1

Nutrients and Nutrition of Citrus Fruits

S. V. TING
Florida Department of Citrus, University of Florida, Institute of Food
and Agricultural Sciences, Agricultural Research and Education Center,
P.O. Box 1088, Lake Alfred, FL 33850
Downloaded by 49.149.18.120 at 03:31:47:395 on July 08, 2019

A l l foods for humans must provide some life-sustaining ele-

from https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/bk-1980-0143.ch001.

ments. These elements are the nutrients that supply energy after
being metabolized in the body and those that are essential for the
body to carry on this metabolism. Other qualifications for a food
are i t s psychological and social effects. Many foods are eaten
as a habit, custom, or t r a d i t i o n ; but all foods must possess
acceptable physical attributes, i.e., color and texture, and
desirable taste and p a l a t a b i l i t y .
The acceptance of fruits as a staple i n human diet has only
been practiced since the past century because of their perish-
ability as fresh produce. In most instances, they are used as
desserts because most of them are sweet in taste and because of
their high economic values. With the advent of canning and other
preservation industries and with the better knowledge of n u t r i -
t i o n , the use of fruits as staple foods has become more prevalent,
especially in developed countries.
The use o f c i t r u s f r u i t , e s p e c i a l l y oranges, d r a m a t i c a l l y
increased i n the U.S. a f t e r World War II ( 1 ) because o f the i n -
t r o d u c t i o n o f f r o z e n concentrated orange j u i c e (FCOJ) t o the
market. C i t r u s f r u i t s , being s u b t r o p i c a l products, d i d not enjoy
the p o p u l a r i t y o f other f r u i t s , e . g . a p p l e s , because the l o c a l i t y
of production were u s u a l l y not near the world population centers
and because o f p e r i s h a b i l i t y o f c i t r u s f r u i t s during storage.
T h e i r s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i s o r d e r s and t o storage
d i s e a s e s , e s p e c i a l l y molds and r o t s , made the cost a d e t e r r i n g
f a c t o r t o consumers. These shortcomings were overcome w i t h the
development o f FCOJ, which i s a t t r a c t i v e i n c o l o r , possesses f u l l
f r e s h orange f l a v o r and g r e a t l y reduces the cost o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n
with n e a r l y no storage l o s s . Research i n the area o f storage
disease c o n t r o l and i n t r a n s p o r t a t i o n o f f r e s h f r u i t have a l s o
l e d t o increased consumption i n many developed c o u n t r i e s .
C i t r u s f r u i t s and t h e i r products a r e important sources o f
vitamin C i n the American d i e t , and are becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y
more important t o other developed and developing c o u n t r i e s .
Consumer awareness o f the h e a l t h f u l aspects o f c i t r u s , together

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© 1980 A m e r i c a n Chemical Society

Nagy and Attaway; Citrus Nutrition and Quality

ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1980.
4 CITRUS NUTRITION AND QUALITY

w i t h i t s appealing c o l o r and d e l i g h t f u l aroma and t a s t e , makes

c i t r u s products the most popular o f the processed f r u i t products.
The improved technology of c i t r u s f r u i t p r o d u c t i o n , p r o c e s s i n g ,
storage and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n has placed the product w i t h i n economic
reach of more people than ever. The c o s t of a s e r v i n g (6 f l o z ,
177 ml) of orange j u i c e , g r a p e f r u i t j u i c e , and other j u i c e s were
9 . 7 , 9.0 and 10.7 c e n t s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , as reported i n September
1979 (2:). Table I shows the gallonage and expenditures f o r c i t r u s
f r u i t j u i c e s and f r u i t - f l a v o r e d d r i n k s , i n c l u d i n g orange f l a v o r e d ,
i n the U.S. during September.

Table I. Consumption of F r u i t J u i c e s and Other F r u i t Beverages

i n the United States and T h e i r Total Values-September, 1979
M i l l i o n s of M i l l i o n s of
gallons dollars
Orange j u i c e 47.0 103.7
Grapefruit juice 6.2 12.5
A l l other f r u i t j u i c e s 26.1 70.0

Orange f l a v o r d r i n k s 11.6 16.2

A l l other f l a v o r d r i n k s 18.4 26.2
Source: {2)

The H i s t o r i c a l Role of C i t r u s F r u i t i n the Human D i e t

C i t r u s i s g e n e r a l l y regarded as one of the most important

sources of a s c o r b i c a c i d . The r e l a t i o n between c i t r u s f r u i t and
a n t i s c o r b u t i c a c t i v i t y a c t u a l l y was f i r s t reported by a Hungarian
p h y s i c i a n , Kramer, i n 1732 (3J. The dreadful disease of scurvy
was found to be completely prevented w i t h the i n g e s t i o n of green
vegetable or pulp of c i t r u s f r u i t . The use of lime and orange i n
the d i e t of seamen i n the Royal B r i t i s h A d m i r a l i t y was the o r i g i n
of the name "Limey" f o r B r i t i s h s a i l o r s . Harden and Z i l v a (4)
found a concentrated f r a c t i o n from the lemon f r u i t t h a t possessed
strong reducing p r o p e r t i e s . L a t e r Szent Gyorgyi (5) i s o l a t e d the
a n t i s c o r b u t i c substance i n c r y s t a l l i n e form from pepper and c i t r u s
fruit.
Many vegetables and f r u i t s , other than c i t r u s , c o n t a i n a s c o r -
b i c a c i d . I t was estimated t h a t c i t r u s f r u i t s and tomatoes p r o -
vided only 18% of the t o t a l v i t a m i n C i n t a k e i n the American d i e t
during the decade of 1910. These two f r u i t s s u p p l i e d 41% of
v i t a m i n C i n 1956-58 ( 6 ) . Today orange j u i c e alone provides
n e a r l y 60% of the U.S. Recommended D a i l y Allowance (U.S. RDA) of
v i t a m i n C i n the American d i e t ( 7 ) .
C i t r u s f r u i t s and t h e i r products are now recognized as an
important food i n the human d i e t , not only because of t h e i r
v i t a m i n C c o n t e n t s , but a l s o because of t h e i r other food a t t r i -
butes, such as t h e i r pleasant aroma, appealing c o l o r , and p l e a s -
ant t a s t e of a p p r o p r i a t e r a t i o s of sweetness and t a r t n e s s

