BSCCH 103 PDF

BSCCH-
BSCCH 103
B. Sc. I YEAR
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY-I
CHEMISTRY
SCHOOL OF SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY
BSCCH-103
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY-I
SCHOOL OF SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY
Phone No. 05946-261122, 261123

Toll free No. 18001804025
Fax No. 05946-264232, E. mail [email protected]
htpp://uou.ac.in
Board of Studies
Prof. Govind Singh Prof. B. S. Saraswat

Director, School of Sciences Professor Chemistry
Uttarakhand Open University Department of Chemistry
School of Sciences, IGNOU New Delhi
Prof S.P. S. Mehta Prof. D. S. Rawat
Professor Chemistry Professor Chemistry
Department of Chemistry Department of Chemistry
DSB Campus, Kumaun University Delhi University, Delhi
Nainital
Dr. Charu C. Pant
Programme Coordinator
Department of Chemistry
School of Sciences,
Uttarakhand Open University
Haldwani, Nainital
Programme Coordinator
Dr. Charu C. Pant Dr. Shalini Singh

Department of Chemistry Department of Chemistry
School of Sciences, School of Sciences,
Uttarakhand Open University Uttarakhand Open University
Haldwani, Nainital Haldwani, Nainital
Unit Written By: Unit No.

1. Dr. K. B. Melkani 02, 03, 04, 05, 06, 07, 08, 09, 10, 11& 12
(Retd. Professor.)
DSB Campus Kumaun University, Nainital
4. Dr. Charu C. Pant 01
School of Sciences,
Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani.
Course Editor
Dr. R .D. Kaushik
Professor & Dean
Faculty of Science
Gurukul Kangri Mahavidyalaya , Haridwar
Title : Physical Chemistry-I
ISBN No. : 978-93-85740-55-8
Copyright : Uttarakhand Open University
Edition : 2017
Published by : Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani, Nainital- 263139
CONTENTS
BLOCK 1: MATHEMATICAL AND COMPUTERS FUNDAMENTALS
Unit-1 Unites and Dimensions 01-11
BLOCK 2: STATES OF MATTER
Unit-2 Gases State I 12-28
Unit-3 Gases State II 29-40
Unit-4 Liquid state 41-64
Unit -5 Solid state 65-82
BLOCK 3: DYNAMICS AND MACROMOLECULES

Unit -6 Chemical kinetics-I 83-96
Unit -7 Chemical kinetics-II 97-111
Unit -8 Colloids and Macromolecules 112-137
Unit -9 Catalysis 138-157
BLOCK 4: THERMODYNAMICS-I
Unit-10 Basic Concepts of thermodynamics 158-172
Unit-11 First low thermodynamics 173-195
Unit-12 Thermochemistry 196-216

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY- I BSCCH-103
UNIT 1: UNITES AND DIMENSIONS

CONTENTS:
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Basic units, derived unit and SI Prefixes
1.3.1. System of Units
1.3.2. The seven base units of the SI
1.4.Grammatical Rules for Representing the SI Unites
1.4.1 Representation of SI units
1.5. Conversion of Non SI unit to SI Unit
1.5.1 Non SI Unit
1.5.2 Some commonly used non-SI units
1.5.3 SI Unit
1.5.4 Conversion Factors for SI and non-SI Units
1.6 Summary
1.7 Terminal Questions
1.1 OBJECTIVES
• Use the SI system.

• Know the SI base units.
• State rough equivalents for the SI base units in the English system.
• Read and write the symbols for SI units.
• Recognize unit prefixes and their abbreviations.
• Build derived units from the basic units for mass, length, temperature, and time.
• Convert measurements from SI units to English and from one prefixed unit to
another.
• Use derived units like density and speed as conversion factors.
• Use percentages, parts per thousand, and parts per million as conversion factors.
• Use and report measurements carefully.
• Consider the reliability of a measurement in decisions based on measurements.
• Clearly distinguish between precision and accuracy
• Exact numbers and measurements
• systematic error and random error
1.2 INTRODUCTION
All the physical quantities are given by a few fundamental quantities or their
combinations. The units of such fundamental quantities are called base units,
combinations of them being called derived units. The system in which length, mass,
velocity, density and time are adopted as the basic quantities, and from which the units
of other quantities are derived, is called the absolute system of units.
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 1

1.3 BASIC UNITS, DERIVED UNIT AND SI PREFIXES
A unit is a particular way of attaching a number to the quantitative dimension.

Measured physical properties have a basic dimension in which they are measured.
There may be many units that are used to measure this dimension. This is best shown
by example. The thickness of an object has the dimension of length. Length can be
measured in a wide range of units including inches, feet, yards, meters, kilometers,
micrometers, Angstrom units, furlongs, fathoms, light-years and many more. The
thickness of an object cannot be measured in kilograms, however. That is because the
kilogram is a unit used to measure quantities that have the fundamental dimension of
mass.
The term units usually start by making arbitrary definitions of a unit for
fundamental dimensions. Typically these fundamental dimensions are mass, length,
time, electric charge and temperature. Once these units are selected for the fundamental
dimensions the units for other physical quantities can be determined from the physical
relations among quantities having the fundamental units. For example velocity is found
as distance divided by time. Thus the dimensions of velocity must be length/time.
Similarly the dimensions of acceleration, found as velocity divided by time, must be
length/time2, and the dimensions of force can be found from Newton’s second law:
force equals mass times acceleration. This gives the dimensions of force as the
dimensions of mass times the dimensions of acceleration or (mass) times (length)
divided by (time). The symbols M, L, and T are usually used to represent dimensions of
mass, length, and time, respectively.
Table 1- General Base Units:
PHYSICAL SYMBOL DIMENSION MEASUREMENT UNIT
QUANTITY UNIT
Length S L Meter m
Mass M M Kilogram Kg
Time T T Second Sec
Charge Q Q Coulomb C
0
Temperature T K kelvin C
Area A L2 Square meter m2
Volume V L3 Cubic meter m3
Velocity V L/T Meter per second m/sec.
Angular W T-1 Radians per sec. 1/sec
velocity
Force F MLT-2 Newton Kg m/sec
Energy E ML2T-2 Joule Kg
m2/sec2
Heat Q ML2T-2 Joule Kg
m2/sec2
Density Ρ ML-3 kilogram per cubic meter Kg/m3

Pressure P ML-1T-2 Newton per square meter Kg m-

1
/sec2
1.3.1. System of Units

(a) C.G.S (Centimeter-Grand-Second) system
(b) F.P.S. (Foot-Pound-Second) system
(c) M.K.S. (Meter-Kilogram--Second) system.
(d) M.K.S.A. (Meter-Kilogram-Second-Ampere) unit
1.3.2. The seven base units of the SI
1. Length- Meter, m: The meter is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during
a time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second.
2. Mass- kilogram, kg: The kilogram is the unit of mass; it is equal to the mass of the
international prototype of the kilogram.
3. Time- second, s: The second is the durationof 9 192 631 770 periods of the
radiationcorresponding to the transition betweenthe two hyperfine levels of the ground
stateof the caesium 133 atom.
4. Electric current- ampere, A: The ampere is that constant currentwhich, if

maintained in two straight parallelconductors of infinite length, of negligible circular
cross-section, and placed 1 metre apart in vacuum,would produce between these
conductors a forceequal to 2 × 10–7newton per metre of length.
5. Thermodynamic temperature - Kelvin, K: the Kelvin, unit of thermodynamic

temperature, is the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple
point of water.
6. Amount of substance- Mole, mol: The mole is the amount of substance of a

system which contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram
of carbon 12. When the mole is used, the elementary entities must be specie and may be
atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, other particles, or specie groups of such particles.
7. Luminous intensity- candela, cd: The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given
direction, of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency540 × 1012 hertz
and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per steroidal.
Table-2 The seven independent SI base units

Quantity Unit name Unit symbol
Length Meter M
Time Second S
Mass Kilogram Kg
Temperature Kelvin K
Electric current Ampere A
Amount of substance Mole Mol
Luminous intensity Candela Cd
The International System of Units

Seven physical quantities have been selected as base quantities in the 14th General
Conference onWeights and Measurements, held in France in 1971. These quantities
form the basis of the International System of Units, abbreviated SI (from its French
name Système International) and popularly known as the metric system. Table 3 depicts
these quantities, their unit names, and their unit symbols. (H. A. Radi and J. O.
Rasmussen, Principles of Physics,)
Prefixes for SI units

An additional convenient way to deal with very large or very small numbers in physics
is to use the prefixes listed in Table 3. Each one of these prefixes represents a certain
power of 10.
Table -3
Factor Prefix Symbol Factor Prefix Symbol
1024 yotta- Y 10−24 yocto -y
1021 zeta- Z 10−21 zepto -z
1018 exa- E 10−18 atto -a
1015 peta- P 10−15 femto- -f
1012 tera- T 10−12 pico -p
109 giga- G 10−9 nano -n
106 mega -M 10−6 micro -µ
103 kilo -k 10−3 milli -m

