design is more challenging than that of a simple pulse radar or a simple CW radar.
 A MTI capability adds to a radar's cost and complexity and often system designers must accept
compromises they might not wish to.
 It took almost twenty years for the full capabilities offered by MTI signal-processing theory to be
converted into practical and economical Radar equipment. The chief factor that made this
possible was the development of reliable, small, and inexpensive digital processing hardware.
Principle of operation:
A simple CW radar studied earlier is shown in Fig.1 (a). In principle, the CW radar may be converted into
a pulse radar as shown in Fig.1(b) by providing a power amplifier and a modulator to turn the amplifier
on and off for the purpose of generating pulses. The chief difference between the pulse radar of Fig. 1(b)
and the one studied earlier is that a small portion of the CW oscillator power that generates the
transmitted pulses is diverted to the receiver to take the place of the local oscillator. However, this CW
signal does more than the job of the local oscillator. It acts as the coherent reference needed to detect
the Doppler frequency shift. By coherent it means that the phase of the transmitted signal is preserved
in the reference signal. The reference signal is the distinguishing feature of coherent MTI radar.
If the CW oscillator voltage is represented as A1sin 2πftt where A1 = amplitude and ft the carrier
frequency
 Then the reference signal is: Vref = A2sin 2πftt ……….. (1)
 And the Doppler-shifted echo-signal voltage is
Page 2
………..(2)
Where A2 = amplitude of reference signal
A3 = amplitude of signal received from a target at a range R0
fd = Doppler frequency shift
t = time
c = velocity of propagation
 The reference signal and the target echo signal are heterodyned in the mixer stage of the
receiver. Only the low-frequency (difference-frequency) component from the mixer is of interest
and is a voltage given by:
…………(3)
Figure 1: (a) Simple CW Radar (b) Pulse Radar using Doppler Information
Note that the equations (1) to (3) above represent sine wave carriers upon which the pulse modulation
is imposed. The difference frequency is equal to the Doppler frequency fd. For stationary targets the
Doppler frequency shift will be zero and hence Vdiff will not vary with time and may take on any constant
value from +A4 to –A4 including zero. However, when the target is in motion relative to the radar fd has a
value other than zero and the voltage corresponding to the difference frequency from the mixer [Eq.
(3)] will be a function of time.
Page 3
 An example of the output from the mixer when the Doppler frequency fd is large compared with
the reciprocal of the pulse width is shown in Fig.2 (b). The Doppler signal may be readily
discerned from the information contained in a single pulse.
 If, on the other hand fd is small compared with the reciprocal of the pulse duration, the pulses
will be modulated with an amplitude given by Eq. (3) [Fig. 2(c)] and many pulses will be needed
to extract the Doppler information.
 The case illustrated in Fig. 2(c) is more typical of aircraft-detection radar, while the waveform of
Fig. 2(b) might be more applicable to a radar used for the detection of extraterrestrial targets
such as ballistic missiles or satellites.
 Ambiguities in the measurement of Doppler frequency can occur in the case of the
discontinuous measurement of Fig. 2(c) but not when the measurement is made on the basis of
a single pulse.
 The video signals shown in Fig.2are called bipolar, since they contain both positive and negative
amplitudes.
Figure 2 (a) RF echo pulse train (b) video pulse train for Doppler frequency fd>I/τ (c) video pulse
train for Doppler frequency fd<I/τ .
Moving targets may be distinguished from stationary targets by observing the video output on an A-
scope (amplitude vs. range). A single sweep on an A-scope might appear as in Fig. 3 (a) shown below.
This sweep shows several fixed targets and two moving targets indicated by the two arrows. On the
basis of a single sweep, moving targets cannot be distinguished from fixed targets.
Page 4
Figure 3 (a-e) Successive sweeps of a MTI radar A-scope display (echo amplitude as a function of time)
(f) superposition of many sweeps: arrows indicate position of moving targets.
Successive A-scope sweeps (pulse-repetition intervals) are shown in Fig. 3 (a) to (e). Echoes from fixed
targets remain constant throughout, but echoes from moving targets vary in amplitude from sweep to
sweep at a rate corresponding to the Doppler frequency. The superposition of the successive A-scope
sweeps is shown in Fig. 3(f). The moving targets produce, with time, a" butterfly" effect on the A-scope.
Concept of delay-line canceller:
Although the butterfly effect is suitable for recognizing moving targets on an A-scope, it is not
appropriate for display on the PPI. One method commonly employed to extract Doppler information in a
form suitable for display on the PPI scope is with a delay-line canceller as shown in the Fig. 4 below.
Figure 4: MTI Receiver with delay-line canceller
The delay-line canceller acts as a filter to eliminate the d-c component of fixed targets and to pass the a-
c components of moving targets. The video portion of the receiver is divided into two channels. One is a
normal video channel. In the other, the video signal experiences a time delay equal to one pulse-
Page 5
repetition period (equal to the reciprocal of the pulse repetition frequency). The outputs from the two
channels are subtracted from one another. The fixed targets with unchanging amplitudes from pulse to
pulse are canceled on subtraction. However, the amplitudes of the moving-target echoes are not
constant from pulse to pulse and subtraction results in an un canceled residue. The output of the
subtraction circuit is a bipolar video just as was the input. Before bipolar video can intensity-modulate
a PPI display it is converted into unipotential voltages (unipolar video) by a full-wave rectifier.
MTI Radar with Power Amplifier Transmitter:
The simple MTI radar shown in Fig. 1(b) is not the most typical. The block diagram of a more common
MTI radar employing a power amplifier is shown in the Fig. 5 below. The significant difference between
this MTI configuration and that of Fig. 1(b) is the manner in which the reference signal is generated. In
Fig. 5, the coherent reference is supplied by an oscillator called the coho, which stands for coherent
oscillator. The coho is a stable oscillator whose frequency is the same as the intermediate frequency
used in the receiver. In addition to providing the reference signal, the output of the coho is also mixed
with the local-oscillator frequency fl .The local oscillator also must be a stable oscillator and is called
stalo, for stable local oscillator. The RF echo signal is heterodyned with the stalo signal to produce the IF
just as in the conventional super heterodyne receiver. The stalo, coho and the mixer in which they are
mixed are called Receiver- Exciter because of the dual role they serve both the receiver and the
transmitter.
Figure 5: Block diagram of MTI radar with power-amplifier transmitter.
The characteristic feature of coherent MTI radar is that the transmitted signal must be coherent (in
phase) with the reference signal in the receiver. This is accomplished in the radar system shown in Fig. 5
Page 6
by generating the transmitted signal from the coho reference signal. The function of the stalo is to
provide the necessary frequency translation from the IF to the transmitted (RF) frequency. Although the
phase of the stalo influences the phase of the transmitted signal, any stalo phase shift is canceled on
reception because the stalo that generates the transmitted signal also acts as the local oscillator in the
receiver. The reference signal from the coho and the IF echo signal are both fed into a mixer called the
Phase detector. The phase detector differs from the normal amplitude detector since its output is
proportional to the phase difference between the two input signals.
Any one of the transmitting-tubes like Triode, Tetrode, Klystron, Traveling-Wave Tube (TWT), and the
Crossed-Field Amplifier ICFA) might be used as the power amplifier.
A transmitter which consists of a stable low-power oscillator followed by a power amplifier is sometimes
called MOPA, which stands for Master-Oscillator Power Amplifier.
MTI radar with power-oscillator transmitter:
Before the development of the Klystron amplifier, the only high-power transmitter tube available at
microwave frequencies for radar application was the Magnetron. In a Magnetron oscillator, the phase of
the RF bears no relationship from pulse to pulse. For this reason, the reference signal cannot be
generated by a continuously running oscillator. However, a coherent reference signal may be readily
obtained with the power oscillator by readjusting the phase of the coho at the beginning of each sweep
according to the phase of the transmitted pulse. The phase of the coho is locked to the phase of the
transmitted pulse each time a pulse is generated.
Figure 6: Block diagram of MTI radar with power-oscillator transmitter
Page 7
Delay Line Cancellers:
The simple MTI delay-line canceller showed in Fig. 4 is an example of a time-domain filter. The capability
of this device depends on the quality of the medium used in the delay line. The Pulse modulator delay
line must introduce a time delay equal to the pulse repetition interval. For typical ground-based air
surveillance radars this will be several milliseconds. Delay times of this magnitude cannot be achieved
with practical electromagnetic transmission lines. By converting the electromagnetic signal to an
acoustic signal, it is possible to utilize delay lines of a reasonable physical length since the velocity of
propagation of acoustic waves is about 10-5 that of electromagnetic waves. After the necessary delay is
introduced by the acoustic line, the signal is converted back to an electromagnetic signal for further
processing. The early acoustic delay lines developed during World War 2 used liquid delay lines filled
with either water or mercury. Liquid delay lines were large and inconvenient to use. They were replaced
in the mid-1950s by the solid fused-quartz delay line that used multiple internal reflections to obtain a
compact device. These analog acoustic delay lines were, in turn replaced in the early 1970s by storage
devices based on digital computer technology. The use of digital delay lines requires that the output of
the MTI receiver phase-detector be quantized into a sequence of digital words. The compactness and
convenience of digital processing allows the implementation of more complex delay-line cancellers with
filter characteristics not practical with analog methods. One of the advantages of a time-domain delay-
line canceller as compared to the more conventional frequency-domain filter is that a single network
operates at all ranges and does not require a separate filter for each range resolution cell. Frequency-
domain Doppler filter banks are of interest in some forms of MTI and Pulse-Doppler radar.
Filter Characteristics of the Delay Line Canceller:
The delay-line canceller acts as a filter which rejects the d-c component of clutter. Because of its
periodic nature, the filter also rejects energy in the vicinity of the pulse repetition frequency and its
harmonics. The video signal of Eq.(3)received from a particular target at a range R0 is
V1= k sin (2πfdt –Ø0) ……………… (4)
Where Ø0 = phase shift and k = amplitude of video signal. The signal from the previous transmission,
which is delayed by a time T = pulse repetition interval, is
V2= k sin [2πfd (t – T) – Ø0) …………….. (5)