Nagy and Attaway; Citrus Nutrition and Quality

ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1980.
1. TING Nutrition of Citrus Fruits 5

and because of the awareness by the p u b l i c of t h e i r n u t r i t i v e

values and the other n u t r i e n t s they c o n t a i n .

Macronutrients i n C i t r u s

The energy-supplying n u t r i e n t s are g e n e r a l l y carbohydrates,

p r o t e i n and f a t . While c i t r u s products provide l i t t l e p r o t e i n
and f a t , t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n of carbohydrate i s an e s s e n t i a l p a r t
of the n u t r i t i v e value of c i t r u s . The proximate composition of
several kinds of c i t r u s f r u i t s (8) are shown i n Table II. Because

Table II. Proximate Composition of C i t r u s F r u i t s (g/100 g)

Fruits Moisture Protein Fat Carbohydrate Ash
Sol. Insol.
Orange
Whole f r u i t 86.4 .7 .2 12.0 .5 .7
Juice 88.3 .6 .2 10.5 .1 .4

Grapefruit
Whole f r u i t 88.9 .5 .1 10.1 .2 .4
Juice 90.2 .5 .1 9.0 — .2
Segment 91.3 .6 .1 7.6 .2 .4

Tangerine
Whole f r u i t 87.0 .8 .2 11.6 .5 .4
Juice 88,9 J> .2 10.1 .1 .3
Source: (8)

the compositions vary g r e a t l y due to f r u i t m a t u r i t y and v a r i e t y ,

these values can f l u c t u a t e c o n s i d e r a b l y from a c t u a l samples. The
main p a r t of the c a l o r i c values s u p p l i e d by c i t r u s i s from c a r b o -
hydrate and most of the p r o t e i n value i s a c t u a l l y from f r e e
amino a c i d s .
Carbohydrates

Simple sugars. The main p o r t i o n of carbohydrates i n c i t r u s

f r u i t are the three simple sugars: sucrose, glucose and f r u c t o s e
(9). Together they represent about 80% of the t o t a l s o l u b l e
s o l i d s of orange j u i c e (jLO), and the r a t i o s of sucrose: glucose:
f r u c t o s e are g e n e r a l l y about 2:1:1 (11_). In over-mature e a r l y
and mid-season F l o r i d a oranges, and i n t a n g e r i n e s , the r a t i o s of
sucrose to reducing sugars have been found to increase but not i n
the l a t e season F l o r i d a oranges (12). In g r a p e f r u i t , the sucrose
to non-reducing sugar r a t i o s are l e s s than 1. Most of the f r e e
sugars i n lemon and lime j u i c e s are reducing sugars (Table I I I )
and the main s o l u b l e s o l i d i n these f r u i t j u i c e s i s c i t r i c a c i d .
In an a c i d i c medium such as c i t r u s j u i c e s , sucrose can be e a s i l y
hydrolyzed; t h i s f a c t may account f o r the low sucrose values
sometimes found i n canned j u i c e s s u b j e c t to long term storage.

Nagy and Attaway; Citrus Nutrition and Quality

ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1980.
6 CITRUS NUTRITION AND QUALITY

Table I I I . Average Sugar Composition of C i t r u s J u i c e s (g/100 g)

Total Total
Fruit Glucose Fructose Reducing Sucrose Sugars
Orange 2.03 2.48 4.51 4.81 9.32
Grapefruit 1.66 1.75 3.41 2.56 5.97
Tangerine 1.13 1.54 2.67 6.53 9.20
Lemon 1.40 1.35 2.75 0.41 3.16
Lime 3.48 0 3.48
Source: (12)

The main sugars i n the peel of c i t r u s f r u i t s are a l s o suc-

r o s e , glucose and f r u c t o s e , although a t r a c e of f r e e xylose was
reported (13J. The r e l a t i v e amounts of these sugars are shown i n
Table IV. These f r e e sugars are a l s o the major i n g r e d i e n t s of
c a t t l e feed manufactured from c i t r u s peel and processing r e s i d u e ,
e s p e c i a l l y when c i t r u s molasses i s blended i n t o the feed (14).

Table IV. Average Sugar Composition i n C i t r u s Peel

F r u i t and Time of Glucose Fructose Sucrose Total
variety harvest ( Ï dry weight) sugar
Hamlin oranges December 10.3 16.8 11.8 38.8
Pineapple oranges January 10.8 21.2 13.9 45.8
V a l e n c i a oranges April 10.9 10.9 16.5 37.4
Marsh seedless
grapefruit December 11.6 12.8 14.3 38.7
Source: (13)