102 hecta -h 10−2 centi -c
101 deca -da 10−1 deci -d
Common metric prefixes:
The units often have prefixes, indicating the power(s) of 10 by which a unit may be
multiplied (for example, the prefix kilo in kilometer indicates that the unit kilometer is
1000 times larger than the meter). They are attached to an SI unit name or symbol to
form what are properly called "multiples" and "submultiples" (i.e., positive or negative
powers of 10) of the SI unit. These prefixes are helpful when referring to very small or
very large quantities. Instead of creating a new unit, a prefix is added. For example,
when measuring short lengths such as 1/1000th of a meter, we simply write millimeter;
milli denotes 1/1000th. The some common metric prefixes are giving below:
Table -4
Multiplication Factor Prefix Name Prefix Symbol

12
1 000 000 000 000 = 10 tera T
9
1 000 000 000 = 10 giga G
6
1 000 000 = 10 mega M
3
1 000 = 10 kilo k
2
100 = 10 hecto h
1
10 = 10 deka da
-1
0.1 = 10 deci d
-2
0.01 = 10 centi c
-3
0.001 = 10 milli m
-6
0.000 001 = 10 micro µ
-9
0.000 000 001 = 10 nano n
-12
0.000 000 000 001 = 10 pico p

Example 1.1
Convert the following: (a) 1 kilometre per hour to meter per second, (b) 1 mile per hour
to meter per second, and (c) 1 mile per hour to kilometre per hour [to a good
approximation 1mi = 1.609 km].
1.4 GRAMMATICAL RULES FOR REPRESENTING THE

SI UNITES
The term SI Units is an abbreviation of the French Le System International Unites. It is
the modern metric system of measurement. SI unit is now universally accepted as a
standard system of measurement.
The SI units consist of
(a) Seven base units
(b) A set of prefixes
(c) Several derived units
1.4.1 Representation of SI units

Step I: The SI Base Units
The SI base units represent seven mutually independent base quantities. These
quantities, their names, and the symbols that represent them are given in Table-5.
Quantity Name Symbol
Length meter m
Mass Kilogram Kg
Time Second s
Current ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
Amount of mols Mole mol
Step II: The Prefixes
A prefix may be added to any unit to produce an integer multiple of ten of the base unit.
For example, a kilogram denotes a multiple of 1000gm and a milligram denotes a
multiple of a 1000 gram. Table 6 gives the prefixes that are accepted to be used in the
SI units. Prefixes are never combined. For example, mill millimeter is not written;
micrometer is written instead.
Table 6:

Name yott zett Exa peta tera giga meg kilo hect deca
a a a o
Symbol Y Z E p T G M K H D
Factor 1024 1021 1018 1015 1012 109 106 103 102 101
Nmae deci cent milli- micro- nano- pico- femt atto- zept yacto-
- - o- o-
Symbol d C M µ n p f A z y
Factor 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-6 10-9 10-12 10-15 10-18 10-21 10-24
Step III: The SI Derived Units
A system of equations involving the seven base quantities defines the derived
quantities. The SI derived units follow these equations to represent the derived
quantities. Table 7 gives examples of a number of SI derived units.
Table 7: Examples of SI Derived Units
Derived quantity Name Symbol
Area square meter m2
Volume cubic meter m3
Wave number reciprocal meter m-1
Mass density kilogram per cubic meter kg/m3
Specific volume cubic meter per kilogram m3/kg
Mass fraction kilogram per kilogram kg/kg = 1
Speed, velocity meter per second m/s
Acceleration meter per second squared m/s2
Current density ampere per square meter A/m2
Magnetic field strength ampere per meter A/m
Amt-of-substance concentration mole per cubic meter mol/m3
Luminance candela per square meter cd/m2
A few notable points are given below:

1. Electrical energy is often measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh) instead of mega

joules.
2. “Calorie” is used as a heat unit indicating the amount of heat required to
increase the temperature of 1 gm of water by 10C.
3. Blood pressure is measured in mmHg instead of Pa.
4. Atomic scale units used in Physics and Chemistry are angstrom, electron volt,
atomic mass unit (amu), and barn.
5. Travel distance and speed of ships and aircraft are measured in nautical mile
and knot (nautical mile per hour).
6. The year is not specifically included as an SI unit.
7. A metric ton is called “tone” in a few countries.
8. It is preferred to use numbers between 0.1 and 1 000 in expressing the quantity
of any SI unit. Thus the quantity 15 000 m is expressed as 15 km, and 0.002
cubic centimeter is preferably written as 2 mm3.
1.5 CONVERSION OF NON SI UNIT TO SI UNIT
1.5.1. Non SI Unit: A number of non-SI units are commonly used, even though
the SI system of units allows for complete coverage of all scientific
measurements.
1.5.2. Some commonly used non-SI units
Physical quantity Non-SI unit Symbol Conversion Factor

Energy calorie cal 1 cal = 4.184 J
Length Ångstrom Å 1 Å = 10-10 m
Mass tonne t 1 t = 103 kg
Pressure atmosphere atm 1 atm = 1.013 x 105 Pa
Temperature degree Celsius °C 1 °C = 1 K
Time minute min 1 min = 60 s
Hour h or hr 1 h = 3600 s
Day d 1 d = 86 400 s
Volume litre L 1 L = 1 dm3 = 10-3 m3
1.5.3. SI Unit
The International System of Units (SI) is a scientific method of expressing the
magnitudes or quantities of important natural phenomena. There are seven base units in
the system, from which other units are derived. This system was formerly called the
meter-kilogram-second (MKS) system. See table-2.

1.5.4. Conversion Factors for SI and non-SI Units

To convert Column Column 1 SI Unit Column 2 Non- To convert
1 into Column 2, SI Unit Column 2 into
multiply by Column 1,
multiply by
Length
0.621 kilometer, km (103 m) mile, mi 1.609
1.094 meter, m yard, yd 0.914
3.28 meter, m foot, ft 0.304
1.0 micrometer, m (10 6 m) micron, 1.0
3.94x10 2 millimeter, mm (10 3 m) inch, in 25.4
10 nanometer, nm (109 m) ˚ Angstrom, A 0.1
Area
2.47 hectare, ha acre 0.405

square kilometer, km2
247 acre 4.05x10 3
(103 m)2
square kilometer, km2
0.386 square mile, mi2 2.590
(103 m)2
2.47x10 4 square meter, m2 acre 4.05x103
10.76 square meter, m2 square foot, ft2 9.29x10 2
square millimeter, mm2
1.55x103 square inch, in2 645
(10 3 m)2
Volume
9.73x103 cubic meter, m3 acre-inch 102.8
35.3 cubic meter, m3 cubic foot, ft3 2.83x10 2
6.10x104 cubic meter, m3 cubic inch, in3 1.64x10 5
2.84x102 liter, L (10 3 m3) bushel, bu 35.24
1.057 liter, L (10 3 m3) quart (liquid), qt 0.946
3.53x10 2 liter, L (10 3 m3) cubic foot, ft3 28.3
0.265 liter, L (10 3 m3) gallon 3.78
33.78 liter, L (10 3 m3) ounce (fluid), oz 2.96x10 2
2.11 liter, L (10 3 m3) pint (fluid), pt 0.473
Mass
2.20x103 gram, g (10 3 kg) pound, lb 454
3.52x102 gram, g (10 3 kg) ounce (avdp), oz 28.4
2.205 kilogram, kg pound, lb 0.454
quintal (metric),
0.01 kilogram, kg 100
q
ton (2000 lb),
1.10x103 kilogram, kg 907
ton
1.102 megagram, Mg (tonne) ton (U.S.), ton 0.907
1.102 tonne, t ton (U.S.), ton 0.907

Pressure
megapascal, MPa
9.90 atmosphere 0.101
(106Pa)
megapascal, MPa
10 bar 0.1
(106Pa)
gram per cubic
megagram per cubic
1.00 centimeter, g cm 1.00
meter, Mg m 3
3
pound per square
2.09 x102 pascal, Pa 47.9
foot, lb ft 2
pound per square
1.45x 104 pascal, Pa 6.90 x103
inch, lb in 2
1.6 SUMMARY
In this chapter you have studied Use the SI system, know the SI base units, Recognize
unit prefixes and their abbreviations, Convert measurements from SI units to English and
from one prefixed unit to another. With the help of unit and dimensions we can derive
the various derivations by making use units and converted units.
1.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS
A. Short answers type questions:

1. What is the importance of base units?
2. Does the measurement of a physical quantity depend upon the system of units
used?
B. Objective type questions:
1. In the S.I. system, the unit of temperature is-
(A) Degree centigrade (B) Kelvin
(C) Degree Celsius (D) degree Fahrenheit
2. In the S.I. unit of energy is-
(A) Erg (B) calorie (C) joule (D) electron

volt
3. If Force = (x/density) +Cis dimensionally correct, the dimension of x are -
(A) MLT–2 (B) MLT–3 (C) ML2T–3 (D) M2L–2T–2
4. Intensity of electric current is expressed in
A. Volts B. Watts C. Amperes D.