Everything else is assumed to remain essentially constant over the interval T so that k is the same for
both pulses. The output from the subtractor is
V = V1- V2=2k sin πfdT cos [2 πfd( t – T/2) –Øo] …………….. (6)
It is assumed that the gain through the delay-line canceller is unity. The output from the canceller Eq. (6)
consists of a cosine wave at the Doppler frequency & with an amplitude 2k sin πfdT: Thus, the amplitude
of the canceled video output is a function of the Doppler frequency shift and the pulse-repetition
interval, or prf. The magnitude of the relative frequency-response of the delay-line canceller [ratio of
the amplitude of the output from the delay-line canceller, 2k sin (πfd T) to the amplitude of the normal
radar video k] is shown in the Fig. 7 below.
Page 8
Figure (7): Frequency response of the single delay-line canceller: T = delay time =1/fP.
Blind speeds:
The response of the single-delay-line canceller will be zero whenever the argument (πfdT) in the
amplitude factor of Eq. (6) is 0, π, 2π, . .., etc., or when
……………. (7)
where n = 0, 1, 2, . . . , and fp= pulse repetition frequency. The delay-line canceller not only eliminates
the d-c component caused by clutter (n = 0),but unfortunately it also rejects any moving target whose
Doppler frequency happens to be the same as the prf or a multiple thereof. Those relative target
velocities which result in zero MTI response are called blind speeds and are given by
……………… (8)
where vn is the nth blind speed.
The blind speeds are one of the limitations of pulse MTI radar which do not occur with CW radar. They
are present in pulse radar because Doppler is measured by discrete samples (pulses) at the prf rather
than continuously. If the first blind speed is to be greater than the maximum radial velocity expected
from the target, the product, λfP must be large. Thus, the MTI radar must operate at long wavelengths
(low frequencies) or with high pulse repetition frequencies, or both. Unfortunately, there are usually
constraints other than blind speeds which determine the wavelength and the pulse repetition
frequency. Therefore, blind speeds are not easy to avoid. Low radar frequencies have the disadvantage
that antenna beam widths, for a given-size antenna, are wider than at the higher frequencies and would
not be satisfactory in applications where angular accuracy or angular resolution is important. The pulse
repetition frequency cannot always be varied over wide limits since it is primarily determined by the
unambiguous range requirement.
Page 9
Double cancellation:
The frequency response of a single-delay-line canceller (Fig. 7) does not always have as broad a clutter-
rejection null as desired in the vicinity of d-c. The clutter-rejection notches may be widened by passing
the output of the delay-line canceller through a second delay-line canceller as shown in Fig. 8 below.
The output of the two single-delay line cancellers in cascade is the square of that from a single canceller.
Thus the frequency response is (4 sin2πfdT). The configuration of Fig. 8 is called a double-delay-line
canceller, or simply a double canceller. The relative response of the double canceller compared with
that of a single-delay-line canceller is shown in Fig. 9. The finite width of the clutter spectrum is also
shown (hatched) in this figure so as to illustrate the additional cancellation of clutter offered by the
double canceller.
The two-delay-line configuration of Fig.8 (b) has the same frequency-response characteristic as the
double-delay-line canceller. The operation of the device is as follows. A signal f (t) is inserted into the
adder along with the signal from the preceding pulse period, with its amplitude weighted by the factor -
2, plus the signal from the previous two pulse periods. The output of the adder is therefore
f(t) - 2f(t + T) +f (t + 2T)
which is the same as the output from the double-delay-line canceller.
f (t) - f (t + T) -f (t + T) +f (t + 2T)
This configuration is commonly called the three-pulse canceller.
Figure 8 : (a) Double-delay-line canceller (b)Three-pulse canceller.
Page 10
Figure (9): Relative frequency response of the single-delay-line canceller (solid curve) and the double
delay-line canceller (dashed curve). Shaded area represents clutter spectrum.
Multiple or staggered Pulse Repetition Frequencies:
The use of more than one pulse repetition frequency offers additional flexibility in the design of MTI
Doppler filters. It not only reduces the effect of the blind speeds of Eq. 8, but it also allows a sharper
low-frequency cutoff in the frequency response than might be obtained with a cascade of single-delay-
line cancellers with sinnπfdT response. The blind speeds of two independent radars operating at the
same frequency will be different if their pulse repetition frequencies are different. Therefore, if one
radar were “blind "to moving targets, it is unlikely that the other radar would be” blind" also. Instead of
using two separate radars, the same result can be obtained with one radar which time-shares its pulse
repetition frequency between two or more different values (multiple PRF’s). The pulse repetition
frequency might be switched every other scan or every time the antenna is scanned a half beam width,
or the period might be alternated on every other pulse. When the switching is pulse to pulse, it is known
as a staggered PRF. An example of the composite (average) response of an MTI radar operating with
two separate pulse repetition frequencies on a time-shared basis is shown in Fig.10. The pulse repetition
frequencies are in the ratio of 5:4. Note that the first blind speed of the composite response is increased
several times over what it would be for a radar operating on only a single pulse repetition frequency.
Zero response occurs only when the blind speeds of each prf coincide. In the example of Fig.10, the
blind speeds are coincident for 4/T1= 5/T2.Although the first blind speed may be extended by using more
than one prf, regions of low sensitivity might appear within the composite pass band. The closer the
ratio TI : T2 approaches unity, the greater will be the value of the first blind speed. However, the first null
in the vicinity of fd = 1/T1becomes deeper. Thus, the choice of T1/T2 is a compromise between the value
of the first blind speed and the depth of the nulls within the filter pass band.
Page 11
Figure 10 (a) Frequency-response of a single-delay-line canceller for fP= 1/T1 (b) same for fp= l/T2
(c) Composite response with T1/T2= 4/5.
The depth of the nulls can be reduced and the first blind speeds increased by operating with more than
two inter pulse periods. Figure 11 below shows the response of a five-pulse stagger (four periods) that
might be used with a long-range air traffic control radar. In this example the periods are in the ratio 25 :
30 : 27 : 31 and the first blind speed is 28.25 times that of a constant prf waveform with the same
average period. If the periods of the staggered waveforms have the relationship n1 /T1= n2/T2= ……. =
nN/TN, where n1,n2, ..., nN are integers, and if vB is equal to the first blind speed of a non-staggered
waveform with a constant period equal to the average period Tav= (TI+ T2+ . . . TN)/N then the first blind
speed v1 is given by :
Page 12
Figure 11: Frequency response of a five-pulse (four-period) stagger.
Range-gated Doppler filters:
The delay-line canceller, which can be considered as a time-domain filter, is widely used in MTI radar to
separate moving targets from stationary clutter. It is also possible to employ the more common
frequency-domain band pass filters of conventional design in MTI radar to separate the Doppler-
frequency-shifted targets. The filter configuration however would be more complex, than the single,
narrow-band pass filter. A narrowband filter with a pass band designed to pass the Doppler frequency
components of moving targets will “ring" when excited by the usual short radar pulse. That is, its pass
band is much narrower than the reciprocal of the input pulse width so that the output will be of much
greater duration than the input. The narrowband filter "smears" the input pulse since the impulse
response is approximately the reciprocal of the filter bandwidth. This smearing destroys the range
resolution. If more than one target is present they cannot be resolved. Even if only one target is
present, the noise from the other range cells that do not contain the target will interfere with the
desired target signal. The result is a reduction in sensitivity due to a collapsing loss.
The loss of the range information and the collapsing loss may be eliminated by first quantizing the range
(time) into small intervals. This process is called range gating. The width of the range gates depends
upon the range accuracy desired and the complexity which can be tolerated, but they are usually of the
order of the pulse width. Range resolution is established by gating. Once the radar return is quantized
into range intervals, the output from each gate may be applied to a narrowband filter since the pulse
shape need no longer be preserved for range resolution. A collapsing loss does not take place since
noise from the other range intervals is excluded.
Page 13
A block diagram of the video of an MTI radar with multiple range gates followed by clutter-rejection
filters is shown in Fig. 12 below. The output of the phase detector is sampled sequentially by the range
gates. Each range gate opens in sequence just long enough to sample the voltage of the video waveform
corresponding to a different range interval in space. The range gate acts as a switch or a gate which
opens and closes at the proper time. The range gates are activated once each pulse-repetition interval.
The output for a stationary target is a series of pulses of constant amplitude. An echo from a moving
target produces a series of pulses which vary in amplitude according to the Doppler frequency. The
output of the range gates is stretched in a circuit called the boxcar generator, or sample-and-hold
circuit, whose purpose is to aid in the filtering and detection process by emphasizing the fundamental of
the modulation frequency and eliminating harmonics of the pulse repetition frequency. The clutter
rejection filter is a band pass filter whose bandwidth depends upon the extent of the expected clutter
spectrum.
Figure 12: Block diagram of MTI radar using range gates and filters.
Following the Doppler filter is a full-wave linear detector and an integrator (a low-pass filter). The
purpose of the detector is to convert the bipolar video to unipolar video. The output of the integrator is
applied to a threshold-detection circuit. Only those signals which cross the threshold are reported as
targets. Following the threshold detector, the outputs from each of the range channels must be properly
combined for display on the PPI or A-scope or for any other appropriate indicating or data-processing
device. The CRT display from this type of MTI radar appears "cleaner" than the display from a normal
MTI radar, not only because of better clutter rejection, but also because the threshold device eliminates
many of the unwanted false alarms due to noise. The frequency-response characteristic of the range-
gated MTI appears as in Fig. 13. The shape of the rejection band is determined primarily by the shape of
the band pass filter of Fig. 12.
Page 14
Figure 13: Frequency-response characteristic of an MTI using range gates and filters.
Limitations to MTI Performance:
The improvement in signal-to-clutter ratio of an MTI is affected by factors other than the design of the
Doppler signal processor such as:
 Instabilities of the transmitter and receiver
 physical motions of the clutter
 Finite time on target (or scanning modulation)
Before discussing these limitations, we shall study the related definitions.
Definitions related to MTI Performance:
MTI improvement factor: The signal-to-clutter ratio at the output of the MTI system divided by the
signal-to-clutter ratio at the input, averaged uniformly over all target radial velocities of interest.
Sub clutter visibility: The ratio by which the target echo power may be weaker than the coincident
clutter echo power and still be detected with specified detection and false alarm probabilities.A sub
clutter visibility of, for example, 30 dB implies that a moving target can be detected in the presence of
clutter even though the clutter echo power is 1000 times the target echo power. Two radars with the
same sub clutter visibility might not have the same ability to detect targets in clutter if the resolution
cell of one is greater than the other and accepts a greater clutter signal power. i.e., both radars might
reduce the clutter power equally, but one starts with greater clutter power because its resolution cell is
greater and "sees" more clutter targets.
Clutter visibility factor: The signal-to-clutter ratio, after cancellation or Doppler filtering that provides
stated probabilities of detection and false alarm.
The improvement factor (I): Is equal to the sub clutter visibility (SCV) times the clutter visibility factor
(VOC). In decibels, I(dB) = SCV(dB) + Voc(dB). When the MTI is limited by noise like system instabilities,
the clutter visibility factor should be chosen as is the signal to noise ratio as defined in Radar Equation.
Page 15
Limitations:
Equipment instabilities: Pulse-to-pulse changes in the amplitude, frequency, or phase of the transmitter
signal, changes in the Stalo or Coho oscillators in the receiver, jitter in the timing of the pulse
transmission, variations in the time delay through the delay lines, and changes in the pulse width can
cause the apparent frequency spectrum from perfectly stationary clutter to broaden and thereby lower
the improvement factor of an MTI radar. The stability of the equipment in MTI radar must be
considerably better than that of an ordinary radar. It can limit the performance of MTI radar if sufficient
care is not taken in design, construction, and maintenance.
Internal fluctuation of clutter: Although clutter targets such as buildings, water towers, bare hills or
mountains produce echo signals that are constant in both phase and amplitude as a function of time,
there are many types of clutter that cannot be considered as absolutely stationary. Echoes from trees,
vegetation, sea, rain, and chaff fluctuate with time, and these fluctuations can limit the performance of
MTI radar. Because of its varied nature, it is difficult to describe precisely the clutter echo signal.
Antenna scanning modulation: As the antenna scans by a target, it observes the target for a finite time
equal to : to=nB/fP = θB / θ’S where nB = number of hits received, fp = pulse repetition frequency, θB
= antenna beam width and θ’S = antenna scanning rate. The received pulse train of finite duration to
has a frequency spectrum (which can be found by taking the Fourier transform of the waveform) whose
width is proportional to 1/to. Therefore, even if the clutter were perfectly stationary, there will still be a
finite width to the clutter spectrum because of the finite time on target. If the clutter spectrum is too
wide because the observation time is too short, it will affect the improvement factor. This limitation has
sometimes been called scanning fluctuations or scanning modulation.
Pulse Doppler Radar Vs MTI :
A Pulse radar that extracts the Doppler frequency shift for the purpose of detecting moving targets in
the presence of clutter is either a MTI Radar or a Pulse Doppler Radar. The distinction between them is
based on the fact that in a sampled measurement system like a pulse Radar, ambiguities arise in
measuring both the Doppler frequency (relative velocity) and the Range (time delay). Range ambiguities
are avoided with a low sampling rate (low pulse repetition frequency), and Doppler frequency
ambiguities are avoided with a high sampling rate. However, in most radar applications the sampling
rate, or pulse repetition frequency, cannot be selected to avoid both types of measurement ambiguities.
Therefore, a compromise must be made and the nature of the compromise generally determines
whether the radar is called an MTI or a Pulse Doppler Radar.
 MTI usually refers to a Radar in which the pulse repetition frequency is chosen low enough to
avoid ambiguities in range (no multiple-time-around echoes) but with the consequence that the
frequency measurement is ambiguous and results in blind speeds, Eq. (4.8).
 The pulse Doppler radar, on the other hand, has a high pulse repetition frequency that avoids
blind speeds, but it experiences ambiguities in range.
Page 16
Previous Years’ Examination Questions:
1. Explain the following limitations of MTI radar.