Polysaccharides and Polyuronides. These compounds are found

i n the a l c o h o l - i n s o l u b l e f r a c t i o n and c o n s i s t of p e c t i c sub-
s t a n c e s , h e m i c e l l u l o s e , c e l l u l o s e and l i g n i n . The recent i n t e r e s t
of d i e t a r y f i b e r i n human n u t r i t i o n has placed s p e c i a l emphasis
upon these substances i n foods. Between 45 and 75 percent of the
t o t a l s o l i d s i n c i t r u s peel and membrane i s not s o l u b l e i n a l c o -
hol (13), and most of these a l c o h o l i n s o l u b l e s o l i d s c o n s i s t e d of
polysaccharides or polyuronides (15). In orange f r u i t , the peel
i s not g e n e r a l l y eaten except i n such s p e c i a l i t y products as
candied peel or marmalade. The b i t t e r n e s s i n the peel and the
segment membrane of g r a p e f r u i t i s due to n a r i n g i n and l i m o n i n
(12) and makes t h a t p o r t i o n of the f r u i t u n p a l a t a b l e . Roe and
Bruemmer (16) developed a method to d e b i t t e r the albedo by vacuum
i n f u s i o n of t h i s t i s s u e w i t h n a r i n g i n a s e , thus, rendering the
e n t i r e f r u i t , except the f l a v e d o , e d i b l e . A d i s t r i b u t i o n of the
v a r i o u s component parts of d i f f e r e n t c i t r u s f r u i t i s shown i n
Table V (17, 18). Approximately 20 percent of the weight of
orange and 30 percent of t h a t of g r a p e f r u i t i s peel ( i n c l u d e s both

Nagy and Attaway; Citrus Nutrition and Quality

ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1980.
1. TING Nutrition of Citrus Fruits 7

the albedo and f l a v e d o ) , and about 10 percent of the weight of

the f r u i t i s segment membrane.

Table V. D i s t r i b u t i o n of the Components of Oranae and Grape-

f r u i t (% Fresh Weight)
Segment Juice
Fruit Peel Membrane vesicles Seeds
Oranges
Pineapple 19.9 13.7 62.6 3.8
Valencia 19.2 9.0 71.0 0.8

Grapefruit
Seedy 27.2 10.0 59.4 3.4
Source: (17, 18)

About 30 percent of the polysaccharides i n the peel and pulp

may be c l a s s i f i e d as c e l l u l o s e (Table V I ) . No separate c e l l u l o s e
f r a c t i o n can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d from the j u i c e p o l y s a c c h a r i d e .
Over 50 percent of the t o t a l polysaccharide i n the p e e l , 60 p e r -
cent or more of t h a t of the pulp and over 90 percent of t h a t of
the j u i c e are e x t r a c t e d w i t h the p e c t i c substance, the balance
being h e m i c e l l u l o s e . Separate h y d r o l y s i s of these f r a c t i o n s ,
i n d i c a t e d t h a t some monosaccharides, such as arabinose and g a l a c -
t o s e , were found i n a l l f r a c t i o n s . Xylose occurred mostly i n the
h e m i c e l l u l o s e f r a c t i o n whereas g a l a c t u r o n i c a c i d and glucose were
the main monosaccharides i n the p e c t i c substances and the c e l l u -
l o s e f r a c t i o n s , r e s p e c t i v e l y (Table V I I ) .

D i e t a r y F i b e r . The d e f i n i t i o n of d i e t a r y f i b e r i s not very

s p e c i f i c and i t g e n e r a l l y includes t h a t group of substances found
i n the a l c o h o l - i n s o l u b l e f r a c t i o n s of c i t r u s f r u i t s . The crude
f i b e r value as c o n v e n t i o n a l l y reported i s only t h a t p o r t i o n of
the d i e t a r y f i b e r c o n s i s t i n g of p a r t i a l l y p u r i f i e d c e l l u l o s e and
l i g n i n . Although these compounds are not attacked by the human
d i g e s t i v e system as they t r a v e l through the alimentary t r a c t ,
they are s u b j e c t to p a r t i a l h y d r o l y s i s by the m i c r o f l o r a i n the
lower p a r t of the d i g e s t i v e system. The b e n e f i t of d i e t a r y
f i b e r has been a t t r i b u t e d to i t s a b i l i t y to decrease the t r a n s i t
time of food through the g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l t r a c t (19). Some
f r a c t i o n of the d i e t a r y f i b e r such as p e c t i n has Been a s s o c i a t e d
with the property of lowering the c h o l e s t e r o l i n mammals (20),
and the methyl content of the polymer has been reported to be
c o r r e l a t e d to t h i s c a p a b i l i t y . C i t r u s p e c t i n has a methyl con-
tent of 7-10 percent as compared to 6-9 percent f o r apple p e c t i n .
P e c t i n from f l e s h y f r u i t s such as strawberry has only 0.2 percent
(21).
The polysaccharides of the peel and pulp of c i t r u s f r u i t s

Nagy and Attaway; Citrus Nutrition and Quality

ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1980.
 CITRUS NUTRITION AND QUALITY

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Nagy and Attaway; Citrus Nutrition and Quality

ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1980.
 H
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Table VII. R e l a t i v e Amounts of Various Monosaccharides Found i n the Hydrolysate of Polysaccharide

F r a c t i o r ι of the A l c o h o l - I n s o l u b l e S o l i d s of C i t r u s P e e l , Pulp and J u i c e
Galactu- Other
Component
Fractions Arabinose Xylose Rhamnose Galactose Glucose ronic acid uronic acids
part

P e c t i c substances + t + +++
Hemicellulose + ++ t + + t t
Peel +
Cellulose + + t +++

P e c t i c substances + t t + t +++
Hemicellulose + ++ + + + t
Pulp +
Cellulose + t + +++

P e c t i c substances + t t + —— +++
Juice Hemicellulose and
Cellulose ++ + ++ +

Nagy and Attaway; Citrus Nutrition and Quality

Source: (13, 17) + = <25% of t o t a l polysaccharides
++ = between 25 and 50%
+++ = >50%
t = trace
-- = not found

ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1980.