Joules

5. One Newton force equals.
A. 105 dynes B. 104 dynes C. 103 dynes D. 102 dynes
6. In S.I. system, the symbol for density is
A. N/m3 B. kg/m3 C. m3/s D. kg
7. The thickness of a micron, is
A. 10-3 m B. 10-6 m C. 10-9 m D. 10-12 m
8. The fundamental units in S.I. system are the same as that of
A. C.G.S. units B. F.P.S. units C. M.K.S. units D. None of these
9. Pick up the correct statement from the following:
A. In S.I. system, surface tension is expressed in Newton per meter
B. In S.I. system, force is expressed in Newton
C. In S.I. system, power is expressed in watts
D. All the above.
10. 100 kN/m2 pressure is equal to
A. 1 atm
B. 1 bar
C. 1 m bar
D. 1 mm Hg
Answers
1. B. 2 C. 3. A 4.C 5. A 6. 7. B 8. C 9. E 10. B
References:
1. H. A. Radi and J. O. Rasmussen, Principles of Physics, Undergraduate Lecture Notes
in Physics, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-23026-4_1, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
2013.
2. Kenneth Butcher Linda Crown Elizabeth J. Gentry Weights and Measures Division
Technology Services

UNIT 2: GASEOUS STATE-I

CONTENTS
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Postulates of kinetic theory of gases
2.3.1 Derivation of kinetic gas equation
2.3.2 Derivation of gas laws from kinetic gas equation
2.4 Deviation from ideal behaviour
2.4.1 Effect of pressure
2.4.2 Effect of temperature
2.5 Van der Waal’s equation of state
2.5.1Volume correction
2.5.2 Pressure correction
2.6 Isotherm of carbon dioxide- critical phenomenon
2.7 Continuity of state
2.8 Reduced equation of state
2.9 Law of corresponding states
2.10 Summary
2.1 OBJECTIVES
All matter exists in three common state of matter; these common states are
solid, liquid and gas. A particle level representation of gaseous, liquid and solid states is
shown in Fig 2.1
Fig- 2.1 Three states of matter

The smallest structural unit of all chemical substances in these states is
molecule. How the molecules are arranged in a solid, liquid and gas, is the fundamental
question before a chemist. It is the ‘molecular model’ of matter in these states which
determine their physical behaviour. The theory which visualises that all substances,
whether solids, liquids or gases are made of molecules in motion is called kinetic
molecular theory of matter.
On the basis of kinetic molecular theory of matter and with the help of our
knowledge of intermolecular forces, it has now become possible to bring out the
distinguishing characteristics of three states of matter. These states can be considered to
arise as a result of competition between two opposing molecular forces, namely, the
forces of attraction which tend to hold the molecules together, and the disruptive forces
due to thermal energy of molecules.
2.2 INTRODUCTION
Amongst the three common states of matter, the gaseous state is simplest. The
laws of gaseous behaviour are more uniform and are better understood. The well known
laws of gaseous behaviour are Boyle’s law, Charle’s law Graham’s law, Dalton’s law
and Avogadro’s law. There was no theoretical background to justify them. In the
nineteenth century, however, Kronig, Clausius, Maxwell and Boltzmann developed a
theory known as kinetic molecular theory of gases, which provided sound theoretical
basis for the various gas laws.
As you have studied in the article 2.1 that there are two opposite molecular forces,
the forces of attraction and the disruptive forces operating between molecules. If the
thermal energy is much greater than the forces of attraction, then we have matter in its
gaseous state.
In contrast with solids and liquids gases occupy the same volume as that of the
closed vessel, they are characterised by low density and high compressibility.
The characteristic properties of gases are given below.
1. No definite shape and volume. Gases occupy all available space i.e. the shape and
volume of the container in which they are filled.
2. Expansibility. Gases have limitless expansibility. They expand to fill the entire
vessel they are placed in.
3. Compressibility. Gases are easily compressed by application of pressure.
4. Diffusibility. Gases can diffuse rapidly through each other to form a homogeneous
mixture.
5. Pressure. Gases exert pressure on the walls of the container in all direction. You can
site the example of a gas balloon.
6. Effect of heat. When a gas confined in a vessel is heated, its pressure increases.
Upon heating in a vessel fitted with a piston, volume of the gas increases.
2.3 POSTULATES OF KINETIC THEORY OF GASES
It was earlier observed that the gas laws were based on experimental
observations. The theoretical foundation or mathematical representation was missing.
However several workers studied the properties of gases and found that the gases are
essentially composed of freely moving molecules. The basic ideas of the workers were
mentioned to explain the behaviour of the gases called the kinetic theory of gases. This
theory succeeded to attain a rigid mathematical form due to the efforts of Joule, Kronig,
Clausius, Maxwell, Boltzmann and many others. The main postulates of kinetic theory
of gases may be given as follows.

1. Every gas consists of large number of tiny particles called point masses i.e. the
actual volume of molecules is negligible when compared to the total volume of the
gas. For the same gas, all molecules are of same size and mass.
2. The gas molecules are always in a state of rapid zig-zag motion in all directions.
These molecules collide with each other and with the walls of the containing vessel.
3. A molecule moves in a straight line with uniform velocity between two collisions.
4. The molecular collisions are perfectly elastic so that there is no net loss of energy
when the gas molecules collide with one another or against the walls of the vessel.
Suppose two molecules collide having same mass m. Before collision the velocity
of one molecule is 1 and velocity of other molecule is 2 and after collision the
/ /
velocity of the molecules changes from 1to 1 and from 2 to 2 then if the
collisions are elastic there is no loss of kinetic energy. This can be expressed as
follows.
Total kinetic energy of two molecules before collision is
½ m1 12+1/2 m2 22
And after collision total kinetic energy of both the molecules is
½ m1 1/2 + ½ m 2/2
2 2 /2 /2
If m1 1 +1/2 m2 2 = ½ m1 1 + ½ m2 2
i.e. total kinetic energy before collision is equal to total kinetic energy after
collision then the collision is said to be an elastic collision.
5. There are no attractive forces operating between molecules or between molecules
and the walls of the vessel in which the gas has been contained. The molecule move
independently of one another.
6. The pressure of the gas is the hits recorded by the molecules on the walls of the
container in which the gas is contained.
7. The average kinetic energy of gas molecules is directly proportional to absolute
temperature. This means that the average kinetic energy of molecules is the same at
a given temperature.
This must be clear to you that all the above postulates are applicable to ideal gases
only i.e. the gas which obey Boyle’s and Charle’s law under all conditions of
temperature and pressure. These are only approximately valid for real gases.
2.3.1 Derivation of kinetic gas equation
Suppose a volume of gas enclosed in a cubical vessel (fig 2.2) at a fixed
temperature.
fig 2.2
Suppose that :
the length of each side of cube = l cm
the number of gas molecules =n
the mass of one molecule =m
the velocity of a molecule =
Let us consider one single molecule of a gas can be evaluated by calculating the
momentum during collisions.
According to kinetic model the molecules of the gas are moving in straight lines in all
possible directions. They collide with one another frequently as also with the walls of
the container. Since their mutual collisions are perfectly elastic and do not involve the
loss of energy, these may be neglected. Here we will, therefore, assume that gas
molecules move in all directions but rebound whenever they strike the wall of the
container. Now you proceed to derive kinetic gas equation in the following steps
According to the kinetic theory, a molecule of a gas can move with velocity in
any direction velocity is a vector quantity can be resolved into components x, y, z
along the X, Y and Z axes. These components are related to velocity by the following
expression.
2 2 2 2
= x + y + z .........................(1)
Let us consider a molecule moving in ox direction between opposite faces A
and B. It will strike the face A with velocity x and rebound with velocity - x. To hit
the same face again the molecule must travel l cm to
Fig 2.3
Collide with opposite face B and then again l cm to return to face A. Therefore time
taken between two collisions can be calculated as follows
The molecule travels x cm in 1 sec
hence 1 cm in 1/ x sec
And 2l cm in 2l/ x sec ..................(2)
In 2l/ x sec molecule suffers 1 collision
In 1 sec no of collisions = x/2l .................(3)
Each impact of the molecule on the face A causes a change of momentum which
is mass x velocity.
Momentum of the molecule before impact = m x
Momentum of the molecule after impact = - m x

Hence change of momentum = m x – (-m x) = 2m x
But the number of collision per second on face A= x/2l
Therefore total change of momentum per second on face A caused by one

Molecule = 2m x x x/2l
2
= m x /l ..........(4)
As there are two faces along x- direction, total change of momentum per second
considering both the faces along x-direction will be
2m x2/l ............(5)
This is change of momentum caused by one molecule along x-direction. The change of
momentum caused by one molecule along y- direction per second will be 2m y2/l
and change of momentum caused by one molecule along z- direction per second will be
2m z2 /l
Total change of momentum caused by one molecule considering along three direction
will be
2m x2/l + 2m y2/l + 2m z2/l
2 2 2
= 2m/l ( x + y + z )
= 2m 2/l ...................(6)
Since there are n molecules in the vessel then total change of momentum due to
n molecules will be
2mn 2/l ....................(7)
2
= mean square velocity
Since change of momentum per second is force
Hence force = 2mn 2/l
Since pressure = Total force/Total area
Since there are six faces in a cube, area of each cube is l2. Hence total area is 6l2
Then pressure = 2mn 2/l x 1/6l2
= mn 2/3l2
As l2 = volume V
Hence pressure P= 1/3 mn 2/V .....................(8)
This is known as Kinetic gas equation. This equation has been derived for a
cubical vessel. It is equally valid for vessel of any shape. The available volume in the
vessel may be considered as made up of large number of infinitesimally small cubes,
for each of them the equation is valid.
2.3.2 Derivation of gas laws from kinetic gas equation
2.3.2.1 Boyle’s law
From his observations Boyle’s in 1660 formulated a generalisation known as
Boyle’s law. Boyle’s law states that at constant temperature, the volume of a given
mass of gas is inversely proportional to its pressure.
According to kinetic theory, kinetic energy is directly proportional to
temperature (in absolute scale).