(a) Equipment instabilities.
(b) Scanning modulation.
(c) Internal fluctuation of clutter.
2. (a) Explain the function of time domain filter in a MTI Radar with an example.
(b) A MTI radar operates at 10GHz with a PRF of 300 pps. Calculate the lowest blind speed?
3. (a) An MTI radar is operated at 9GHz with a PRF of 3000 pps. Calculate the first two lowest
blind speeds for this radar. Derive the formula used.
(b) Discuss the limitations of non-coherent MTI Radar systems. [12+4]
4. (a) Write the description of Range gated Doppler filters.
(b) Explain the operation of MTI radar with 2 pulse repetition frequencies. [8+8]
5. (a) Draw and explain the frequency response characteristics of a MTI using Range gates and
filters.
(b) A MTI Radar operates at frequency of 6Ghz with a PRF of 800 PPS . Calculate the lowest
blind speeds of this Radar.
6. (a) Compare and contrast the situations with a Power amplifier and Power oscillator in the
transmitter of a MTI system.
(b) Calculate the blind speed for a Radar with the following specifications: Wave length: 0.1
mtr and PRF : 200 Hz
7. (a) Description of Range gated Doppler filters.
(b) Differentiate blind phases from blind speeds.
(c) Discuss the application of electrostatic storage tubes in MTI radar. [6+5+5]
8. (a) Briefly explain about range – gated Doppler filters.
(b) Describe the importance of double cancellation.
9. (a) Compare MTI Radar with Pulse Doppler radar
(b) Explain the function of a single delay line canceller and derive an expression for the
frequency response function.
10. (a) What is an MTI Radar and how does it operate.
(b) Define blind speed. A MTI radar operates at 5 Ghz with a PRF of 100PPS. Find the three
lowest blind speeds of this Radar. Explain the importance of Staggered PRF. (8+7)
Page 17
Radar Systems Lecture Notes (K Subhas) Unit-4 : Tracking Radar
UNIT-4
TRACKING RADAR
 Tracking with Radar

 Sequential Lobing
 Conical Scan
 Monopulse Tracking Radar
 Amplitude Comparison Monopulse (One and two
coordinate)
 Phase Comparison Monopulse
 Tracking in Range
 Acquisition and Scanning Patterns
 Comparison of Trackers
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology (MRCET) Page 1

TRACKING RADAR
Tracking with Radar:
Tracking is the process of continuously maintaining the antenna beam on the target and also the echo
signal within the range gate (present Range value). The antenna beam in the continuous tracking radar is
positioned in angle by a servomechanism actuated by an error signal. The various methods for
generating the error signal are classified as sequential lobing, conical scan, and simultaneous lobing or
monopulse. The range and Doppler frequency shift are continuously tracked, by a servo-control loop
actuated by an error signal generated in the radar receiver.
The tracking radar must first find and acquire its target before it can track. This is explained in detail
subsequently under the heading ‘Acquisition and Scanning Patterns’.
Sequential Lobing:
The antenna pattern commonly employed with tracking radars is the symmetrical pencil beam in which
the, elevation and azimuth beam widths are approximately equal. However, a simple pencil-beam
antenna is not suitable for tracking radars unless means are provided for determining the magnitude
and direction of the target's angular position with respect to some reference direction, usually the axis
of the antenna. The difference between the target position and the reference direction is the angular
error. The tracking radar attempts to position the antenna to make the angular error zero. When the
angular error is zero, the target is located along the reference direction.
One method of obtaining the direction and the magnitude of the angular error in one coordinate is by
alternately switching the antenna beam between two positions (Fig 1).This is called lobe switching
sequential switching, or sequential lobing. Fig 1-a is a polar representation of the antenna beam (minus
the side lobes) in the two switched positions. A plot in rectangular coordinates is shown in Fig.1-b, and
the error signal obtained from a target not on the switching axis (reference direction) is shown in Fig.1-
c.The difference in amplitude between the voltages obtained in the two switched positions is a measure
of the angular displacement of the target from the switching axis. The sign of the difference determines
the direction the antenna must be moved in order to align the switching axis with the direction of the
target. When the voltages in the two switched positions are equal, the target is on axis and its position is
determined from the antenna direction.
Two additional switching positions are needed to obtain the angular error in the orthogonal coordinate.
Thus a two-dimensional sequentially lobing radar consists of a cluster of four feed horns illuminating a
single antenna, arranged so that the right-left, up-down sectors are covered by successive antenna
positions. Both transmission and reception are accomplished at each position. A cluster of five feeds
might also be employed, with the central feed used for transmission while the outer four feeds are used
for receiving. High-power RF switches are not needed since only the receiving beams, and not the
transmitting beam, are stepped in this five-feed arrangement.

Figure 1: Lobe-switching antenna patterns and error signal (one dimension) (a) Polar representation of
switched antenna patterns(b)rectangular representation (c)error signal
An important feature of sequential lobing (as well as the other tracking techniques to be discussed) is
that the target-position accuracy can be far better than that given by the antenna beam width. The
accuracy depends on how well equality of the signals in the switched positions can be determined. The
fundamental limitation to accuracy is system noise caused either by mechanical or electrical
fluctuations.
Conical Scan:
A logical extension of the simultaneous lobing technique described in the previous section is to rotate
continuously an offset antenna beam rather than discontinuously step the beam between four discrete
positions. This is known as conical scanning (Fig.2). The angle between the axis of rotation (which is
usually the axis of the antenna reflector) and the axis of the antenna beam is called the Squint Angle.
Consider a target at position A. The echo signal amplitude will be modulated at a frequency equal to the
rotation frequency of the beam. The amplitude of the echo signal modulation will depend upon the
shape of the antenna pattern, the squint angle and the angle between the target line of sight &the
rotation axis. The phase of the modulation depends on the angle between the target and the rotation
axis. The conical scan modulation is extracted from the echo signal and applied to a servo-control
system which continually positions the antenna on the target. [Note that two servos are required
because the tracking is required in two-dimensions. When the antenna is on target, as in B of Fig. 2, the
line of sight to the target and the rotation axis coincide, and the conical-scan modulation is zero.

A block diagram of the angle-tracking portion of a typical conical-scan tracking radar is shown in Fig.3.
The antenna is mounted so that it can be positioned in both azimuth and elevation by separate motors.
The antenna beam is offset by tilting either the feed or the reflector with respect to one another.
One of the simplest conical-scan antennas is a parabola with an offset rear feed rotated about the axis
of the reflector. A typical conical-scan rotation speed is 30 r/s. The same motor that provides the
conical-scan rotation of the antenna beam also drives a two-phase reference generator with two
sinusoidal outputs 900apart in phase. These two outputs serve as a reference to extract the elevation
and azimuth errors. The received echo signal is fed to the receiver from the antenna via two rotary joints
(not shown in the block diagram). One rotary joint permits motion in azimuth and the other, in
elevation.
The receiver is conventional super heterodyne except for features peculiar to the conical-scan tracking
radar. One feature not found in other radar receivers is a means of extracting the conical-scan
modulation, or error signal. This is accomplished after the second detector in the video portion of the
receiver. The error signal is compared with the elevation and azimuth reference signals in the angle-
error detectors, which are phase-sensitive detectors for generating the Azimuth and Elevation errors
separately.
Figure 2:Principle of Conical-scan tracking.
A phase sensitive detector is a nonlinear device in which the input signal (in this case the angle-error
signal) is mixed with the reference signal. The input and reference signals are of the same frequency.
The output d-c voltage reverses polarity as the phase of the input signal changes through 1800. The
magnitude of the d-c output from the angle-error detector is proportional to the error, and the sign
(polarity) is an indication of the direction of the error. The angle-error detector outputs are amplified
and fed to the drive system to drive the antenna elevation and azimuth servo motors.
The angular position of the target is determined from the elevation and azimuth positions of the
antenna axis. The position is read out by means of standard angle transducers such as synchros,
potentiometers, or shaft Encoders.

Figure 3: Block diagram of conical-scan tracking radar.
Boxcar generator:
When extracting the modulation imposed on a repetitive train of narrow pulses, it is usually convenient
to stretch the pulses before low-pass filtering. This is called boxcaring or sample and hold. Here the
device is called a boxcar generator. The boxcar generator was also mentioned in the discussion of the
MTI receiver using range-gated filters. ln essence, it clamps or stretches the video pulses of Fig.4-(a)in
time so as to cover the entire pulse-repetition period (Fig.4-b). This is possible only in a range-gated
receiver (Tracking radars are normally operated with range gates. The boxcar generator consists of an
electric circuit that clamps the potential of a storage element, such as a capacitor, to the video-pulse
amplitude each time the pulse is received. The capacitor maintains the potential of the pulse during the
entire repetition period and is altered only when a new video pulse appears whose amplitude differs
from the previous one. The boxcar generator eliminates the pulse repetition frequency and reduces its
harmonics. It also has the practical advantage that the magnitude of the conical-scan modulation is
amplified because pulse stretching puts more of the available energy at the modulation frequency. The
pulse repetition frequency must be sufficiently large compared with the conical-scan frequency for
proper boxcar filtering.