VO
10 CITRUS NUTRITION AND QUALITY

provide a good source of d i e t a r y f i b e r . Church and Church (22)

reported t h a t an average s i z e orange could supply about 0.8 g of
d i e t a r y f i b e r , whereas 236 ml (8 f l oz) s e r v i n g of j u i c e contains
only o n e - h a l f t h a t amount.

Organic A c i d s . The most predominate s o l u b l e c o n s t i t u e n t s of

c i t r u s j u i c e , f o l l o w i n g the sugars, are the organic acids and
t h e i r s a l t s . They represent about 10 percent of the t o t a l s o l u b l e
s o l i d s i n c i t r u s j u i c e s . The proper r a t i o s of sugar and the acids
and t h e i r b u f f e r s give the c i t r u s j u i c e s t h e i r d e l i g h t f u l t a s t e .

The organic acids of c i t r u s f r u i t i n c l u d e a group of c a r -

b o x y l i c acids (23) w i t h d i f f e r e n t a c i d s predominant i n various
component parts of the f r u i t . C i t r i c a c i d i s the main a c i d i n
the j u i c e , r e p r e s e n t i n g from 80 percent of the t o t a l a c i d i t y i n
j u i c e from ripened oranges, about 90 percent of t h a t of g r a p e f r u i t
and n e a r l y a l l of t h a t of lemon. The pH of the j u i c e g r e a t l y
a f f e c t s the sourness of the product (24) and i s , i n t u r n , a f f e c t e d
by the c a t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y potassium. The major a c i d s i n c i t r u s
peel are m a l i c , o x a l i c (25), malonic (26), and qui n i c (27).
Organic acids are metabolized i n the body and should be considered
as a source of energy. In the case of the s a l t s of these a c i d s ,
the organic p o r t i o n i s metabolized l e a v i n g the f r e e c a t i o n s to be
combined with other anions. Thus, c i t r u s j u i c e i s c l a s s e d as an
a l k a l i n e food (28).

Protein

The amount of p r o t e i n i n c i t r u s f r u i t i s r e l a t i v e l y low

(Table I I ) , and the j u i c e and peel have about the same amount (29).
Much of the value t h a t i s considered as p r o t e i n i s e i t h e r f r e e
amino a c i d s or non-protein c o n s t i t u e n t s which c o n t a i n n i t r o g e n .
The t o t a l n i t r o g e n of orange j u i c e s was found to increase w i t h
the m a t u r i t y of the f r u i t and ranged between .068 to .120 g per
100 ml (30). The a c t u a l p r o t e i n values obtained by Clements (31)
were about 20 percent of the acetone powder. Nearly 30 percent
of the a l c o h o l - i n s o l u b l e s o l i d s of j u i c e and about 20 percent of
t h a t of v e s i c u l a r pulp were found to be p r o t e i n as determined by
the K j e l d a h l procedure (32). These values are the actual p r o t e i n
that was p r e c i p i t a t e d by a l c o h o l and are only a f r a c t i o n of the
t o t a l p r o t e i n values u s u a l l y reported f o r orange j u i c e ( 8 ) . The
main source of p r o t e i n s i n c i t r u s j u i c e i s probably i n the form
of enzymes and the p l a s t i d s . At l e a s t 47 d i f f e r e n t enzymes have
been reported to occur i n c i t r u s f r u i t s (33). C i t r u s f r u i t s a l s o
contain several phenolic amines (34), some of which such as syn-
epherine, may have p h y s i o l o g i c a l importance (35).
Among the v a r i o u s f r e e amino acids reported i n c i t r u s j u i c e s
(32), a r g i n i n e i s the only semi-indispensable amino a c i d t h a t
occurs i n moderate amounts. The m a j o r i t y of amino acids i n c i t r u s
are considered to be nonessential according to the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n

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1. TING Nutrition of Citrus Fruits 11

by Block and B o i l i n g (36). At most, the c o n t r i b u t i o n of f r e e

amino acids i n c i t r u s j u i c e s to human n u t r i t i o n i s minimal.

Lipids

From a d i e t a r y s t a n d p o i n t , the c o n t r i b u t i o n of c i t r u s l i p i d s
i s i n s i g n i f i c a n t ; and only between .06 and .09 percent has been
found i n oranges (37). They a r e , however, of importance because
of t h e i r e f f e c t s on the development of o f f - f l a v o r s (12), thus
lowering the p a l a t a b i l i t y of these products. The near absence
of l i p i d s i n c i t r u s makes i t a d e s i r a b l e food f o r those on a
limited fat diet.

Micronutrients in Citrus

The term micro i s used purely to i n d i c a t e the p h y s i c a l quan­

t i t i e s r e q u i r e d i n n u t r i t i o n r a t h e r than f o r t h e i r importance.
These n u t r i e n t s represent the v i t a m i n s , minerals and other sub­
stances t h a t have d i e t a r y s i g n i f i c a n c e .

F a t - S o l u b l e Vitamins i n C i t r u s F r u i t

Among the several vitamins i n t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , only

v i t a m i n A i s present i n a p p r e c i a b l e q u a n t i t y as c a r o t e n o i d p r o ­
v i t a m i n A i n c i t r u s (38). No v i t a m i n D has ever been reported i n
c i t r u s nor any p l a n t v i t a m i n D p r e c u r s o r s , such as e r g o s t e r o l .
Several of the s t e r o l s present i n c i t r u s f r u i t s are reported (39,
40, 4 1 ) , but they are not r e l a t e d to v i t a m i n D.

Vitamin Ε. The amount of vitamin Ε i n c i t r u s i s n u t r i t i o n ­

a l l y i n s i g n i f i c a n t . Braddock (42) reported only 0.1 mg i n 100 ml
of orange j u i c e . The U.S. RDA f o r t h i s v i t a m i n i s 30 mg. Newhall
and Ting (43) found as much as 1 mg i n 100 grams of f l a v e d o on a
f r e s h weight b a s i s . Its a n t i o x i d a n t property plays an impor­
t a n t r o l e i n the keeping q u a l i t y of c i t r u s o i l s .