2
Hence ½ mn αT
2
Or ½ mn = KT ( K is constant)
2
3/2 x 1/3 mn = KT
2
1/3 mn = 2/3 KT
2
As 1/3 mn = PV
So PV= 2/3 KT
At constant temperature PV= constant which is Boyle’s law
2.3.2.2 Charle’s law : for a definite quantity of gas at constant pressure, its volume is
directly proportional to the absolute temperature. It was established in 1787.
From above discussion
V= 2/3 KT/P
At constant pressure
V= constant xT
Or V α T when P is constant.
This is Charle’s law
2.3.2.3 Avogadro’s law: It is states that equal volume of gases at same temperature
and pressure contain equal number of molecules.
Suppose there are two gases for first gas mass of one molecule is m1, velocity is
1 and number of molecules are n1. And for the second gas mass of one molecule is m2,
velocity is 2 and number of molecules are n2

2
Then for first gas PV= 1/3 m1n1 1
2
For second gas PV= 1/3 m2n2 2
As pressure and volume are same for both gases

Hence 1/3 m1n1 12 = 1/3 m2n2 22
2 2
Or m1n1 1 = m2n2 2 -------------(9)
If temperature is same average kinetic energy per molecule will be same for
both gases that means
½ m1 12 = ½ m2 22 ----------------(10)
Comparing (9) and (10)
n1 = n2, this is Avogadro’s law
2.3.2.4 Graham’s law of diffusion (1829) – It states that rate of diffusion of a gas
is inversely proportional to square root of density of the gas at constant pressure.
if m1 and m2 are masses and 1 and 2 the velocities of molecules of gas
1 and 2 respectively, then at same pressure and volume.
PV1 = 1/3 m1n1 12
1 = 3P 1/m1n1
= 3p/d1
As m1n1/ 1 is total mass of gas and mass divided by volume equal to density of
the gas equal to d
For second gas 2 = 3p/d2
1/ 2 = d2/d1
Since rate of diffusion is directly proportional to velocity. Hence

rα
r1/r2 α d2/d1
This is Graham’s law of diffusion
2.3.2.5 Dalton’s law of partial pressure: If two or more gases which do not react
with each other are mixed, then total pressure will be sum of their individual pressures.
suppose n1 molecule each of mass m1 of gas A are contained in a vessel of
volume V then from kinetic gas equation Pa = m1n1 12/3V
Now suppose n2 molecules of each of mass m2 of gas B are contained in the
same vessel at the same temperature when there is no gas present at that time
Then the pressure Pb = m2n2 22/3V
If both the gases are present in the same vessel at the same time, the total pressure P is
given by
P = m1n1 12/3V + m2n2 22/3V
= Pa+Pb
This is Dalton’s law of partial pressure.
2.3.2.6 The combined gas law: Boyle’s law and Charle’s law can be combined into
a single relationship called the combined gas law.
Boyle’s law V α 1/P
Charle’s law V α T
or V α T/P
or V = KT/P (K is constant)
or PV = KT
The value of constant K in this equation depends upon
(i) quantity of gas
(ii) the units in which P, V and T are expressed.
Avogadro’s law states that one gram molecule of all gases under the same conditions of
pressure and temperature occupies the same volume. So that the value of K will be the
same for all gases if in every case one gram molecule of the gas is taken. When this is
done, K is replaced by R which is known as universal gas constant.
Hence PV = RT for n moles PV = nRT
2.4 DEVIATION FROM IDEAL BEHAVIOUR
An ideal gas is one which obeys the gas laws for the equation PV = RT at all
pressures and temperatures. However no gas is ideal. They approach perfection as the
temperature gets farther from their boiling points. Thus the gases H2, N2 and CO2 which
fail to obey the ideal-gas equation are termed as non ideal or real gases
The extent to which a real gas depart from ideal behaviour may be depicted in
terms of a function called compressibility factor, denoted by Z.
It is defined
Z = PV/RT
The deviation from ideality may be shown by a plot of compressibility factor, Z
against P.
For an ideal gas Z =1. For real gases the deviation from ideal behaviour will be
determined by the value of Z being greater or less than unity.
2.4.1 Effect of pressure
Fig 2.4 shows the compressibility factor Z, plotted against pressure for H2, N2
and CO2 at constant temperature.
Fig 2.4
At very low pressure for all these gases Z is approximately one. This indicates that all
real gases exhibit ideal behaviour (upto 10 atm). For hydrogen curve lies above ideal
gas curve at all pressure.
For nitrogen and carbon di-oxide, Z first decreases. It passes to a minimum then
increases continuously with increase of pressure. For gas like CO2 the dip in the curve
is greatest as it is most easily liquified.
2.4.2 Effect of temperature:
Fig 2.5 shows plot of Z against P at different temperature for N2. It is clear
Fig 2.5
from the plot that at low temperature deviation are more and at high temperature the gas
tends to become ideal.

2.5 VON DER WAAL’S EQUATION OF STATE
Von der Waal’s 1873 studied the postulates of kinetic theory in detail and found
that there are two faulty postulates.
(i) The molecules in a gas are point masses and possess no volume.
(ii) There are no intermolecular attractions in a gas.
Von der Waal’s was the first to introduce systematically the correction terms
due to the above two invalid assumptions in the ideal gas equation PV = nRT.
His corrections are given below.
2.5.1 Volume correction
Volume of the gas in the available space for the movement of gas molecules. Volume V
of an ideal gas is the same as the volume of the container. The dot molecule of ideal gas
has zero-volume and the entire space in the container is available for their movement.
But von der Waals assume that molecules of real gas are rigid spherical particles which
posses a definite volume. The volume of real gas is, therefore ideal volume minus the
volume occupied by gas molecules (Fig 2.6). If b is the effective volume of molecules
per mole of the gas then corrected volume should be V-b = Videal For n moles Videal =
V-nb b is also known as excluded volume.
Fig 2.6
Now let us consider two molecules of radius r colliding with each other (Fig 2.7)
Obviously they cannot approach each other closer than a
Fig 2.7

Therefore, the space indicated by the dotted sphere having radius 2r will not be
available to all other molecules of the gas. In other words the dotted space is excluded
volume per pair of molecules. Thus,
Excluded volume for two molecules = 4/3 π(2r)3
= 8x4/3πr3
Excluded volume per molecule = ½ 8x4/3πr3
= 4x 4/3 πr3
=b
For n moles it is nx4x 4/3πr3
= nb
2.5.2 Pressure correction
A molecule in the interior of a gas is attracted by other molecules on all sides.
These attractive forces cancel out. But a molecule about to strike the wall of the vessel
is attracted by molecules on one side only. Hence it experiences an inward pull (fig 2.8)
due to unbalanced forces.
Fig 2.8
Therefore, it strikes the wall with reduced velocity and the actual pressure of the gas P,
will be less than ideal pressure if the pressure P, is less than Pideal by a quantity p, we
have
P = Pideal –p
Or Pideal = P+p
The value of p is determined by the force of attraction between molecules (A)
stricking the wall of the container and molecules (B) pulling them inward ( Fig 2.9).

Fig 2.9
The net force of attraction is, therefore, is proportional to the concentration of
(A) type molecules and also of (B) type of molecules:
That is p α CA. CB
α Α x
p = an2 /v2
n = total number of gas molecules in volume V.
Hence ideal pressure
Pi = P + an2/V2
Substituting the value of corrected volume and pressure in the ideal gas equation
PV = nRT, we have
(P + n2a/V2) (V – nb) = nRT
This is equation for n moles for one mole
We have
(P + a/V2) (Vb) = RT
von der Waal’s equation can justify the deviations from ideal gas behaviour as
given below
The equation can be written as
PV – Pb + a/V – ab/V2 = RT = PiVi
As ab/V2 is very small quantity it can be neglected
We get
PV – Pb + a/V = PiVi
(i) At low pressure Pb is small as compared to a/v
We have PV +a/V = PiVi
Or PV = PiVi – a/V
That means observed product PV is less then PiVi, the product of pressure and
volume if the gas were ideal.
(ii) At high pressure, the term Pb over weighs the term a/v
Then the equation can be written as
PV – Pb = PiVi
PV = PiVi + Pb
That is observed product PV is greater than PiVi

(iii) At high temperature as V is large, Pb and a/V will be negligibly small.