Fig 4: (a) Pulse train with conical scan modulation (b) same pulse train after passing through boxcar
generator.
Automatic Gain Control (AGC) :
The echo-signal amplitude at the tracking-radar receiver will not be constant but will vary with time. The
three major causes of variation in amplitude are:
 The inverse-fourth-power relationship between the echo signal and range
 The conical-scan modulation (angle-error signal) and
 Amplitude fluctuations in the target cross Section.
The function of the automatic gain control (AGC) is to maintain the d-c level of the receiver output
constant and to smooth or eliminate as much of the noise like amplitude fluctuations as possible
without disturbing the extraction of the desired error signal at the conical-scan frequency.
One of the purposes of AGC in any receiver is to prevent saturation by large signals. The scanning
modulation and the error signal would be lost if the receiver saturates. In the conical-scanning tracking
radar an AGC that maintains the d-c level constant results in an error signal that is a true indication of
the angular pointing error. The d-c level of the receiver must be maintained constant if the angular error
is to be linearly related to the angle-error signal voltage.
An example of the AGC portion of a tracking-radar receiver is shown in Fig.5. A portion of the video-
amplifier output is passed through a low-pass or smoothing filter and fedback to control the gain of the
IF amplifier. The larger the video output, the larger will be the feedback signal and the greater will be
the gain reduction. The filter in the AGC loop should pass all frequencies from direct current to just
below the conical-scan-modulation frequency. The loop gain of the AGC filter measured at the conical-
scan frequency should be low so that the error signal will not be affected by AGC action. (If the AGC
responds to the conical-scan frequency, the error signal will be lost.)

Figure 5: Block diagram of the AGC portion of a tracking-radar receiver.
The phase shift of this filter must be small if its phase characteristic is not to influence the error signal. A
phase change of the error signal is equivalent to a rotation of the reference axis and introduces cross
coupling, or "cross talk," between the elevation and azimuth angle-tracking loops. Cross talk affects the
stability of the tracking and might result in an unwanted nutating motion of the antenna. In
conventional tracking radar applications, the phase change introduced by the feedback-loop filter
should be less than 100 and in some applications, it should be as little as 20. For this reason, a filter with a
sharp attenuation characteristic in the vicinity of the conical-scan frequency might not be desirable
because of the relatively large amount of phase shift which it would introduce.
Other considerations:
 In both the sequential-lobing and conical-scan techniques, the measurement of the angle error
in two orthogonal coordinates (azimuth and elevation) requires that a minimum of three pulses
be processed.
 In practice, however, the minimum number of pulses in sequential lobing is usually four-one per
quadrant. Although a conical scan radar can also be operated with only four pulses per
revolution, it is more usual to have ten or more per revolution. This allows the modulation due
to the angle error to be more like a continuous sine wave.
 Thus, the PRF is usually at least an order of magnitude greater than the conical-scan frequency.
 The scan frequency also must be at least an order of magnitude greater than the tracking
bandwidth.
A COnical-Scan-on-Receive-Only (COSRO) tracking radar radiates a non-scanning transmit beam, but
receives with a conical scanning beam to extract the angle error. The analogous operation with
sequential lobing is called Lobe-On-Receive-Only (LORO).
Monopulse tracking radar:

Disadvantages of The conical-scan and sequential-lobing tracking radars:
 They require a minimum number of pulses to extract the angle-error signal.
 In the time interval during which a measurement is made with either sequential lobing or
conical scan, the train of echo pulses must not contain amplitude-modulation components other
than the modulation produced by scanning. If the echo pulse-train contains additional

modulation components, caused, for example, by a fluctuating target cross section, the tracking
accuracy will be degraded, especially if the frequency of the fluctuations is at or near the
conical-scan frequency or the sequential-lobing rate.
 The fluctuating echo can severely limit the accuracy of those tracking radars which require many
pulses to be processed to extract the error signal.
These disadvantages are over come in the Monopulse Tracking Radar.
Pulse-to-pulse amplitude fluctuations of the echo signal have no effect on tracking accuracy if the
angular measurement is made on the basis of one pulse rather than many. There are several methods
by which angle-error information might be obtained with only a single pulse. More than one antenna
beam is used simultaneously in these methods, in contrast to the conical-scan or lobe-switching tracker,
which utilizes one antenna beam on a time-shared basis. The angle of arrival of the echo signal may be
determined in a single-pulse system by measuring the relative phase or the relative amplitude of the
echo pulse received in each beam. The names simultaneous lobing and monopulse are used to describe
those tracking techniques which derive angle-error information on the basis of a single pulse.
In this technique, the RF signals received from two offset antenna beams are combined so that both the
sum and the difference signals are obtained simultaneously. The sum and difference signals are
multiplied in a phase-sensitive detector to obtain both the magnitude and the direction of the error
signal. All the information necessary to determine the angular error is obtained on the basis of a single
pulse; hence the name monopulse.
Amplitude-comparison monopulse:
The amplitude-comparison monopulse employs two overlapping antenna patterns (Fig. 6-a) to obtain
the angular error in one coordinate. The two overlapping antenna beams may be generated with a
single reflector along with two adjacent feed horns. (A cluster of four feeds will be used if both
elevation- and azimuth-error signals are wanted.) The sum of the two antenna patterns of Fig.6(a)is
shown in Fig. 6(b), and the difference in Fig.6(c).The sum pattern is used for transmission, while both
the sum pattern and the difference pattern are used on reception. The signal received with the
difference pattern provides the magnitude of the angle error. The sum signal is used for the range
measurement and is also used as a reference to extract the sign of the error signal. Signals received from
the sum and the difference patterns are amplified separately and combined in a phase-sensitive
detector to produce the error-signal characteristic shown in Fig. 6(d).
A block diagram of the amplitude-comparison-monopulse tracking radar for a single angular coordinate
is shown in Fig.7. The two adjacent antenna feeds are connected to the two arms of a hybrid junction
such as a "magic T", a "rat race," or a “short-slot coupler”. The sum and difference signals appear at the
two other arms of the hybrid. On reception, the outputs of the sum arm and the difference arm are each
heterodyned to an intermediate frequency and amplified as, in any super heterodyne receiver. The
transmitter is connected to the sum arm. Range information is also extracted from the sum channel. A
duplexer is included in the sum arm for the protection of the receiver. The output of the phase-sensitive
detector is an error signal whose magnitude is proportional to the angular error and whose sign is
proportional to the direction. The output of the monopulse radar is used to perform automatic tracking.
The angular error signal actuates a servo-control system to position the antenna, and the range output
from the sum channel feeds into an automatic-range-tracking unit.

The sign of the difference signal (and the direction of the angular error) is determined by comparing the
phase of the difference signal with the phase of the sum signal. If the sum signal in the IF portion of the
receiver were AS cos (ωIFt) the difference signal would be either Ad cos (ωIFt) or– Ad cos (ωIFt)(As>0,
Ad>O), depending on which side of center is the target. Since – Ad cos (ωIFt) = Ad cos ωIF (t+π), the sign of
the difference signal may be measured by determining whether the difference signal is in phase with the
sum or 1800out of phase.
Although a phase comparison is a part of the amplitude-comparison-monopulse radar, the angular-error
signal is basically derived by comparing the echo amplitudes from simultaneous offset beams. The phase
relationship between the signals in the offset beams is not used. The purpose of the phase-sensitive
detector is only to conveniently furnish the sign of the error signal.
Figure 6: Monopulse antenna patterns and error signal. Left-hand diagrams in (a-c) are in polar
coordinates. Right-hand diagrams are in rectangular coordinates. (a) Overlapping antenna patterns (b)
sum pattern (c) difference pattern (d) product (error) signal.

Figure 7: Block diagram of an Amplitude-comparison Monopulse radar (one angular coordinate).
A block diagram of a monopulse radar with provision for extracting error signals in both elevation and
azimuth is shown in Fig. 8. The cluster of four feeds generates four partial overlapping antenna beams.
The feeds are mostly used with a parabolic reflector, Cassegrain antenna.
 All four feeds generate the sum pattern.
 The difference pattern in one plane is formed by taking the sum of two adjacent feeds and
subtracting this from the sum of the other two adjacent feeds.
 The difference pattern in the orthogonal plane is obtained by adding the differences of the
orthogonal adjacent pairs.
 A total of four hybrid junctions generate the sum channel, the azimuth difference channel, and
the elevation difference channel.
 Three separate mixers and IF amplifiers are shown, one for each channel. All three mixers
operate from a single local oscillator in order to maintain the phase relationships between the
three channels.
 Two phase-sensitive detectors extract the angle-error information, one for azimuth, the other
for elevation.
 Range information is extracted from the output of the sum channel after amplitude detection.
Since a phase comparison is made between the output of the sum channel and each of the difference
channels, it is important that the phase shifts introduced by each of the channels be almost identical and
0
must be maintained to within 25 or better for reasonably proper performance. The gains of the
channels also must not differ by more than specified amounts.

Figure 8: Block diagram of two-coordinate (azimuth and elevation) amplitude-comparison

Monopulsetracking radar.
Automatic gain control (AGC) is required :
 To maintain a stable closed-loop servo system for angle tracking.

 The AGC in a monopulse radar is accomplished by employing a voltage proportional to the sum-
channel IF output to control the gain of all three receiver channels.
 The AGC results in a constant angle sensitivity independent of target size and range.
 With AGC, the output of the angle-error detector is proportional to the difference signal
normalized (divided) by the sum signal. The output of the sum channel is constant.
Important Requirements of Amplitude-comparison monopulse:
• The monopulse antenna must generate a sum pattern with high efficiency (maximum bore sight
gain), and a difference pattern with a large value of slope at the crossover of the offset beams.
The greater the signal-to-noise ratio and the steeper the slope of the error signal in the vicinity of zero
angular error, the more accurate is the measurement of angle.
• Furthermore, the side lobes of both the sum and the difference patterns must be low.
• The antenna must be capable of the desired bandwidth, and the patterns must have the desired
polarization characteristics.
It is not surprising that the achievement of all these properties cannot always be fully satisfied
simultaneously. Antenna design is an important part of the successful realization of a good monopulse
radar.
Phase comparison Monopulse:
The angle of arrival (in one coordinate) may also be determined by comparing the phase difference
between the signals from two separate antennas. Unlike the antennas of amplitude comparison trackers
those used in phase-comparison systems are not offset from the axis. The individual bore sight axes of
the antennas are parallel, causing the (far-field) radiation to illuminate the same volume in space. The
amplitudes of the target echo signals are essentially the same from each antenna beam, but the phases
are different.
A tracking radar which operates with phase information is similar to an active interferometer and is also
called interferometer radar. It has also been called simultaneous phase comparison radar or phase-
comparison monopulse. The latter term is the one which will be used here.
In Fig.9 two antennas are shown separated by a distance d. The distance to the target is R and is
assumed large compared with the antenna separation d. The line of sight to the target makes an angle Ɵ

to the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the two antennas. The distance from antenna 1 to the
target is: R1 = R + (d/2 )sin θ
and the distance from antenna 2 to the target is: R2 = R -- (d/2 ) sin θ
The phase difference between the echo signals in the two antennas is approximately
ΔØ = 2π/λ. Sin θ
For small angles where sin θ ≈ θ, the phase difference is a linear function of the angular error and is
used to position the antenna via a servo-control loop.
In the early versions of the phase-comparison monopulse radar, the angular error was determined by
measuring the phase difference between the outputs of receivers connected to each antenna. The
output from one of the antennas was used for transmission and for providing the range information.
with such an arrangement, it was difficult to obtain the desired aperture illuminations and to maintain a
stable boresight. A more satisfactory method of operation is to form the sum and difference patterns in
the RF and to process the signals as in a conventional amplitude-comparison monopulse radar.
Figure 9: Wave front phase relationships in phase comparison Monopulse Radar
Tracking in range:
In most tracking-radar applications the target is continuously tracked in range as well as in angle. Range
tracking might be accomplished by an operator who watches an A-scope and manually positions a hand