Vitamin A. The v i t a m i n A of c i t r u s f r u i t i s e n t i r e l y i n the

form of provitamin A c a r o t e n o i d s . The carotenes (both the alpha
and beta form) and the cryptoxanthins i n c i t r u s are considered as
the main p r e c u r s o r s . The carotenes are only a minor component of
the t o t a l carotenoids of oranges ranging from about 5 to 10 p e r ­
cent (44-46). In Dancy tangerine and V a l e n c i a oranges, c r y p t o -
xanthin i s the main v i t a m i n A precursor (47, 48). High perform­
ance l i q u i d chromatography (HPLC) has been usëcT to separate
cryptoxanthin from other oxygenated carotenoids (413, 50). Only
the b e t a - c r y p t o x a n t h i n has provitamin a c t i v i t y . P r i o r use of open
column chromatography (51) could not separate the d i f f e r e n t mono-
oxygenated c a r o t e n o i d s , thus g i v i n g higher v a l u e s . Using the HPLC
method, Stewart (52) analyzed the carotenoids of several v a r i e t i e s
of oranges and mandarins, and found t h a t b e t a - c r y p t o x a n t h i n i s the

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12 CITRUS NUTRITION AND QUALITY

main provitamin A c i t r u s c a r o t e n o i d . The mandarin-type c i t r u s

f r u i t i s a good source o f provitamin A, whereas oranges are s i g -
n i f i c a n t l y poorer (Table V I I I ) . With g r a p e f r u i t , the white v a r i -
e t i e s have no v i t a m i n A, but the pink and red v a r i e t i e s have been
found to c o n t a i n a p p r e c i a b l e amounts o f beta-carotene (53, 54).

Table V I I I . Vitamin A Content o f C i t r u s J u i c e s

% U. S. RDA
Fruit 177 ml (6 f 1 . oz)

E a r l y and mid-season 1.6-2.7

Late season 1.7

Tangerines
Dancy 19
Honey 64
Robinson 23

Tangélos
Orlando 4.7

Grapefruit
White None
Ruby 30

Source: (44, 52-54)

Wàter-Sôluble Vitamins i n C i t r u s F r u i t
Vitamin C. Perhaps the most important c o n t r i b u t i o n of c i t -
rus f r u i t s to human n u t r i t i o n i s a t t r i b u t e d to t h e i r high ascorbic
acid. Although c i t r u s products are not the only source f o r
high contents of v i t a m i n C among f r u i t s and v e g e t a b l e s , t h e i r
p o p u l a r i t y are l a r g e l y due to t h e i r d e s i r a b l e f l a v o r , t a s t e and
c o l o r . In Table IX (55) are l i s t e d some of the more common f r u i t s
and vegetables and t h e i r v i t a m i n C content. An average 177 ml (6
f l oz) s e r v i n g o f e i t h e r orange or g r a p e f r u i t j u i c e could provide
100 percent U.S. RDA of v i t a m i n C (60 mg). Tangerine j u i c e , a l -
though c o n t a i n i n g l e s s v i t a m i n C than other c i t r u s j u i c e s , would
provide a s u b s t a n t i a l amount toward the recommended d a i l y a l l o w -
ance.
Nearly 3/4 of a l l v i t a m i n C i n an orange and 5/6 i n a grape-
f r u i t i s found i n the peel ( 5 6 ) , however, c i t r u s j u i c e s and t h e i r
products provide a major p o r t i o n of the v i t a m i n C i n the American
d i e t . Considerable v a r i a t i o n s i n v i t a m i n C content can be found
i n d i f f e r e n t c i t r u s products due to such f a c t o r s as v a r i e t y s ,
m a t u r i t y and c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s of the f r u i t (57) from which the
products o r i g i n a t e and to the processing p r a c t i c e s and storage
c o n d i t i o n s of these products before they reach the consumer.
The decrease of a s c o r b i c a c i d w i t h f r u i t m a t u r i t y i s i l l u s -

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1. TING Nutrition of Citrus Fruits 13

Table IX. Average Vitamin C Content of Freshly Harvested F r u i t s

and Vegetables
Product mg/100 g
Guava 300
Broccoli 120
Green pepper 120
Turnip greens 120
Cabbage 60
Orange 50
Lemon 50
Grapefruit 40
Tangerine 25
Potato 30
Tomato 25
Pineapple 25
Banana 10
Apple 10
Peaeh 4

Source: (55)

t r a t e d i n Figure 1. Vitamin C content of the e a r l y and midseason

oranges are higher than t h a t of the l a t e season f r u i t . These
f a c t s i n d i c a t e t h a t high q u a l i t y does not c o r r e l a t e w i t h higher
n u t r i t i o n a l q u a l i t y . The more mature f r u i t and those of the l a t e
season v a r i e t y are g e n e r a l l y regarded as of b e t t e r q u a l i t y .