We have PV = PiVi
(iv) Exceptional behaviour of hydrogen. This is due to the very small mass of the
hydrogen molecule due to which the forces of attraction between molecules are
almost negligible. Therefore neglecting the term a/V
We have
PV = PiVi + Pb
Therefore in the case of hydrogen even at low pressure PV is greater than PiVi.
2.6 ISOTHERM OF CARBON DIOXIDE- CRITICAL
PHENOMENON
Isotherm means pressure volume curve at constant temperature. For ideal gas
the product of PV is constant and hence the isotherm would be rectangular hyperbola.
(Fig 2.10). For most of the gases at normal temperature the shape of P,V curve is the
same as it is for carbon dioxide gas.
Pressure isotherm
Volume
Fig 2.10 Pressure volume curve at a given temperature
Andrews in 1869 determined the isotherm of carbon dioxide at different temperatures.

The isotherms of carbon dioxide determined by him at different temperature are shown
in fig 2.11. Consider the first Isotherm at 13.10C.
Fig 2.11 P-V isotherms of carbon dioxide

The point A represents carbon di-oxide in the gaseous state occupying a certain
volume under a certain pressure. On increasing the pressure its volume diminishes as is
indicated by the curve AB. At B liquification of gas commences and there after a rapid
decrease in volume takes place at the same pressure as more and more of gas is
converted into the liquid state. At C, the gas has been completely liquified. Now, as the
liquid is only slightly compressible further increase of pressure produces only a very
small decrease in volume. This is shown by a steep line CD which is almost vertical.
Thus along AB, carbon dioxide exists as gas; along BC, it exists partly as gas
and partly as liquid while along CD, it exists entirely as liquid.
The curve EFGH at 21.50C shows a similar behaviour except that now the
liquification commences at higher pressure and the horizontal portion FG, representing
decrease in volume, becomes smaller. At still higher temperature, the horizontal portion
of the curve becomes shorter and shorter until at 31.10C it reduces just to a point
represented by X.
The curve passing through this point X marks the boundary between gaseous
carbon dioxide and on the right and liquid carbon dioxide on the left.
Andrews noted that above 31.10C there was no possibility of liquefaction of
carbon dioxide how great the pressure is applied. At this temperature the gas is in
critical state. The point X is then called the critical point. The isotherm passing
through this point is called the critical isotherm and the temperature corresponding to
this isotherm (31.10C) is called critical temperature.
The critical phenomenon observed by Andrews in connection with carbon
dioxide may be observed with any other gas. The pressure required to liquefy the gas at
critical temperature is called the critical pressure and the volume occupied by one
mole of the gas under these conditions is called critical volume.
2.7 CONTINUITY OF STATE
A careful examination of the isotherm plotted in fig 2.11 shows that it is

possible to convert liquid carbondioxide into gas and vice-versa, without any
discontinuity that is without having at any time more than one phase present, on
joining the end of the horizontal portion of the various isotherm, a bonding curve
CGXFB represented by the dotted line is obtained. At the top lies the critical point X,
with in the area of the boundary curve, both liquid and gaseous state can coexist but
outside this area either liquid or gaseous state alone can exist. Because of this
coexistence curve, it is possible to distinguish between the two states of matter,
namely, gas and liquid. However in practice this is not always true because it is
possible to convert matter from one state into another without any sharp discontinuity.
This can be done as shown in fig 2.11.
(i) Increase the temperature of the gas keeping volume constant. The pressure rises
along xy.
(ii) Having reached y, the pressure is kept constant and the gas is cooled; this decrease
the volume along the line yz.

Thus we have passed from x to z without the gradual change as it occurs along the line
BC, ie condensation in the usual sense of the term did not occur. Point 2 could be said
to represent a highly compressed gaseous state of the substance. Whether we refer to
the state in the region of point z as liquid state or as highly compressed gaseous state
depends purely upon which of the two view points happens to be convenient at the
moment. Thus, in the absence of the surface of discontinuity, there is no way of
distinguishing between liquid and gas.
2.3.5 Von der Waals equation and critical state Thomas in 1871 studied the isotherms
of carbon dioxide drawn by Andrews. He suggested that there should be no sharp
points in the isotherms below the critical temperature. These isotherms should really
exhibit a complete continuity of state from gas to liquid. This he showed by a
theoretical wavy curve.
Fig 2.12 P-V isotherm of carbon dioxide

The curve MLB in fig 2.12 represents a gas compressed in a way that would remain
stable. The curve MNC represents a superheated liquid. This type of discontinuity of
state is predicted by von der Waals cubic equation.
According to it, for any given values of P and T there should be three values of v. These
values are indicated by B, M and C of the curve. The three values of v become closer as
the horizontal part of the isotherm. At the critical point, these values become identical.
This enables the calculation of critical temperature, critical pressure and critical volume
in terms of von der Waals constants.
The von der Waals equation may be written as
(P+a/V2)(V-b) = RT
PV – Pb + a/V – ab/V2 = RT
Or PV3 – (RT+Pb)V2 + aV-ab = 0
At critical point V= Vc (Vc = critical volume)
V-Vc = 0
(V-Vc)3 =0
V3 – 3V2Vc + 3VVc2 – Vc3 = 0 . .................(1)
Thus at the critical point von der Waals equation gives
V3 – (RTc /P+b) V2 +(a/Pc)V – ab/Pc =0 ............(2)

Equating coefficients in (1) and (2)

3Vc = RTc/Pc + b ........(3)
3Vc2 = a/Pc ..........(4)
Vc3 = ab/Pc .........(5)
From (4) and (5)
Vc = 3b ..........(6)
Substituting this value in (4) we get
Pc = a/27b2 .........(7)
Substituting the value of Pc and Vc in equation (3)
Tc = 8a/27Rb ........(8)
Knowing the value of a and b, the critical constants can easily calculated.
Conversely, since Pc and Tc can often be determined experimentally with some ease,
these values may be employed to calculate the constants a and b.
a= 3Vc2Pc and b = Vc /3
The actual determination of critical constants is often a task of considerable
difficulty of these critical pressure and critical temperature can be measured relatively
easily with the help of Cagniard de la Tour’s apparatus. The most accurate method for
determining critical volume in due to Amagat.
2.8 REDUCED EQUATION OF STATE
An equation which expresses the relation between pressure volume and

temperature of a gas is called the equation of state or the characteristic equation. If we
express the actual pressure, volume and temperature as fractions of the critical pressure,
volume and temperature respectively, we get the reduced equation of state.
If the values of pressure, volume and temperature be expressed as fractions of
the corresponding critical values, we get
P/Pc = π, V/Vc = ф, T/Tc = θ
Where π, ф and θ are termed the reduced pressure, reduced volume and reduced
temperature respectively.
From above P= πPc , V= фVc and T= θ Tc
If we replace P, V and T by πPc, фVc and Tc respectively in von der Waals equation
(P+a/V2) (V-b) = RT
We get {π Pc + a/(фVc)2}{фVc - b} = Rθ Tc
Substituting the value of Vc= 3b, Pc=a/27b2
And Tc = 8a/27Rb we get
+
{π a/9ф2b2}{3фb-b} = Rθ
Dividing the above equation throughout by a/27b
We get {π+3/ф2}{3ф-1} = 8θ
This equation is known as von der Waals reduced equation of state.
2.9 LAW OF CORRESPONDING STATES
Van der Waals reduced equation of state is given by
{π + 3/ф2}{3ф-1} = 8θ ...........(9)

In this equation the quantities a, b Pc, Vc and Tc which are characteristic of a

given gas have cancelled out, thus making it applicable to all substances in the liquid or
gaseous state, irrespective of their specific nature. From equation (9) it is clear that
when two substances have the same reduced temperature and pressure they will have
the same reduced volume. This is known as the law of corresponding states. When two
or more substances are at the same reduced temperature and pressure, they are said to
be in corresponding state.
In actual practice, the above reduced equation of state is not directly used. One
makes use of graphs between compressibility factor z and reduced pressure at different
reduced temperature. The same graphs are applicable to all gases. This can be seen
from the following considerations.
Since Z= PV/RT = πPc.фVc/RθTc
If we put the values of Pc, Vc and Tc
We get Z= ...................(8)
According to law of corresponding states, if two gases have the same reduced
temperature and reduced pressure they will have the same reduced volume. The right
hand side of the equation (8) is independent of the nature of gas and Z is same for all
gases.
In practice this means that the properties of liquids should be determined at the
same reduced temperature because pressure has very slight effect on them. Since it is
found that boiling points of liquids are approximately (2/3)rd of the critical temperature,
it follows that liquids are at their boiling points approximately in corresponding states.
Therefore, in studies the relation between the physical properties of liquids and
chemical constitutions, the physical properties may be conveniently determined at the
boiling points of liquids.
2.10 SUMMARY
In this chapter you have studied different gas laws, namely: Boyle’s law,
Charle’s law, Avogadros law, Graham’s law of diffusion and Dalton’s law of partial
pressures. The postulates of kinetic theory are important as they are useful in deriving
kinetic gas equation. By making use of this equation the different gas laws has been
proved.
Deviations from ideal behaviour and von der Waals equation has been discussed
in detail. Though you have studied real gas equation i.e. von der Waals equation detail
and their equation is useful to discuss the deviation from ideal behaviour, there are
some other equations of state also namely –
Dieterics equation, Berthelet equation, Kammerling equation.
(A) Multiple Choice Questions
1. Mathematically, Boyle’s law can be expressed as