wheel in order to maintain a marker over the desired target pip. The setting of the hand wheel is a
measure of the target range and may be converted to a voltage that is supplied to a data processor.
As target speeds increase, it is increasingly difficult for an operator to manually position the hand wheel
at the required speed over a sustained period of time, and automatic tracking becomes a necessity.
The technique for automatically tracking in range is based on the split range gate. Two range gates are
generated as shown in Fig.10. One is the early gate, and the other is the late gate. The echo pulse is
shown in Fig.10-a, the relative position of the gates at a particular instant in Fig.10-b, and the error
signal in Fig.10-c.The portion of the signal energy contained in the early gate is less than that in the late
gate. If the outputs of the two gates are subtracted, an error signal (Fig.10-c) will result which is used to
reposition the center of the gates. The magnitude of the error signal is a measure of the difference
between the center of the pulse and the center of the gates. The sign of the error signal determines the
direction in which the gates must be repositioned by a feedback-control system. When the error signal is
zero the range gates are centered on the pulse.
Figure 10: Split-range-gate tracking. (a)Echo pulse (b)early-late range gates(c) difference signal
between early and late range gates
The range gating necessary to perform automatic tracking offers several advantages as by products. It
isolates one target, excluding targets at other ranges. This permits the boxcar generator to be employed.
Also, range gating improves the signal-to-noise ratio since it eliminates the noise from the other range
intervals. Hence the width of the gate should be sufficiently narrow to minimize extraneous noise. On
the other hand, it must not be so narrow that an appreciable fraction of the signal energy is excluded. A
reasonable compromise is to make the gate width two to five times of the pulse width.

Acquisition and Scanning patterns:
A tracking radar must first find and acquire its target before it can operate as a tracker. Therefore it is
usually necessary for the radar to scan an angular sector in which the presence of the target is expected.
Most tracking radars employ a narrow pencil-beam antenna. Searching a volume in space for an aircraft
target with a narrow pencil beam would be somewhat analogous to searching for a fly in a dark
auditorium with a flashlight. It must be done systematically in a fixed pattern if the entire volume is to
be covered uniformly and quickly. Examples of the common types of scanning patterns employed with
pencil-beam antennas are illustrated in Fig.11 below.
 In the helical scan, the antenna is continuously rotated in azimuth while it is simultaneously
raised or lowered in elevation. It traces a helix in space.
 The Palmer scan consists of a rapid circular scan (conical scan) about the axis of the antenna,
combined with a linear movement of the axis of rotation. When the axis of rotation is held
stationary the Palmer scan reduces to the conical scan.
Figure 11 : Examples of acquisition search patterns:(a) Trace of helical scanning beam(b)Palmer scan
(c) spiral scan( d)raster, or TV, scan (e) nodding scan. The raster scan is sometimes called an n-bar
scan, where n is the number of horizontal rows.
 The spiral scan covers an angular search volume with circular symmetry. Both the spiral scan
and the Palmer scan suffer from the disadvantage that all parts of the scan volume do not
receive the same energy unless the scanning speed is varied during the scan cycle. As a

consequence, the number of hits returned from a target when searching with a constant
scanning rate depends upon the position of the target within the search area.
 The raster or TV, scan, unlike the Palmer or the spiral scan, scans the search area in a uniform
manner. The raster scan is a simple and convenient means for searching a limited sector,
rectangular in shape.
 Similar to the raster scan is the nodding scan produced by oscillating the antenna beam rapidly
in elevation and slowly in azimuth. Although it may be employed to cover a limited sector-as
does the raster scan-nodding scan may also be used to obtain hemispherical coverage, that is,
elevation angle extending to 900and the azimuth scan angle to 3600
Comparison of trackers:
General comparison of all types of Trackers:
 Of the four continuous-tracking-radar techniques that have been discussed (sequential lobing,
conical scan, amplitude-comparison monopulse, and phase-comparison monopulse), conical
scan and amplitude-comparison monopulse have seen more application than the other two.
 The phase-comparison monopulse has not been too popular because of the relative
awkwardness of its antenna (four separate antennas mounted to point their individual beams in
the same direction), and because the side lobe level might be higher than desired.
 Although sequential lobing is similar to conical scan, the latter is preferred in most applications,
since it suffers less loss and the antenna and feed systems are usually less complex.
Comparision of conical-scan radar and the amplitude-comparison monopulse:
 When the target is being tracked, the signal-to-noise ratio available from the monopulse radar
is greater than that of a conical scan radar, all other things being equal, since the monopulse
radar views the target at the peak of its sum pattern while the conical-scan radar views the
target at an angle off the peak of the antenna beam. The difference in signal-to-noise ratio
might be from 2 to 4 dB. For the same size aperture, the beam width of a conical-scan radar will
be slightly greater than that of the monopulse because its feed is offset from the focus.
 The tracking accuracy of a monopulse radar is superior to that of the conical-scan radar because
of the absence of target amplitude-fluctuations and because of its greater signal-to noise ratio.
It is the preferred technique for precision tracking. However, both monopulse and conical-scan
radars are degraded equally by the wandering of the apparent position of the target (glint).
 The monopulse radar is the more complex of the two. Three separate receivers are necessary to
derive the error signal in two orthogonal angular coordinates. Only one receiver is needed in the
conical-scan radar. Since the monopulse radar compares the amplitudes of signals received in
three separate channels, it is important that the gain and phase shift through these channels be
identical. The RF circuitry that generates the sum and difference signals in a monopulse radar
has been steadily improved, and can be realized in small size. A popular form of antenna for
monopulse is the Cassegrain.

 With the monopulse tracker it is possible to obtain a measure of the angular error in two
coordinates on the basis of a single pulse. A minimum of four pulses are usually necessary with
the conical-scan radar. However, continuous-tracking radar seldom makes a measurement on a
single pulse. (Phased array radars and some surveillance radars however might use the
monopulse principle to extract an angle measurement on the basis of a single pulse.) In practice
the two radars utilize essentially the same number of pulses to obtain an error signal if the servo
tracking bandwidths and pulse repetition frequencies are the same. The monopulse radar first
makes its angle measurement and then integrates a number of pulses to obtain the required
signal-to-noise ratio and to smooth the error. The conical-scan radar, on the other hand,
integrates a number of pulses first and then extracts the angle measurement.
 In brief, the monopulse radar is the better tracking technique; but in many applications where
the ultimate in performance is not needed, the conical-scan radar is used because it is less costly
and less complex.
Previous year examination questions:
1. Why is amplitude comparison mono pulse more likely to be preferred over the phase
comparison mono pulse and conical scan tracker over sequential lobbing, or lobe switching
tracker? Explain. [16]
2. (a) Discuss in detail about the Amplitude fluctuations and how its effects are minimized.
(b) Explain Mono pulse tracking in two angle coordinates. [8+8]
3. (a) Draw and explain block diagram of Conical-scan tracking radar.

(b) Why does tracking radar have poor accuracy at low elevation angles? Explain. [8+8]
4. (a) Draw and explain the following with respect to Tracking in range:
i. Echo pulse
ii. Early-late range gates
iii. Difference signal between early and late range gates.
(b) Limitation of automatic detection and tracking. [8+8]
5. (a)Explain the operation of Monopulse tracking radar with a Block Diagram.
(b)Write the differences between a Conical scanning Radar and a Monopulse Radar.
6.(a)With a neat diagram explain the operation of a conical scan Radar. Explain the various
factors that need to be considered for optimum squint angle.
(b) Explain with the help of a neat block diagram Amplitude comparison Monopulse radar for
extracting error signals in both Azimuth and Elevation
7. (a) Compare the tracking techniques.

(b) Explain in detail about limitations to tracking accuracy. [10+6]

8. (a) Draw and explain the wave front phase relationships in phase comparison monopulse
radar.
(b) Write a brief note on acquisition and scanning patterns.

Radar Systems Lecture Notes (K Subhas) Unit-5: Detection of Radar Signals in Noise
UNIT-5
DETECTION OF RADAR SIGNALS IN NOISE
 Introduction
 Matched filter receiver
 Response characteristics and derivation
 Correlation function and cross correlation receiver
 Efficiency of Non-matched filters
 Matched filter with non-white noise
RADAR RECEIVERS
 Noise figure and Noise Temperature

 Displays-Types
 Duplexers-Branch type and Balanced Type
 Circulators as duplexers
PHASED ARRAY ANTENNAS
 Introduction
 Basic concepts
 Radiation Pattern
 Beam steering and Beam width changes
 Applications
 Advantages and Limitations

DETECTION OF RADAR SIGNALS IN NOISE
Introduction:
The two basic operations performed by radar are (1) detection of the presence of reflecting objects, and
(2) extraction of information from the received waveform to obtain target data such as position,
velocity, and perhaps size. In this chapter, some aspects ofthe problem of detecting radar signals in the
presence of noise will be studied. Noise ultimately limits the capability of any radar.
Matched filter receiver:

A network whose frequency-response function maximizes the output peak-signal to-mean noise (Power)
ratio is called a matched filter. This criterion, or its equivalent, is used for the design of almost all radar
receivers.
The frequency-response function, denoted H (f), expresses the relative amplitude and phase of the
output of a network with respect to the input when the input is a pure sinusoid.In our case ,the
magnitude I H (f ) of the frequency-response function is the receiver amplitude pass band characteristic.
If the bandwidth of the receiver pass band is wide compared to that occupied by the signal energy,
extraneous noise is introduced in the excess bandwidth which lowers the output signal-to-noise ratio.
On the other hand, if the receiver bandwidth is narrower than the bandwidth occupied by the signal, the
noise energy is reduced along with a considerable part of the signal energy. The net result is again a
lower signal-to-noise ratio. Thus, there is an optimum bandwidth at which the signal-to-noise ratio is a
maximum.
The rule of thumb quoted in pulse radar practice is that the Receiver bandwidth B should be
approximately equal to the reciprocal of the pulse width τ.
The receiver frequency-response function, in our study, is assumed to apply from the antenna terminals
to the output of the IF amplifier. (The second detector and video portion of a well-designed radar super
heterodyne receiver will have negligible effect onthe output signal-to-noise ratio if the receiver is
designed as a matched filter.) Narrow banding is most conveniently accomplished in the IF. The
bandwidths of the RF and mixer stages of the normal superheterodyne receiver are usually large
compared to the IF bandwidth. Therefore, the frequency-response function of the portion of the
receiver included between the antenna terminals to the output of the IF amplifier is taken to be that of
the IF amplifier alone.Thus, we need to obtain only the frequency-response function that maximizes the
signal-to-noiseratio at the output of the IF. The IF amplifier is considered as a filter with gain and its
frequency response is the property of interest to us.
For a received waveform s(t) with a given ratio of signal energy E to noise energy N0(or noise power per
hertz of bandwidth), North showed that the frequency-response function of the linear, time-invariant
filter which maximizes the output peak signal to mean noise(power) ratio for a fixed input signal to noise
(energy) ratio is
H (f) = Ga .S*(f) exp (-j2πft1) …. (1)
+∞
where S(f) = −∞ 𝐬(𝐭) 𝐞𝐱𝐩 (−𝐣𝟐 𝛑𝐟𝐭) 𝐝𝐭 = voltage spectrum (Fourier transform) of input signal
S*(f) = complex conjugate of S(f)