S t a b i l i t y of Vitamin C i n C i t r u s F r u i t s and J u i c e s

The ease of o x i d a t i o n of reduced a s c o r b i c a c i d i s the b a s i s

f o r a simple method of a n a l y s i s by dye t i t r a t i o n (58). Ascorbic
a c i d as i t occurs i n c i t r u s j u i c e i s i n the reduced form. When
subjected to o x i d a t i o n , a s c o r b i c a c i d changes to the dehydro form.
Dehydroascorbic a c i d has nearly the same p h y s i o l o g i c a l a c t i v i t y as
the reduced form and i s e a s i l y converted to the l a t t e r . Further
o x i d a t i o n of the dehydroascorbic a c i d converts i t to 2 , 3 - d i k e t o -
gulonic a c i d . This r e a c t i o n i s i r r e v e r s i b l e , and the o x i d i z e d
product i s devoid of b i o l o g i c a l a c t i v i t y . These r e a c t i o n s are
shown i n Figure 2. Nearly 90 percent or more of the v i t a m i n C
found i n c i t r u s j u i c e and c i t r u s products i s i n the reduced form
(Table X) (59).
Vitamin C i n c i t r u s j u i c e i s remarkably s t a b l e during the
short period i t i s g e n e r a l l y kept a f t e r e x t r a c t e d from the f r u i t .
F r e s h l y e x t r a c t e d orange and g r a p e f r u i t j u i c e s r e t a i n e d about 98
Q

percent of t h e i r o r i g i n a l v i t a m i n C at 21,1 f o r 3 days. At 4.4

orange and g r a p e f r u i t j u i c e s r e t a i n e d 96 and 99 percent, respec-
t i v e l y , of the o r i g i n a l amount a f t e r one-week's storage (60). Or-
ange j u i c e t h a t has been heated to b o i l i n g f o r 15 min s t i l l r e -
t a i n e d about 96 percent of the v i t a m i n C (59). Atmospheric oxygen

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14 CITRUS NUTRITION AND QUALITY

Ε
§ 601- 1937-38

2 4 Οί­ 1936-37
ο
<
ο
CÛ
oc
o 20h
o
co
<
30 1020 30 9 19 29 8 18 28 10 20 30 9 19 29 9 19 29 8 18
NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE

Figure 1. Seasonal changes of ascorbic acid in juice of Florida oranges (average

values for 2 seasons)

r-CO C0- COOH

I I I
C-OH CO CO
I I I
C-OH CO CO
I I
LOC-H H-CO- H-C-OH
I I I
HO-CH HO-CH HO-CH
I I I
CH 0H2 CH 0H
2 C H OH

L-ASCORBIC DEHYDROASCORBIC α KETO-

ACID ACID GULONIC ACID

Figure 2. Oxidation of 1-ascorbic acid

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1. TING Nutrition of Citrus Fruits 15

Table X. Reduced Ascorbic A c i d and Dehydroascorbic Acid i n

C i t r u s Products

Reduced Dehydro
Product (mg/100 g)
Canned orange j u i c e 43.1 0.9
grapefruit juice 32.0 1.8
tangerine j u i c e 27.2 1.1

FCOJ 45.2 1.6

Orange segments 36.0 1.5
G r a p e f r u i t segments 31.5 2.3
Source: (59)

i s an e s s e n t i a l element i n the l o s s of vitamin C during long term

storage. In sealed c o n t a i n e r s , there i s a r a p i d l o s s of the v i t a -
min followed by a slow decrease and becoming r e l a t i v e l y constant.
Smoot and Nagy (61) found t h a t when stored at high temperature,
the l o s s of vitamin C continues even a f t e r the headspace oxygen
i s exhausted and that the d i k e t o g u l o n i c a c i d f r a c t i o n increased
noticeably.
A comparison of the v i t a m i n C content of f r e s h l y squeezed
orange j u i c e and r e c o n s t i t u t e d FCOJ showed no marked d i f f e r e n c e
i n the a s c o r b i c a c i d content during storage i n a home r e f r i g e r a t o r
f o r up to one week (62) (Figure 3 ) . The l o s s of vitamin C i n i n -
t a c t oranges during t F e i r marketing period are not expected to be
more than 10 percent of the o r i g i n a l (63).

Thiamine (Vitamin B,). C i t r u s products are a l s o good sources

of thiamine. They proviae comparable amount or more of v i t a m i n
B. than foods t h a t are known s u p p l i e r s of t h i s n u t r i e n t on the
basis of n u t r i e n t density as measured by the Index of N u t r i e n t
Q u a l i t y (INQ) (64). L i s t e d i n Table XI are the INQ of some com-
mon foods. The vegetables have high INQ since the index i s c a l -
c u l a t e d on u n i t n u t r i e n t per KCal, but c i t r u s products are higher
i n INQ than some other f r u i t s . Wholewheat bread, u s u a l l y c o n s i d -
ered as a source of vitamin B. has an INQ much lower than t h a t of
orange j u i c e . Thiamine i n canned orange j u i c e i s r a t h e r s t a b l e .
A l o s s of only 16-17 percent was reported a f t e r the product was
stored f o r 18 months at 27° (65).

F o l i c Acid ( f o l a t e ) . Chemically, f o l i c a c i d i s a p t e r y l -
glutamic acid.. The several forms that occur i n nature depend on
the numbers of glutamic a c i d u n i t s and methyl groups i n the mole-
c u l e s . Because of i t s usual low c o n c e n t r a t i o n , f o l i c a c i d i s
g e n e r a l l y determined i n food m a t e r i a l s by the m i c r o b i o l o g i c a l
assay with [Lactobacillus c a s e i and measured t u r b i d i m e t r i c a l l y
or t i t r i m e t r i c a l l y . D e f i c i e n c y of t h i s v i t a m i n could r e s u l t i n
macroytic anemia (66). Orange j u i c e contains more f o l a t e than
many other f r u i t j u i c e (Table X I I ) ( 6 7 ) .

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 CITRUS NUTRITION AND QUALITY

A V E R A G E V A L U E S FOR P E R C E N T A S C O R B I C ACID
RETAINED AFTER REFRIGERATION
lOOp^- .