(a) Vα (b) V= (c) VP=K (d) All of these ans (d)

2. Which of the following is the correct mathematical relation for Charle’s law at
constant pressure.
(a) VαT (b) V α t (c) V=Kt (d) None of these. ans (a)
3. The Average kinetic energy of gas molecule is
(a) inversely proportional to its temperature.
(b) directly proportional to its temperature.
(c) equal to the square of its temperature.
(d) directly proportional to the square root of its absolute temperature.
ans (b)
4. The compressibility factor Z is given by
(a) Z= PV/RT2 (b) Z= PV/2RT (c) Z=PV/RT (d) Z=2PV/RT ans (c)
5. Which of the following gases will have the lowest rate of diffusion.
(a) H2 (b) N2 (c) F2 (d) O2 ans (c)
(B) Short answer questions
1.Define the following terms
(a) Critical temperature.
(b) Graham’s law of diffusion
(c) Boyle’s law
(d) Charle’s law
2. Write two postulates of kinetic theory of gases.
3. Write a short note on critical constants.
4. Write a note on exceptional behaviour of hydrogen as given by von der Waals.
5. Write von der Waals equation for n moles of a gas.
(C) Long answer questions
1. Discuss the causes of deviation from ideal behaviour. How they are accounted for in
the von der Waals equation?
2. What are the postulates of kinetic theory of gases and show how they are justified?
3. Derive the kinetic gas equation for an ideal gas.
4. What are the limitations for equation PV=RT? What improvements have been
suggested by von der Waals?
5. State and explain the principle of corresponding states. Derive an expression
interconnecting critical pressure, critical volume and critical temperature.
6. (a) For ammonia gas von der Waals constants a and b are 4.0 litre2 atm mole-2 and
0.036 litre mole-1 respectively, calculate critical volume. (R=0.0821 litre atm degree-
1
). (hint Vc=3b)
(b) Obtain the relation
RTc/PcVc = 8/3
-------------

UNIT 3: GASEOUS STATE-II

CONTENTS:
3.1 Objective
3.2 Introduction
3.3 Distribution of Molecular velocities
3.4 Different kind of velocities
3.4.1 Root mean square velocity
3.4.2 Average velocity
3.4.3 Most probable velocity
3.5 Qualitative discussion of Maxwell’s distribution of velocities
3.5.1 Effect of temperature on velocity distribution
3.6 Collision number/collision diameter
3.7 Collision frequency
3.7.1 Effect of temperature on collision frequency
3.7.2 Effect of pressure on collision frequency
3.8 Mean free path
3.8.1 Effect of temperature on mean free path
3.8.2 Effect of pressure on mean free path
3.9 Liquification of gases
3.10 Joule-Thomson’s Effect
3.10.1 Methods of liquefaction
3.10.2 Faraday’s method
3.10.3 Linde’s method
3.10.4 Claude’s method
3.11 Summary
3.1 OBJECTIVE
Till now you have studied the various postulates of kinetic theory of gases, the
kinetic gas equation and derivation of various gas laws by making use of kinetic gas
equation. Thought the kinetic gas equation is useful in deriving the gas law but at high
pressure and at low temperature there are considerable deviations from ideal gas
behaviour.
These derivations have been explained by Van der Waal and the Van der Waal’s
equation explains the deviations by applying pressure and volume corrections. The law
of corresponding state and its consequences have been discussed in this chapter.

3.2 INTRODUCTION
Though gas molecules possess very high velocity and because of collisions the
velocity of gas molecules changes in a very short span but velocity can be easily
calculated from kinetic gas equation. In this unit you will study different types of
velocities their correlation and calculation, collision diameter, collision number, free
path and various methods of liquefaction of gases will be discussed in this chapter. It
will also we very interesting to study how molecular velocities are distributed i.e.
Maxwell’s equation for distribution of velocities.
3.3 DISTRIBUTION OF MOLECULAR VELOCITIES

All the molecules constituting a given quantity of any gas do not possess the
same velocity. Even a single molecule cannot maintain the same velocity for any length
of time. As it collides with another molecule the kinetic energies and the velocities of
two are redistributed and a consequence change in velocity takes place. In fact the
velocity of a molecule changes after a span of less than 10-9 seconds, thus making it
difficult to know the speed of a single molecule. Since number of molecule is very
large, a fraction of molecule will have the same particular velocity. In this way there is
a broad distribution of velocities over different fraction of molecules. In 1860 James
Clark Maxwell calculated the distribution of velocities from the laws of probability. He
derived the following equation for the distribution of molecular velocities.
= 4π( )3/2 e c2 dc ......(1)
Where dNc = number of molecules having velocities between c and (c+dc)
N= total number of molecules
M= molar mass
T= temperature in absolute scale.
This relation is called Maxwell’s law of distribution of velocities. The ratio dNc
/n gives the fraction of the total number of molecules having velocities between c and
(c+dc).
Maxwell plotted such fractions against velocity possessed by the molecules. The
curve so obtained illustrate the salient features of Maxwell distribution of velocities.
Fig 3.1 shows the distribution of velocities in nitrogen gas, N2 at 300K and 600K. It is
noticed that:
Fig 3.1 Distribution of molecular velocities at two temperatures.

1. A very small fraction of molecules has either very low (close to zero) or very high
velocities ( i.e. velocity greater than a high value).
2. A large majority of the molecules have a velocity in a relatively small range of
variation more or less around the peak of the curve.
The velocity represented by maximum number of molecules of a gas at a given
temperature is called most probable velocity. This corresponds to the highest point
on the curve.
3. At higher temperature, the whole curve shifts to the right (dotted curve at 600K).
This shows that at higher temperature more molecules have higher velocities and
fewer molecules have lower velocities.
3.4 DIFFERENT KIND OF VELOCITIES
3.4 .1 Root mean square velocity: Velocity v which if possessed by each of the
n molecules of the gas leads to correct calculation of total kinetic energy of the gas is
known as root mean square velocity.
2
Total kinetic energy = n m .......(2)
We will proceed to test the validity of the above equation (2) mathematically.
Out of the total number of molecules n contained in the given sample of gas, let
n1, molecules have velocity 1, n2 molecules have velocity 2 and so on then,
n= n1+n2+n3 ...................(3)
the total kinetic energy KE of the n molecules is the sum of the kinetic energies of the
individual molecules.
Thus
2 2
KE= n1 x 1/2 m1 1 +n2 1/2m2 2 +......
2 2 2
½n =n1 x 1/2 m1 1 +n2 1/2m2 2 +.... ............(4)
2
n 2 = n1 1 + n2 2 +........ ............. (5)
2 2 2
= n1 1 + n2 2 +........ .............(6)
n
2
thus is the mean of squares of the velocities of all the n molecules in the gas and is
termed as mean square velocity.
2 2
So = n1 1 + n2 2 + ...... .......... (7)
Here is root of the mean of squares of velocities and is called root mean
square velocity and is often written simply as rms velocity. Its value can be calculated
as
vrms = √3RT/M
.................(8)

3.4.2 Average velocity
The average velocity is given by the arithmetic mean of different velocities

possessed by the molecules of the gas at a given temperature.
Suppose one molecule is moving with velocity 1, one molecule with velocity
2, third molecule with velocity 3 and so on. Then total velocity will be
1+ 2+ 3 ...................
There are total of n molecules
The a= 1+ 2+ 3 .........
n
1/2
its value can be calculated as a .......(9)
This is average velocity represented by a
3.4.3 Most probable velocity
Velocity possessed by most number of molecules is known as most probable velocity.

(Fig 3.1)
Most probable velocity
1/2
mp = (8RT/πM) ....(10)
It is found that
rms > a > mp
rms : a : mp = 1.0:0.92:0.82
3.5 QUALITATIVE DISCUSSION OF MAXWELL’S DISTRIBUTION
OF VELOCITIES
Though molecules of the gas moves with very high velocity and the velocity
changes because of collisions with in very short time span, but with the help of
Maxwell’s distribution law and molecular kinetic energy molecular velocity can be
calculated. It will be clear to you when you study numerical problems.
3.5.1 Effect of temperature on velocity distribution
It is clear from fig 3.1 that the velocity distribution of molecules in gas is
influenced by a rise in temperature. At a higher temperature (600K) the curve maintains
the same general trend of distribution. However, it becomes more flattened with the
peak shifting to a higher velocity region. In other words, there is more even distribution
of velocities about ‘most probable velocity’ and the number of molecules having
velocities near this value becomes more. Thus higher the temperature, higher is the
most probable velocity.
3.6 COLLISION NUMBER/COLLISION DIAMETER
The kinetic theory of gases treats molecule as point masses. When two such
molecules approach each other, a point is reached at which they cannot come closer
beyond a certain distance.