t1 = fixed value of time at which signal is observed to be maximum

Ga = constant equal to maximum filter gain (generally taken to be unity)
The noise that accompanies the signal is assumed to have a uniform spectrum (white noise). It need not
be Gaussian. The filter whose frequency-response function is given by Eq. (1) has been called the North
filter, the conjugate filter, or more usually the matched filter. It has also been called the Fourier
transform criterion. It should not be confusedwith the circuit-theory concept of impedance matching,
which maximizes the power transfer rather than the signal-to-noise ratio.
The frequency-response function of the matched filter is the conjugate of the spectrum of the received
waveform except for the phase shift exp (-j2πft1). This phase shift varies uniformly with frequency. Its
effect is to cause a constant time delay. A time delay is necessary in the specification of the filter for
reasons of physical realizability since there can be no output from the filter until the signal is applied.
The frequency spectrum of the received signal may bewritten as an amplitude spectrum IS(f)I (and a
phase spectrum exp [- jØS(f)]. The matchedfilter frequency response function may also be similarly
written in terms of its amplitude and phase spectra IH( f )I and exp [- jØm( f )]. Ignoring the constant Ga ,
Then Eq. (1) for the matched filter may be written as
…. (2)
Or
…. (3.a)
And
…. (3.b)
Thus, the amplitude spectrum of the matched filter is the same as the amplitude spectrum of the
signal, but the phase spectrum of the matched filter is the negative of the phase spectrum of the
signal plus a phase shift proportional to frequency.
The matched filter may also be specified by its impulse response h(t) which is the inverse Fourier
transform of the frequency-response function.
…… (4)
Physically the impulse response is the output of the filter as a function of time when the input is an
impulse (delta function). Substituting Eq. (1) into Eq. (4)gives
……. (5)
Since S * ( f ) = S(- f ), we have
+∞
h (t)= Ga −∞
𝐒 ( 𝐟 ) exp *j2πf ( t 1- t ) ] df= Gas(t1- t ) ….. (6)

We got a very interesting result: The impulse response of the matched filter is the image of the
received waveform. i.e. it is the same as the received signal run backward in timestarting from the
fixed time t1. Figure (1) below shows a received waveform s(t)and the impulseresponse h(t)of its
matched filter.
Figure (1) (a) Received waveform s (t) (b) impulse response

h (t)of the matched filter.
Derivation of the matched-filter characteristic: (By Schwartz inequality method)

It will be proved that the frequency-response function of a linear, time-invariant filter which maximizes
the output peak-signal-to-mean-noise (power) ratio is:
H(f) = Ga. S*(f) .exp (-j2πft1)
when the input noise is stationary and white (uniform spectral density). The ratio we wish tomaximize is
Rf = IS0(t)I2max / N …. (7)
where IS0(t)Imax = maximum value of output signal voltage and N = mean noise power at receiver
output.
[The ratio Rf is not quite the same as the signal-to-noise ratio which has been considered previously in
the radar equation.Note that the peak power as used here is actually the peak instantaneous power,
whereas the peak power referred to in the discussion of the radar equation was the average value of the
power over the duration of a pulse of sine wave. The ratio Rf is twice the average signal-to-noise power
ratio when the input signal s(t) is a rectangular sine-wave pulse]
With an input signal s(t) the output voltage of a filter with frequency response function H (f) is

…… (8)
where S (f) is the Fourier transform of the input (received) signal. The mean output noise power is
…… (9)
where No is the input noise power per unit bandwidth. The factor (1/2) appears before the integral
because the limits extend from - ∞ to + ∞, whereas No is defined as the noise power per cycle of
bandwidth over positive values only. Substituting Eqs. (8) and (9) into (7) and assuming that the
maximum value of IS0(t)I2 occurs at time t = t1 the ratio Rf becomes
……. (10)
Schwartz's inequality states that if P and Q are two complex functions, then
…… (11)
The equality sign applies when P = kQ, where k is a constant. Letting
and recalling that
We get, on applying the Schwartz inequality to the numerator of Eq.(10),

….. (12)
From parsevals theorem,
….. (13)
Therefore we have
……. (14)
The frequency-response function which maximizes the peak-signal-to-mean-noise ratio Rf may be

obtained by noting that the equality sign in Eq. (10.11) applies when P = kQ , or,
….. (15)
where the constant k has been set equal to 1/Ga
The interesting property of the matched filter is that no matter what the shape of the input-signal
waveform, the maximum ratio of the peak signal power to the mean noise power is simply twice the
energy E contained in the signal divided by the noise power per hertz ofband width No .
The matched filter and the correlation function:

The output of the matched filter is shown to be proportional to the input signal cross-correlated with a
replica of the transmitted signal, except for the time delay t1 . The cross-correlation function R (t) of two
signals y(λ) and s(λ), each of finite duration, is defined as:
….. (16)
The output yo(t) of a filter with impulse response h (t) when the input is yin (t) = s ( t ) + n ( t ) is
…… (17)
If the filter is a matched filter, then h(λ)= s(t1- λ) and Eq. (17) becomes

…… (18)
Thus the matched filter forms the cross correlation between the received signal corrupted by noise and
a replica of the transmitted signal.
Cross correlation receiver: (correlation detection)

Equation (18) describes the output of the matched filter as the cross correlation between the input
signal and a delayed replica of the transmitted signal. This implies that the matched-filter receiver can
be replaced by a cross-correlation receiver that performs the same mathematical operation as shown in
Fig. 2. The input signal y (t) is multiplied by a delayed replica of the transmitted signal s (t - Tr) and the
product is passed through a low-pass filter to perform the integration.
The cross-correlation receiver shown in Fig. 2 below tests for the presence of a target at only a single
time delay Tr. Targets at other time delays, or ranges, might be found by varying Tr. However, this
requires a longer search time.
Figure 2: Block diagram of a cross-correlation receiver
Efficiency of nonmatched filters:

In practice the matched filter cannot always be obtained exactly. Therefore, the efficiency of
nonmatched filters is compared with the ideal matched filter. The measure of efficiency is taken as the
peak signal-to-noiseratio from the nonmatched filter divided by the peak signal-to-noise ratio (2E/No)
from the matched filter.
Matched filter with nonwhite noise:

In the derivation of the matched-filter characteristic [Eq. (15)], the spectrum of the noise accompanying
the signal was assumed to be white. i.e., it is independent of frequency. If this assumption were not
true, the filter which maximizes the output signal-to-noise ratio would not be the same as the matched
filter of Eqn. (15). It has been shown that if the input power spectrum of the interfering noise is given by
[ Ni(f)]2 .The frequency-response function of the filter which maximizes the output signal - to - noise
ratio is:

….. (19)
When the noise is nonwhite, the filter which maximizes the output signal-to-noise ratio is called the
NWN (nonwhite noise) matched filter. For white noise I Ni(f )I2 = constant and the N W N matched-filter
frequency-response function of Eqn. (19) reduces to that of Eq. (15). Equation (19) can be written as:
….. (20)
This indicates that the NWN matched filter can be considered as the cascade of two filters. The first
filter, with frequency-response function 1/Ni( f ), acts to make the noise spectrum uniform,or white. It is
sometimes called the whitening filter. The second is the matched filter described by Eq. (15) when the
input is white noise and a signal whose spectrum is S (f)/Ni (f).
RADAR RECEIVERS
There are many factors that enter into the design ofradar receivers. However, in this chapter, the
receiver design is considered mainly as a problem of extracting desired signals from noise. Noise can
enter the receiver via the antenna terminals along with the desired signals, or it might be generated
within the receiver itself. At the microwave frequencies usually used for radar, the external noise which
enters via the antenna is generally quite low so that the receiver sensitivity is usually decided by the
internal noise generated within the receiver. The measure of receiver internal noise is the noise-figure.
Noise figure and Noise temperature:

Noise figure:
Noise figure of a receiver is a measure of the noise produced by apractical receiver as compared with
the noise of an ideal receiver. The noise figure Fnmay be defined as:
(1)
WhereSin =available input signal power

Nin= available input noise power (equal to kToB)
Sout =available output signal power
Nout =available output noise power
"Available power" refers to the power which would be delivered to a matched load. Theavailable gain G
is equal to Sout/Sin, k = Boltzmann's constant = 1.38 x 10-23J/deg,To= standard temperature of 290 K

(approximately room temperature) and Bnis the noisebandwidth (defined earlier).The product kTo≈ 4 x
10-21W/Hz. The purpose of defining a standard temperature is to refer any measurements to a common
basis of comparison.
Equation (1)effectively gives two different but equivalent interpretations of noise figure.
 Itmaybe considered as the degradation of the signal-to-noise ratio caused by the receiver or
 It may be interpreted asthe ratio of the actual available output noise power to the noisepower
which would be available if the network merely amplified the thermal noise.
Thenoise figure may also be written as:
whereΔNis the additional noise introduced by the reciver itself.

The noise figure is commonly expressed in decibels, that is, 10 log Fn. The term noisefactor is also used
at times instead of noise figure. The two terms are now synonymous.
Noise figure of networks in cascade:
Consider two networks in cascade, each with the samenoise bandwidth Bnbut with different noise
figures and available gain as shown in Fig. 3 below.
Figure 3 : Two networks in cascade
Let F1 and G1be the noise figure and available gain, respectively, of the first network, and F2 , G2, be the
same parameters for the second network. Let us now findout Fothe overall noise-figure of thetwo
circuits in cascade. From the definition of noise figure [Eq. 1)] the output noise Noofthe two circuits in
cascade is given by : No= FoG1G2kT0Bn
which is also equal to:

Noise from network 1 at output of network2+ Noise ΔN2introduced bynetwork 2
Hence
No= FoG1G2kT0Bn= Noise from network 1 at output of network2+ Noise ΔN2introduced by network2
Or

From this we see that the contribution of the second network to the overall noise-figure may be made
negligible ifthe gain of the first network is large. This is of importance in the design of multistage
receivers. It is not sufficient that only the first stage of a low-noise receiver have a small noise figure.
Thesucceeding stage must also have a small noise figure, or else the gain of the first stage must behigh
enough to swamp the noise of the succeeding stage. If the first network is not an amplifierbut is a
network with loss (as in a crystal mixer), the gain G1should be interpreted as a number less than unity.
Extending the same method, the noise figure of N networks in cascade may be shown to be
Noise temperature:
The noise introduced by a network may also be expressed as an effectiveNoisetemperature, Tedefined

as that (fictional) temperature at the input of the network whichwould account for the noise ΔNat the
output. Therefore ΔN = kTe B0Gand
The system noise temperature TSis defined as the effective noise temperature of the receiversystem
including the effects of antenna temperature Ta(It is also sometimes called the system operatingnoise
temperature) Ifthe receiver effective noise temperature is Te then
where FS, is the system noise-figure including the effect of antenna temperature.
The effective noise temperature of a receiver consisting of a number of networksincascade is
where TiandGiare the effective noise temperature and gain of the I thnetwork.
The effective noise temperature and the noise figure both describe the same characteristic of a
network. In general, the effective noise temperature has been preferred for describing low-noise
devices, and the noise figure is preferred for conventional receivers. For radar receivers, the noise figure
is the more widely used term.