FRESH

24 48 72 96 120
H O U R S IN REFRIGERATOR

Figure 3. Changes in ascorbic acid content of freshly squeezed orange juice and
reconstituted orange juice concentrate during storage in refrigerator (62)

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1. TING Nutrition of Citrus Fruits 17

Table XI. Comparison of Index of N u t r i e n t Q u a l i t y (INQ) of the

Amino Acids of C i t r u s Products With Those of Various Other
Common Foods
Foods Index of n u t r i e n t
q u a l i t y (INQ)
M i l k (whole) 1.20
M i l k (skim) 2.12
Eggs ( h a r d - b o i l e d ) 1.00
Beef .33
Grapes (seedless) 1.71
Grape j u i c e .74
Apple (whole) 1.00
Apple j u i c e .33
Peaches (raw) 1.00
Peaches (canned i n water) .53
Banana 1.20
G r a p e f r u i t segments 2.00
G r a p e f r u i t j u i c e (canned) 1.40
G r a p e f r u i t j u i c e (from concentrate) 2.00
Orange (peeled) 4.00
Orange j u i c e (canned) 2.83
Orange j u i c e (from concentrate) 3.83
Tangerine (peeled) 2.50
Tangerine j u i c e (canned) 2.40
B r o c c o l i (cooked) 4.00
Cabbage (raw) 5.00
Tomato (raw) 5.60
Tomato j u i c e 5.33
White bread 2.94
Whole wheat bread 2.50
Source: (64)

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18 CITRUS NUTRITION AND QUALITY

Table XII. F o l i c A c i d Content of Some F r u i t J u i c e s

Range
Product Average (mi crôgràms/100 ml )
Orange j u i c e 35 26-40
Mixed f r u i t j u i c e s (infant) 8 7-10
Grapefruit j u i c e 8 3-24
Tangerine j u i c e 21 17-25
Grape j u i c e 0.1 0.1
Prune j u i c e 0.3 0.2-0.3
Apple j u i c e 0.2 0.1-0.2
Tomato j u i c e 9.9 9.7-10
Source: (67)

Vitamin B^. A n a l y s i s of r e c o n s t i t u t e d f r o z e n concentrated

orange j u i c e has shown t h a t i t contains an average of 55 meg per
100 ml (68). While t h i s amount i s not considered h i g h , orange
j u i c e i s comparable to m i l k i n supplying t h i s n u t r i e n t . Atking
ÊÏ. ϋ1· (69) reported t h a t cow's m i l k s u p p l i e s an average of 54
meg of v i t a m i n B per 100 ml and orange j u i c e 56 meg i n equal v o l ­
6

ume. Canned and f r e s h g r a p e f r u i t j u i c e s contain 8 and 18 meg per

100 m l , r e s p e c t i v e l y (70). Vitamin B5 i s a group of 3 r e l a t e d
compounds, namely p y r i d o x i n e , pyridoxamine and p y r i d o x a l . I t i s
e s s e n t i a l f o r many of the enzymes i n amino a c i d metabolism. Deter­
minations of v i t a m i n Bg i n c i t r u s are made by m i c r o b i o l o g i c a l
assay. Although the RDA f o r t h i s n u t r i e n t i s 2 mg, the a c t u a l
requirement could be as low as 1.25 mg. With high p r o t e i n i n t a k e ,
the need could be as much as 1.75 mg (71).

N i a c i n , R i b o f l a v i n and Pantothenic A c i d . These three v i t a ­

mins are a l l present i n c i t r u s j u i c e s but the amount of each p r e s ­
ent i n orange j u i c e i s only between 2 to 4 percent U.S. RDA i n a
177 ml s e r v i n g (68). In g r a p e f r u i t j u i c e , the amount i s s l i g h t l y
l e s s but i s a l s o near the 2 percent U.S. RDA region (72). While
these amounts are not l a r g e , they a r e , however, greater i n p r o ­
p o r t i o n to the average c a l o r i c intake as expressed by the INQ (7).

Mineral N u t r i e n t s i n C i t r u s

Potassium and Sodium. Potassium i s the most abundant mineral

of c i t r u s j u i c e s and other c i t r u s products, amounting to 40 p e r ­
cent of the t o t a l ash (73). In c o n t r a s t , c i t r u s f r u i t s are low i n
sodium, g e n e r a l l y l e s s than 1 mg/100 ml j u i c e (74). In 100 ml of
orange j u i c e , 4 to 6 meq of potassium may be a v a i l a b l e (73).
S l i g h t l y l e s s was found i n canned g r a p e f r u i t j u i c e (72).
These two elements are the main c a t i o n s of the c e l l . Persons
w i t h high blood pressures are u s u a l l y placed on a low sodium
d i e t . Although potassium d e f i c i e n c y i n normal a d u l t s i s r a r e ,

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1. TING Nutrition of Citrus Fruits 19

people on d i u r e t i c medicine or on an improper d i e t have been

known to need a supplemented i n t a k e of t h i s element.

Calcium, Magnesium and Phosphorus. Calcium and magnesium

are the two major d i v a l e n t c a t i o n s of c i t r u s f r u i t , but both o c -
cur i n r e l a t i v e l y low amounts i n the j u i c e s ranging between 6-15
mg/100 ml (74). The c o n t r i b u t i o n of c i t r u s j u i c e s f o r these two
mineral n u t r i e n t s would only be 2-3 percent U.S. RDA per a s e r v i n g
of 177 ml (6 f l o z ) . However, when c a l c u l a t e d on the basis of
c a l o r i c i n t a k e , c i t r u s j u i c e s provide a l l these three n u t r i e n t s
(phosphorus, calcium and magnesium) near or above t h e i r c a l o r i c
contributions.
While phosphorus i s r e l a t e d to the two b i v a l e n t c a t i o n i n
human n u t r i t i o n as i n s t r u c t u r a l f o r m a t i o n , i t i s a l s o present i n
the blood c e l l s as phosphates and i n p r o t e i n , l i p i d s , carbohy-
drates and enzymes such as ATP and ADP. The U.S. RDA f o r phos-
phorus i s one gram, and orange j u i c e and g r a p e f r u i t j u i c e may con-
t a i n between 15 to 20 mg per 100 m l .