The closest distance between the centres of the two molecules taking part in collision is
called the collision diameter. It is denoted by σ.
Fig 3.2
Whenever the distance between the centres of two molecules is σ, a collision
occurs. The collision diameter can be determined from viscosity measurements. The
collision diameter of hydrogen is 2.74A0 and that of oxygen is 3.61A0.
3.7 COLLISION FREQUENCY
The collision frequency of a gas is defined as:

The number of collisions taking place per second per unit volume (c.c.) of the gas.
Let a gas contain N molecules per cc. From kinetic considerations it has been
established that the number of molecules, n, with which a simple molecule will collide
per second, is given by the relation
n= √2π aσ2N ......(11)
where a = average velocity and σ =collision diameter.
If the total number of collisions taking place per second is denoted by z we have
z =√2π aσ2N x N
aσ
2
=√2π N2 ....(12)
Since each collision involves two molecules, the number of collision per second per cc,
of the gas will be z/2
Hence the collision frequency =√2π aσ2N2
2
= π aσ N2
2
...(13)
√2
Evidently, the collision frequency of a gas increases with increase in
temperature, molecular size and the number of molecules per c.c.
3.7.1 Effect of temperature on collision frequency
We know collision frequency is given by
z = π aσ2N2 ......(14)
√2
From the equation it is clear

zα a
But a α √T (from equation 9)

Hence z α √T
Hence collision frequency is directly proportional to square root of temperature.
3.7.2 Effect of pressure on collision frequency
From equation (14)
z α N2
Where N is number of molecules per cc.
But we know P α N
Hence z α P2
Thus collision frequency is directly proportional to the square of pressure of the
gas.
3.8 MEAN FREE PATH
A very important quantity in kinetic theory of gases is the mean free path. At a
given temperature, a molecule travels in straight line before collision with another
molecule.
Fig 3.3 Mean free path

The distance travelled by the molecule before collision is termed free path. The mean
distance travelled by a gas molecule between two successive collisions is called the
mean free path. It is denoted by λ. If l1, l2, l3 are the free paths for a molecule of a gas,
its free path
λ = l1+l2+l3......ln .............(15)
n
Where n is number of molecules with which the molecule collides. Evidently, the
molecular collisions will be less at a lower pressure or lower density and longer will be
the mean free path. Mean free path is also related with viscosity of the gas.
λ= ή√3/Pd
where p= pressure of the gas
ή = coefficient of viscosity of the gas
d = density of the gas

From the above equation it is clear that by the determination of viscosity mean per path
can be calculated. At NTP the mean free path for hydrogen is 1.78x10-5 cm and for
oxygen 1.0x10-5 cm.
3.8.1 Effect of temperature on mean free path
The ideal gas equation is PV = nRT ...............(16)
Where n is number of moles given by
n = No of molecules / Avogadro’s number = N/N0
Substituting the value of n in equation (16)
PV = N/N0 x RT
or N/V = (PN0)/RT
At constant pressure Nα .......(17)
The mean free path is given by
λ = Distance Travelled by the molecule per second / Number of collisions per cc.
= /√πσ2 N ....................(18)
Combining equation (17) and equation 18
λαT
Thus mean free path is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.
3.8.2 Effect of pressure on mean free path
We know that the pressure of a gas at certain temperature is directly
proportional to the number of molecules cc. that is,
PαN
2
and mean free path is λ =1/√2πσ N
Hence we get
λ α 1/P
Thus mean free path is inversely proportional to the pressure of a gas at constant
temperature.
3.9 LIQUIFICATION OF GASES
The general behaviour of gases with the decrease of temperature with increase of
pressure is shown by the Andrew isotherm of carbon dioxide. You have studied these in
chapter 2.3.3 and shown in fig 2.10.
It is clear from Andrews isotherm, it is necessary to cool a gas below its critical
temperature before it can be liquified. In the case of gases like ammonia, Chlorine,
sulphur dioxide or carbon dioxide, which has a fairly high critical temperature (table
3.1), by the application of pressure gas can be liquified.
Gas Critical temperature (K)
He 5.2
Ne 44.2
H2 33.0
O2 154.8
N2 126.2

CO2 304.2
NH3 405.0
Table 3.1 Critical temperature of various gases
Gases such as hydrogen, oxygen, helium and nitrogen have low critical temperature. So
these gases cannot be liquified by this simple technique. These gases can be liquified if
they first cooled below these respective critical temperature.
Two principles are usually applied in cooling gases below these critical
temperature.
3.10 JOULE-THOMSON’S EFFECT
Joule and Thomson observed that when a gas under high pressure is made to
expand into a region of low pressure it suffers a fall in temperature. This phenomenon
is known as Joule-Thomson effect.
The Joule-Thomson effect offers further support to the view that attractive forces
attractive forces do exist between gas molecules. As the gas expands, the molecules fall
apart one another. Therefore, work has to be
done in order to overcome the cohesive or attractive forces which tend to hold the
molecules together. Thus work is done by the system at the expense of the kinetic
energy of the gaseous molecules. Consequently, the kinetic energy decreases and since
it is proportional to temperature cooling results.
Experiments have shown that gases become cooler during the Joule-Thomson
expansion only when they are below a certain temperature known as inversion
temperature Ti. The inversion temperature is characteristic of each gas. The inversion
temperature is related to von der Waals constants a and b of the gas concerned by the
expression
Ti = 2a/Rb
At the inversion temperature there is no Joule-Thomson effect. If the
temperature is above inversion temperature then after passing into lower pressure
region there will be rise of temperature end if it takes place below the inversion
temperature there is fall of temperature.
In most gases, the inversion temperature lies within the range of ordinary
temperatures. Hence they get cooled in Joule-Thomson expansion. Hydrogen and
helium, however, have very low inversion temperature. Thus at ordinary temperatures
these gases get warmed up instead of getting cooled at the Joule-Thomson expansion. If
these gases are first cooled to their respective inversion temperatures, then these gases
also get cooled an expansion in accordance with the Joule-Thomson effect.
Adiabatic expansion involving mechanical work:
When a gas is made to expand against pressure it does some work as in the case
of an engine, it does some external work also at the expense of its kinetic energy which
decreases. Hence, there is a fall of temperature.
3.10.1 Methods of liquefaction
From the above discussion it is clear to you that two conditions which tend to
change a gas into the liquid state are low temperature and high pressure. If a gas is
cooled below its critical temperature and subjected to adequate pressure, it liquefies.

The various methods employed for the liquification of gases depend on the technique
used to attain low temperature. The three important methods are
(i) Faraday’s method in which cooling is done with a freezing mixture.
(ii) Linde’s method in which compressed gas is released at a narrow jet (Joule-
Thomson effect).
(iii) Claude’s method in which gas is allowed to do mechanical work.
3.10.2 Faraday’s method- Faraday (1823) used freezing mixture of ice with
various salts for external cooling of gases.
Fig 3.3 Faraday’s method for the liquefication of gases

The melting of ice and dissolution of salts both are endothermic processes. The
temperature of the mixture is lowered up to a temperature when the solution becomes
saturated.
Faraday succeeded in liquefying a number of gases such as SO2, CO2, NO, Cl2
by this method. He used V-shaped tube in one arm of which gas was prepared. In the
other arm the gas was liquefied under its own pressure.
The gases liquefied by this method had their critical temperature above or just
below the ordinary atmospheric temperature. The gases like N2, O2 and H2 having low
critical points could not be liquefied by this method.
3.10.3 Linde’s method
Linde’s (1895) used Joule-Thomson effect as the basis for liquefaction of gases.
When a compressed gas is allowed to expand into vacuum or a region of low pressure,
it produces intense cooling.
Fig 3.4 Linde’s method for liquefication of air

In a compressed gas molecules are very close and attraction between them are
appreciable. As the gas expands, the molecules move apart. In doing so, the
intermolecular attraction must be overcome. The energy for it is taken from the gas
itself which is thereby cooled.
Linde used an apparatus worked on the above principle to the liquefication of
air as shown in Fig 3.4. Pure dry air is compressed to about 200 atmospheres. It is
passed through a pipe cooled by a refrigerating liquid such as ammonia. By doing this
the heat of compression is removed. The compressed air is then passed into a spiral pipe
with a jet at the lower end. The free expansions of air at the jet result in a considerable
drop of temperature. The cooled air which is now at about one atmosphere pressure
passed up the expansion chamber. It further cools the incoming air of the spiral tube
and returns to the compressor. By repeating the process of compression and expansion a
temperature low enough to liquefy air is reached. The liquefied air collects at the
bottom of the expansion chamber.
3.10.4 Claude’s method
In this method the compressed air is allowed to do mechanical work by driving
an engine. The energy for it comes from the gas itself.
Fig 3.5 Claude’s method for liquefication of air

Thus in Claude’s method the gas is cooled not only by overcoming the intermolecular
forces but also by performance of work. That is why the cooling produced greater than
in Linde’s method.
Claude’s apparatus is shown in fig 3.5 for liquefication of air. Dry air is
compressed to about 200 atmospheres. It is passed through a tube cooled by
refrigerating liquid to remove any heat produced during compression. The tube carrying
the compressed air then enters the expansion chamber. At this stage it bifurcates and a
part of this air passes through a side tube into the cylinder of an engine. Here it expands
and pushes back the piston. Now it is clear that the air does mechanical work and it
cools. The air then enters the expansion chamber and cools the
incoming air through the spiral tube. The air undergoes further cooling by expansion at
the jet and liquefies. The gas escaping liquefaction goes back to the compressor and the
whole process is repeated over and over again.