Displays:
The purpose of the display is to visually present the information contained in the radar echo signal in a
form suitable for operator interpretation and action.
The cathode-ray tube (CRT) has been almost universally used as the radar display. There are two basic
cathode-ray tube displays. One is the deflection-modulated CRT, such as the A-scope, in which a target
is indicated by the deflection of the electron beam. The other is the Intensity modulated CRT such as
the PPI, in which a target is indicated by intensifying the electron beam and presenting a luminous spot
on the face of the CRT.
The deflection of the beam or the appearance of an intensity-modulated spot on a radar display caused
by the presence of a target is commonly referred to as a blip.
With the advent of technology in the display systems being used in other applications like computer
monitors and TVs , the modern Radars now a days use the state of the art LCD and LED displays along
with digital storage techniques overcoming many of the limitations of CRT displays used earlier.
Types of display presentations:
The various types of displays which were used forsurveillance and tracking radars are defined as follows:
A-scope: Adeflection-modulated display in which the vertical deflection is proportional to target
echostrength and the horizontal coordinate is proportional to range.
B-scope: An intensity-modulated rectangular display with azimuth angle indicated by the
horizontalcoordinate and range by the vertical coordinate.
C-scope:An intensity-modulated rectangular display with azimuth angle indicated by the
horizontalcoordinate and elevation angle by the vertical coordinate.
D-scope:A C-scope in which the blips extend vertically to give a rough estimate of distance.
E-scope:An intensity-modulated rectangular display with distance indicated by the horizontal
coordinateand elevation angle by the vertical coordinate. Similar to the RHiin which target height or
altitude isthe vertical coordinate.
F –Scope: A rectangular display in which a target appears as a centralized blip when the radar antenna
isaimed at it. Horizontal and vertical aiming errors are respectively indicated by the horizontal
andvertical displacement of the blip.
PPI, or Plan Position Indicator (also called P-scope):An intensity-modulated circular display on
whichecho signals produced from reflecting objects are shown in plan position with range and
azimuthangle displayed in polar (rho-theta) coordinates, forming a map-like display. An offset, or off
centerPPIhas the zero position of the time base at a position other than at the center of the display
toprovide the equivalent of a larger display for a selected portion of the service area. A delayed
PPl is one in which the initiation of the time base is delayed.
R-scope: An A-scope with a segment of the time base expanded near the blip for greater accuracy in
distance measurement.
RHI or Range-Height Indicator:An intensity modulated display with height (altitude) as the vertical
axisand range as the horizontal axis.
The above definitions are taken from the IEEE Standard definition with somemodifications. The terms A-
scope and A-display, B-scope and B-display, etc., are used interchangeably. These letter descriptions of

radar displays date back to World War 2. All of them are not in current usage. However; the PPI, A-
scope, B-scope, andRHIare among the moreusual displays employed in radar.
Duplexers:
Introduction:
Duplexer is the device that allows a single antenna to serve both the transmitter and thereceiver. During
transmission it protects the receiver from burnout or damage, and onreception it channels the echo
signal to the receiver. Duplexers, especially for high-powerapplications, sometimes employ a form of
gas-discharge device. Solid-state devices are also utilized.
There are two basic methods employed that allow the use of a common antenna for both transmitting
and receiving. The older method is represented by the branch-type duplexer and the balanced duplexer
which utilize gas TR-tubes for accomplishing the necessary switching actions. The other method uses a
ferrite circulator to separate the transmitterand receiver, and a receiver protector consisting of a gas TR-
tube and diode limiter.
Branch-type duplexers:
The branch-type duplexer, shown in Fig. 4 is one of the earliest duplexer configurations. It consists of a
TR (transmit-receive) switch and anATR (anti-transmit receive) switch, both of which are gas-discharge
tubes.
When the transmitteris turned on, both the TR and the ATR tubes ionize.i.e.they break down, or fire.
The TR in the fired condition acts as a short circuit to prevent transmitter power from entering the
receiver. Since the TR is located a quarter wavelength from the main transmission line, it appears as a
short circuit at the receiver but as an open circuit at the transmission line so that it does not impede the
flow of transmitter power. Since the ATR is displaced a quarter wavelength from the main transmission
line, the short circuit it produces during the fired condition appears as an open circuit on the
transmission line and thus has no effect on transmission.
During reception, the transmitter is OFF and neither the TR nor the ATR is fired. The open circuit of the
ATR, being a quarter wave from the transmission line, appears as a short circuit across the line. Since
this short circuit is located a quarter wave from the receiver branch-line, the transmitter is effectively
disconnected from the line and the echo signal power is directed to the receiver. The diagram of Fig. 4 is
a parallel configuration. Series or series-parallel configurations are possible.
The branch-type duplexer is of limited bandwidth and power-handling capability, and hasgenerally been
replaced by the balanced duplexer and other protection devices. It is used, inspite of these limitations,
in some low-cost radars.

Figure 4: Principle of branch-type duplexer.
Balanced duplexers:
Thebalanced duplexer, Fig. 5, is based on the short-slot hybrid junctionwhich consists of two sections of
waveguides joined along one of their narrow walls with a slotcut in the common narrow wall to provide
coupling between the two .The short-slot hybrid may be considered as a broadband directionalcoupler
with a coupling ratio of 3 dB.
Figure 5: Balanced duplexer using dual TR tubes and two short-slot hybrid junctions. (a) Transmit
Condition (b) Receive condition.

In the transmit condition (Figure 5 a) power is divided equally into eachwaveguideby the first short
slothybrid junction. Both TR tubes break down and reflect the incident power out the antennaarm as
shown. The short-slot hybrid has the property that each time the energy passes throughthe slot in
either direction, its phase is advanced 900. Therefore, the energy travels asindicated by the solid lines.
Any energy which leaks through the TR tubes (shown by thedashed lines) is directed to the arm with the
matched dummy load and not to the receiver. Inaddition to the attenuation provided by the TR tubes,
the hybrid junctions provide an additional 20 to 30 dB of isolation.
On reception the TR tubes are unfired and the echo signals pass through the duplexer and into the
receiver as shown in Fig.5b. The power splits equally at the first junction andbecause of the 900phase
advance on passing through the slot, the energy recombines in thereceiving arm and not in the dummy-
load arm.
The power-handling capability of the balanced duplexer is inherently greater than that ofthe branch-
type duplexer and it has wide bandwidth, over ten percent with proper design. A receiver protector, is
usually inserted between the duplexer and the receiver for added protection.
Circulator and receiver protector:The ferrite circulator is a three- or four-port device thatcan in
principle, offer separation of the transmitter and receiver without the need for theconventional
duplexer configurations explained earlier. The circulator does not provide sufficient protection by itself
and requires a receiver protector as in Fig.6. The isolation between the transmitter and receiver ports of
a circulator is seldom sufficient to protect the receiver from damage. However, it is not the isolation
between transmitter and receiver ports that usually determines the amount of transmitter power at the
receiver, but the impedance mismatch at the antenna which reflects transmitter power back into the
receiver.
Figure 6: Circulator and receiver protector. A four-port circulator is shown with the fourth port
terminatedin a matched load to provide greater isolation between the transmitter and the receiver
thanprovidedhy a three-port circulator.

The VSWR is a measure of the amount of power reflected by the antenna. For example, a VSWR of 1.5
means that about 4 percent of the transmitter power will be reflected by the antenna mismatchin the
direction of the receiver, which corresponds to an isolation of only 14 dB. About 11 percent of the
power is reflected when the VSWR is 2.0, corresponding to less than 10 dB ofisolation. Thus, a receiver
protector is almost always required. It also reduces to safe level radiations from nearby transmitters.
Introduction to phased array antennas:
 The phased array is a directive antenna made up of individual radiating antennas, or elements,
which generate a radiation pattern whose shape and direction is determined by the relative
phases and amplitudes of the currents at the individual elements.
 By properly varying the relative phases it is possible to steer the direction of the radiation.
 The radiating elements might be dipoles, open-ended waveguides, slots cut in waveguide, or
any other type of antenna.
 It has the flexibility of steering the beam by means of electronic control rather than by physical
movement of the antenna.
 It has been considered in those radar applications where it is necessary to shift the beam rapidly
from one position in space to another, or where it is required to obtain information about many
targets at a flexible, rapid data rate.
 Initially during World War 2 the radar with fixed phased-array antennas was used in which the
beam was scanned by mechanically actuated phase shifters.
 A major advance in phased array technology was made in the early 1950s with the replacement
of mechanically actuated phase shifters by electronic phase shifters.
 Frequency scanning in one angular coordinate was the first successful electronic scanning
technique to be applied.
 The introduction of digitally switched phase shifters employing either ferrites or diodes in the
early 1960s made a significant improvement in the practicality of phased arrays that could be
electronically steered in two orthogonal angular coordinates.
Basic concepts:
 Two common geometrical forms of array antennas used in radar are the linear array and the
planar array. A linear array consists of elements arranged in a straight line in one dimension. A
planar array is a two dimensional configuration of elements arranged to lie in a plane. The
planar array may be thought of as a linear array of linear arrays.
 The two-dimensional planar array is the most commonly used in radar applications since it is
fundamentally the most versatile of all radar antennas. A rectangular aperture can produce a
fan shaped beam. A square or a circular aperture produces a pencil beam. The array can be
made to simultaneously generate many search and/or tracking beams with the same aperture.
 An array in which the relative phase shift between elements is controlled by electronic devices is
called an electronically scanned array. In an electronically scanned array the antenna elements,
the transmitters, the receivers, and the data-processing portions of the radar are often designed
as a unit.

Radiation pattern:
Consider a linear array made up of N elements equaIIy spaced a distance d apart shown in Fig. 7.. The
elements are assumed to be isotropic point sources radiating uniformly in all directions with equal
amplitude and phase. Although isotropic elements are not realizable in practice, they are a useful
concept in array theory, especially for the computation of radiation patterns. The array is shown as a
receiving antenna for convenience, but because of the reciprocity principle, the results obtained apply
equally well to a transmitting antenna. The outputs of all the elements are summed via lines of equal
length to give a sum output voltage Ea. Element 1 will be taken as the reference signal with zero phase.
The difference in the phase of the signals in adjacent elements is Ψ = 2π (d/λ) sin θ, where θ is the
direction of the incoming radiation. It is further assumed that the amplitudes and phases of the signals
at each element are weighted uniformly. Therefore the amplitudes of the voltages in each element are
the same and, for convenience, will be taken to be unity. The sum of all the voltages from the individual
elements, when the phase difference between adjacent elements is Ψ, can be written as
….. (1)
where ω is the angular frequency of the signal. The sum can be written
….. (2)
Figure 7: N-element linear array.
The first factor is a sine wave of frequency ω with a phase shift (N - 1) ψ/2. The second term represents
the amplitude factor of the form sin (Nψ/2)/sin (ψ/2). The field intensity pattern is the magnitude of
the equation 2 , or
…. (3)

The pattern has nulls when the numerator is zero.
For discrete aperture antennas (such as phased arrays) in which the element spacing is greater than a
half wavelength, the spatial aliasing effect causes some sidelobes to become substantially larger in
amplitude, and approaching the level of the main lobe; these are called grating lobes, and they are
identical, or nearly identical to the main beams.
The radiation pattern is equal to the normalized square of the amplitude, or
…….. [4]
When directive elements are used, the resultant array antenna radiation pattern is
…… [5]
where Ge(θ) is the radiation pattern of an individual element. The resultant radiation pattern is the
product of the element factor Ge(θ) and the array factor Ga(θ), the latter being the pattern of an array
composed of isotropic elements.
In a two-dimensional, rectangular planar array, the radiation pattern may sometimes be written as the
product of the radiation patterns in the two planes which contain the principal axes of the antenna. If
the radiation patterns in the two principal planes are G1(θe) and G2(θa) the two-dimensional antenna
pattern is
(6)
Thus, the normalized radiation pattern of a uniformly illuminated rectangular array is
(7)
Where N = number of radiating elements in θa dimension with spacing d and M the number in θe
dimension.