Trace Elements as Mineral N u t r i e n t s . Within t h i s group of

elements are copper, z i n c , i r o n and manganese. A l l of these min-
e r a l s are s u p p l i e d during the c u l t i v a t i o n of c i t r u s f r u i t , and are
e s s e n t i a l as p l a n t n u t r i e n t s . They are important i n many of the
enzymatic r e a c t i o n s i n the metabolic a c t i v i t i e s of the body.
These minerals are a l l found to be near, or s l i g h t l y above, the
c a l o r i c c o n t r i b u t i o n of the c i t r u s products (7_, 75).

Other C o n s t i t u e n t s i n C i t r u s w i t h P o s s i b l e D i e t a r y Importance

Several c o n s t i t u e n t s of c i t r u s f r u i t s have been reported to

have d i e t a r y importance, although there are strong c o n t r o v e r s i e s
about them. While these substances do not cause d e f i c i e n c y symp-
toms when not taken i n s u f f i c i e n t q u a n t i t i e s , t h e i r presence i n
food may c o n t r i b u t e to the betterment of h e a l t h . Among them are
the b i o f l a v o n o i d s and i n o s i t o l .

Bioflavonoids

Flavonoids are a group of compounds c o n t a i n i n g a C5-C3-C5

s t r u c t u r e . At l e a s t 50 f l a v o n o i d s have been i s o l a t e d and i d e n t i -
f i e d from c i t r u s (76), but only two are found i n a p p r e c i a b l e
q u a n t i t i e s . Hesperidin i s the major f l a v o n o i d i n oranges whereas
n a r i n g i n i s major i n g r a p e f r u i t . Some f l a v o n o i d s have been found
to have b i o l o g i c a l a c t i v i t i e s ; the term b i o f l a v o n o i d s i s some-
times used to d e s c r i b e these substances. Szent-Gyorgyi (77) had
considered c a l l i n g these substances "Vitamin P". Since these
substances are not e s s e n t i a l i n the human d i e t , i n as much as
t h e i r d e f i c i e n c y does not cause s p e c i f i c symptoms, the term
"Vitamin P" was not accepted by most n u t r i t i o n i s t s . Tests of some
of the b i o f l a v o n o i d preparations f a i l e d to show any p h y s i o l o g i c a l

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ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1980.
20 CITRUS NUTRITION AND QUALITY

a c t i v i t i e s . Thus, i t was concluded by many n u t r i t i o n i s t s t h a t

the b i o f l a v o n o i d s are not of any n u t r i t i o n a l importance. B i o -
f l a v o n o i d s as i s o l a t e d from oranges f o r pharmaceutical purposes
c o n t a i n mostly h e s p e r i d i n , and when p u r i f i e d , only h e s p e r i d i n may
be present. The p h y s i o l o g i c a l a c t i v i t i e s , however, are present
i n some of the minor components of the c i t r u s f l a v o n o i d p o o l .
Robbins (78) found t h a t the f u l l y methoxylated f l a v o n e s , espe-
c i a l l y n o b i l e t i n and t a n g e r e t i n , and heptamethoxyflavone are
e f f e c t i v e i n preventing the adhesion of red blood c e l l s . The
decrease i n t h i s red blood c e l l adhesion has been a s s o c i a t e d with
a l e s s e n i n g of some heart d i s e a s e s .

Inositol

I n o s i t o l i s a commonly o c c u r r i n g substance i n plants and has

been found to be present i n c i t r u s j u i c e i n the amount of about
150-200 mg/100 ml (79). I t has been considered a growth f a c t o r
f o r some animals (807 but i t has not been proven e s s e n t i a l i n
humans. I t i s doubtful t h a t t h i s substance i s c r i t i c a l i n the
human d i e t .

Conclusion

With i n c r e a s i n g knowledge of n u t r i t i o n and of n u t r i e n t s and

food values of c i t r u s f r u i t and w i t h the development of technology
of p r o c e s s i n g , packagin, and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n to reduce the cost of
the product, c i t r u s f r u i t s and t h e i r products have become s t a p l e
food items i n most developed and some developing c o u n t r i e s i n
recent y e a r s . The s u p e r i o r i t y of c i t r u s i s not only dependent on
the f a c t t h a t i t contains high v i t a m i n C, although i t i s important,
but t h a t i t contains several hundred other chemical c o n s t i t u e n t s
i n c l u d i n g many other v i t a m i n s , p o l y s a c c h a r i d e s , amino acids and
m i n e r a l s . Many of these are e s s e n t i a l i n human n u t r i t i o n . The
i n c l u s i o n of c i t r u s i n the d i e t provides sugars as a quick source
f o r energy as w e l l as many other substances which may c o n t r i b u t e
to a person's w e l l being.
The major assets of c i t r u s as food are t h e i r d e s i r a b l e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c aroma, t a s t e and c o l o r and i n the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p
of a l l the d i e t a r y n u t r i e n t s i n a pool as i n a l l n a t u r a l foods
such as c i t r u s when consumed. As a food i t can be enjoyed by
persons of a l l ages and at a l l times. Many c i t r u s c o n s t i t u e n t s
e i t h e r already i d e n t i f i e d or to be i s o l a t e d may c o n t r i b u e to the
betterment of h e a l t h .

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ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1980.
1. TING Nutrition of Citrus Fruits 21

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RECEIVED May 23, 1980.

Nagy and Attaway; Citrus Nutrition and Quality

ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1980.