Beam steering and beam width changes:

Beam steering:
The beam of an array antenna may be steered rapidly in space without physically moving large antennae
by properly varying the phase of the signals applied to each element. Consider an array of equally
spaced elements. The spacing between adjacent elements is d, and the signals at each element are
assumed to be of equal amplitude. If the same phase is applied to all elements, the relative phase
difference between adjacent elements is zero and the position of the main beam will be broadside to
the array at an angle θ = 0. The main beam will point in a direction other than broadside if the relative
phase difference between elements is other than zero. The direction of the main beam is at an angle θ0,
when the phase difference is Ø = 2π (d/λ) sin θ0. The phase at each element is therefore (Øc + m Ø)
where m = 0, 1,2. . . (N - I) and Øc is any constant phase applied to all elements. The normalized
radiation pattern of the array when the phase difference between adjacent elements is Ø is given by:
(8)
The maximum of the radiation pattern occurs when sin θ= sin θ0 .

Equation (8) states that the main beam of the antenna pattern may be positioned to an angle θ0 by the
insertion of the proper phase shift Ø at each element of the array. If variable, rather than fixed, phase
shifters are used, the beam may be steered as the relative phase between elements is changed (Fig.
8)below.
Figure 8: Steering of an antenna beam withvariable phase shifters (parallel-fed array).
Change of beamwidth with steering angle:
The half-power beamwidth in the plane of scan increases as the beam is scanned off the broadside
direction. The beamwidth is approximately inversely proportional to cos θ0, where θ0 is the angle
measured from the normal to the antenna.

It is proved mathematically that the half-power beamwidth ѲB is given by :
ƟB = 0.886 λ /Nd cos Ɵ0 ….. [13]
Therefore, when the beam is positioned an angle θ0 off broadside, the beamwidth in the plane of scan
increases as (cos θ0)-1.
Figure 9: Beamwidth and eccentricity of the scanned beam.
The variation of the beam shape with scan angle is graphically shown in Fig.9 above.
Applications of the array in radar:
The phased array antenna has seen application in radar for a wide variety of purposes:
• Aircraft surveillance from on board ship
• Satellite surveillance
• Ballistic missile defense
• Air defense
• Aircraft landing systems
• Mortar and artillery location
• Tracking of ballistic missiles and Airborne bomber radar (EAR).
• Many developmental array radars have been developed and built in USA. Although much effort
and funds have been spent on this activity, except for limited-scan arrays there has not been
any large serial production of such radars compared to the serial production of radars with
mechanically rotating reflector antennas.

Advantages and limitations:

Advantages:
Inertia less rapid beam steering: The beam from an array can be scanned, or switched from one
position to another, in a very short time limited only by the switching speed of the phase
shifters.Typically, the beam can be switched in several microseconds, but it can be considerably shorter
if desired.
Multiple, independent beams: A single aperture can generate many simultaneous independent beams.
Alternatively, the same effect can be obtained by rapidly switching a single beam through a sequence of
positions.
Potential for large peak and for average power: If necessary, each element of the array can be fedby a
separate high-power transmitter with the combining of the outputs made in "space" to obtain a total
power greater than that can be obtained from a single transmitter.
Control of the radiation pattern: A particular radiation pattern may be more readily obtained with the
array than with other microwave antennas since the amplitude and phase of each array element may be
individually controlled. Thus, radiation patterns with extremely low sidelobes or with a shaped main
beam may be achieved conveniently. Separate monopulse sum and difference patterns, each with its
own optimum shape, can also be generated.
Graceful degradation : The distributed nature of the array means that it can fail only gradually and not
at once (catastrophically).
Convenient aperture shape: The shape of the array permits flush mounting and it can be strengthened
to resist blast.
Electronic beam stabilization: The ability to steer the beam electronically can be used to stabilize the
beam direction when the radar is on an unstable platform, such as a ship or aircraft that is subject to
roll, pitch, and yaw disturbances.
Limitations:
 Very rarely we may require a fast switching phased array antenna and for our application a simple
mechanically scanned antenna might be adequate in which case such a high cost electronically
steered antenna might not be necessary.
 An N-element array can, in principle, generates N independent beams. However, in practice it is very
rarely required that a radar generate more than a few simultaneous beams (perhaps no more than a
dozen), since the complexity of the array radar increases with increasing number of beams.
 Although the array has the potential for radiating large power, it is rare that an array is required to
radiate more power than
 That can be radiated by other antenna types or

 That can be generated by current high-power microwave tube technology that feeds a single
transmission line.
 Conventional microwave antennas cannot generate radiation patterns with side lobes as low as can
be obtained by an array antenna. However, when a planar array is electronically scanned, the
change of mutual coupling that accompanies a change in beam position makes the maintenance of
low side lobes more difficult.
 The full testing of an array radar system is often more complicated than with conventional radar
systems.
 The major limitation that has limited the wide spread use of the conventional phased array in radar
is its high cost, which is due to its complexity. The software for the computer system that is needed
to utilize the inherent flexibility of the array radar also contributes significantly to the system cost
and complexity.
Previous years’ ExaminationQuestions:

1. (a) Explain the basic concept of phased array antennas.
(b) Explain characteristics of diffrent radar displays. [8+8]
2. Discuss in detail about Matched filter Receiver with necessary expressions. [16]
3. (a) Explain the functioning and characteristics of PPI display and A-Scope.[8]
4. Derive the impulse response of a matched filter that is commonly used in a radar
receiver.[16]
5. (a) Draw the structures of balanced duplexer during transmission and receptionmodes.
(b) List out the merits and demerits of phased array antennas. [8+8]6. (a) Draw and explain the
radiation pattern of phased array antennas.
(b) Write notes on various antenna parameters with reference to radar. [8+8]
7. Discuss the relation between the matched filter characteristics and correlation detection.[16]
8.(a)What is meant by correlation? Explain cross correlation with the help of a neat block
diagram
(b) Derive the expression for the frequency response of a Matched filter receiver with non
white noise input.
9.(a) Explain how the beam width of a Phased array antenna varies with the steering angle.
(b) What is a Duplexer and explain the principle of operation of typical Duplexer with a
schematic diagram.
10.(a) Explain the principle and characteristics of a Matched filter. Hence derive the expression
for it’s frequency response function
(b)Briefly explain about the efficiency of the nonmatched filters

11.(a) Briefly explain the concept of beam steering of Phased array antennas
(b)Derive an expression for the effective Noise figure of two cascaded networks.
12.(a)Establish the impulse response characteristic for a matched fillter.
13. (a) Define noise figure. Derive the expression for the noise figure of two networks
that are in cascade.
14.(a) Derive the frequency response function of the matched filter.
(b) Explain about the efficiency of nonmatched filters.
15. (a) Explain the principle of balanced duplexer.
(b)Write a detailed note on Matched filter Receiver
16. Explain bpout correlation function and cross correlation Reciver
17. Write short notes on the following:
i ) Phased array Radar ii ) Any two types of Radar Displays.


Radar Systems

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Radar Systems Lecture Notes (K.

Subhas) Unit 1: Basics of Radar and Radar equation

( 1 mile = 0.8689 nautical mile or 1.6 km

Maximum unambiguous range:

This can also be explained with the following simple relations.

TR = 2R/C where R= Range of target

TR max = TP= 2 R max /C and so R max = CTP/2 = C/2fP = R unambig

Therefore R unambig is directly proportional to the Pulse period TP ( or Inversely

Simple form of Radar Equation:

The radar equation

Derivation of the simple form of radar equation:

Power density from anisotropic antenna = Pt /4πR2

Power density from directive antenna = Pt.G/4πR2

Power density of echo signal at radar = (Pt .G/4πR2)(σ) /4πR2 )

Pr = (Pt .G/4πR2).( σ/4πR2 ). Ae

= (Pt .G. Ae. σ)/ (4π)2.R4

Rmax = [ (Pt .G2. λ2. σ)/ (4π)3. Smin ]1/4 ……(2)

Rmax = [ (Pt . Ae2. σ)/ 4π. λ2. Smin ]1/4…….(3)

Radar block diagram and operation:

Fig 1.2: Block diagram of a pulse radar.

Radar frequencies and applications:

Letter code designation of Radar frequencies:

Table 1.1: Standard radar-frequency letter-band nomenclature

Prediction of Range Performance:

Rmax= [ (Pt .G. Ae. σ)/ (4π)2.Smin]1/4

Where Pt = transmitted power, watts

Minimum detectable signal:

Available thermal-noise power = kTBn

where H (f) = frequency-response characteristic of IF amplifier (filter) and fo = frequency of

Therefore, the noise figure may be interpreted, as a measure of the degradation of

Modified radar equation:

Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR):

The results of statistical noise theory will be applied to obtain:

Figure 1.6: Envelope detector.

With σ2 replaced by ψ0and (x—x0) replaced by v with mean value of zero)

where Io ( Z ) is the modified Bessel function of zero order and argument Z.

S/N = A + 0.12AB + 1.7 B

Where A = ln [ 0.62/ PFA] and B = ln [ Pd /(1- Pd) ]

System design sequence:

Integration of Radar Pulses:

where θB= antenna beam width, deg

Where n = number of pulses integrated

The radar equation with n pulses integrated can be written

Radar Cross Section of Targets:

Where R= distance between radar and target

Er= strength of reflected field at radar

Figure 1.10: Radar cross section of the sphere. a = radius; λ= wavelength.

Radar cross section of a cone-sphere:

Pulse Repetition Frequencies and Range Ambiguities:

100 ft of RG-113/U A1 waveguide transmission line (two-way): 1.0 dB

Range of a Radar R = cTR / 2

Relationships between Probability of false alarm,Probability of detection and S/N :

 Albersheim empirical relationship between S/N, PFA and Pd:

S/N = A + 0.12AB + 1.7 B

Where A = ln [ 0.62/ PFA] and B = ln [ Pd /(1- Pd) ]

The radar equation with n pulses integrated :

Final Radar equation including Integration efficiencywith n pulses integrated:

Radar Range resolution = 3x108x0.9x10-6/2 = 135 mtrs.