Paramagnetic cooling:
It was shown by Debye on theoretical grounds that a very close approach to
absolute zero was possible by adiabatic demagnetisation of a paramagnetic salt. When a
paramagnetic substance is magnetised, external work is done by it and its temperature
rises. But when it is demagnetised external work is done by it and its temperature falls.
In this method a temperature of the order of 0.002K has been attained.
3.11 SUMMARY
Most characteristic property of gases is that their molecules lie for apart from
each other and are in continuous motion. Each molecules, therefore leads almost an
independent existence. This property is so when temperature is high and pressure is
low.
Till now you have studied that a gas is said to be an ideal gas if it obeys Boyle’s
law and Charle’s law rigidly for all values of temperature and pressure. In other words a
perfect gas is one which strictly follows the general gas equation PV= nRT, since both
the laws are contained in it. Actually no gas is perfect. They approach ideal behaviour
as the temperature gets farther from their boiling points, so that at ordinary temperature
the most nearly perfect gases are those like hydrogen and nitrogen which have very low
boiling points.
The study of kinetic theory of gases enables us to calculate molecular velocities.
Which is otherwise very difficult to determine because gas molecule possess very high
velocity and because of collisions the velocity changes with in very small time.
1. A real gas most closely approaches the behaviour of a perfect gas under the
condition of
(a) High pressure and low temperature.
(b) Low pressure and high temperature.
(c) Low pressure and low temperature.
(d) High temperature and high pressure. ans (b)
2. The compressibility factor of a perfect gas is
(a) Zero (b) One (c) more than one (d) Less than one.
ans (b)
1. The root mean square velocity of a gas molecule is given by
(a) rms = √ (b) rms = √
(b) (c) rms= √ (d) rms =√ ans (a)

2. The free path is the distance travelled by the molecule
(a) Before collision (b) in one second
(b) After collision (d) in one minute
ans (a)
3. Compressibility factor is represented as

(a) Z= (b) Z= (c) Z= (d) Z= ans (d)

4. How many molecules are present in 0.2 g of hydrogen?
(a) 6.023x1023 (b) 6.032x1022 (c) 3.0125x1023 (d) 3.0125x1022
ans (b)
(B) Short Answer Questions
1. Define the following terms.
(a) Root mean square velocity.
(b) Most probable velocity.
(c) Average velocity.
2. Define mean free path
3. Write a note on collision number
4. Explain the significance of von der Waal’s constant
5. Define law of corresponding states
6. Write a note on volume correction in von der Waal’s equation.
(C) Long Answer Questions
1. Narrate the various methods of producing cold, and show how these have been
used in liquefaction of gases.
2 (a) Define Joule-Thomson effect. Explain inversion temperature. How is it related
to von der Waal’s constants.
(b) The von der Waal’s constants a and b for a gas are 0.045 dm atm mole-2 and
0.026 dm3 mole-1 respectively. Calculate the inversion temperature of the gas.
( hint Ti= )
Ans 42.16K
3. (a) State Maxwell’s law or distribution of velocities. How does a
change in temperature influence this distribution?
(b) Define three different types of velocities. How are the related with each
other?
4 (a) Define the terms:
(i) Critical temperature.
(ii) Boyles temperature.
(iii) Conversion temperature.
(b) Write a note on collision diameter.
.................

UNIT 4: LIQUID STATE

CONTENTS:
4.1 Objective
4.2 Introduction
4.3 Intermolecular forces
4.3.1 Dipole-dipole interaction
4.3.2 London forces
4.3.3 Hydrogen bonding
4.4 Structure of liquids
4.5 Characteristic properties of liquids
4.5.1 Vapour pressure
4.5.2 Surface tension
4.5.3 Viscosity
4.6 Refractive Index
4.6.1 Definition of RI
4.6.2 Determination of RI
4.6.3 RI and chemical constituent
4.7 Liquid Crystals:
4.7.1 Definition
4.8 Structure of liquid crystals
4.9 Summary
4.1 OBJECTIVE
The matter exists in three states. The solid state in crystalline form exhibits a
complete orderly arrangement of molecules atoms or ions as the case may be. The
gaseous state exhibits complete disorder or randomness. The liquid state lies in between
these two extreme order and disorder.
The definite and ordered arrangement of the constituents of a solid extends over
a large distance. This is termed as long range order. The liquids exhibit only a short
range order while gases show no order at all.
A liquid may be regarded as a condensed gas or molten solid. In a solid the
molecules are rigidly fixed and, therefore, it has a definite shape and a definite volume.
In a gas, on the other hand the molecules have random motion and, therefore, it has
neither a definite shape nor a definite volume. In a liquid the molecules are not as
rigidly fixed as in solids. They have some freedom of motion which, however, is much
more restricted than that in gases. A liquid, therefore has a definite volume although not
a definite shape. It is much less compressible and are far denser than gases.

4.2 INTRODUCTION
As you have studied in the previous unit (i.e. unit 3), liquids can be obtained
from gases by cooling the latter below their respective critical temperature followed by
the treatment of high pressure. Effect of cooling is to decrease the thermal energies of
molecules and the effect of pressure is to decrease the volume of the system so as to
allow the molecules to come closer, thereby increasing the force of attraction amongst
them. Alternatively, liquids can be obtained by heating solids upto or beyond their
melting points. Thus we see the properties of liquids lie in between those of solids and
gases. For example liquids are less compressible than gases but a little more
compressible than solids. They are less dense than solid but more dense than gases.
The two important properties of liquids, namely, the fixed volume but no fixed shape
arises mainly because of the following two facts
(1) The energies binding the molecules are larger than their average thermal energy.
(2) Their binding energies are not strong enough to stop the motion of the molecules
altogether, as in the case of solids, with the result that molecules can move from one
place to another but cannot escape from the liquid unless they are present at the
surface.
4.3 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
Since the molecules in a liquid are not far apart from each other, the intermolecular
forces are fairly strong. The characteristic properties of liquid arise from the nature and
the magnitude of these intermolecular forces.
Intermolecular forces in liquids are collectively called von der Waal’s forces. These
forces are essentially electrical in nature and result from the attraction of charges of
opposite sign. The principle kinds of intermolecular forces are:
(i) Dipole-dipole interaction
(ii) London forces
(iii) Hydrogen bonding.
4.3.1 Dipole-dipole interaction
We have seen that HCl is an example of a polar molecule. Such molecule have a
partial positive charge at one end and a partial negative charge at the other.
Fig 4.1 Weak attraction between polar HCl molecules

They are called dipoles. The positive end of one dipole attracts the negative end of the
other. The thermal energy of molecules tends to disturb these attractions but still there
exists a net attraction between the polar molecules. These forces are referred to as
dipole-dipole attractions. Generally such attractions are about 1% as strong as covalent
bond. It is to be noted that the attractions between the opposite poles are greater than
repulsive forces between like poles. Thus these molecules have a net attraction to each
other.
4.3.2 London forces
In 1930 Fritz London first offered a simple explanation of weak forces between
nonpolar molecules or atoms. In a molecule (or atom) electrons are constantly moving.
Most of the time electrons in the molecules could not be visualized as distributed
symmetrically. However according to the principle of probability, for an instant the
electrons may concentrate on one side of the molecule than the other. This causes the
molecule (A) to become momentarily polar and we call it instant dipole.
fig 4.2 Explanation of London forces

The negative side of the instantaneous dipole repels the electrons of an adjacent
molecule (B). As a result the second molecule B also becomes a dipole by induced
polarity. This is called induced dipole Fig 4.2.
The instantaneous dipole A and the induced dipole B will now attract each
other. Because the electrons keep moving an instant dipole may vanish the next
moment and new are produced. This continual process produces a weak overall
attraction between molecules of liquid.
The momentary attraction between the molecules of liquid caused by
instantaneous-dipole and induced- dipole attractions are called London forces.
These London forces are present in polar molecules also in addition to other von der
Waal’s forces.
The strength of the London forces depends as to how easily the electron cloud in
a particular molecule is deformed. This is determined by the number of electrons and
also on the size of the molecule. Thus Argon (-245.90C) with a greater number of
electron and larger molecular weight has a higher boiling point than helium (-268.90C).

4.3.3 Hydrogen bonding

In compounds of hydrogen with strongly electronegative elements, such as
fluorine, oxygen and nitrogen, the electron pair shared between the two atoms lies far
away from the hydrogen atom as a result of which the hydrogen atom becomes highly
electropositive with respect to other atom which become electronegative. This
phenomenon of charge separation
Fig 4.3 Hydrogen bond

in water is represented as shown in the fig 4.3. The electronegativity difference in H
and O is so large that the electron pair in the covalent bond, H-O is shifted toward O. It
leaves a partial positive charge on the H atom. This leads to a strong electrostatic
attraction between positively charged H atom and an unshared electron pair on the O
atom of another molecule. Thus you can understand that two or more molecules may
associate together to form large cluster of molecule. This is shown below for the
association of several molecules of hydrogen fluoride.
...H+δ –F-δ .....H+δ –F-δ ......H+δ –F-δ .....

In this case, while the length of covalent bond between H and F atoms is found
to be 1.00A0, the length of the hydrogen bond between H and F atoms of neighbouring
molecules has been found to be 1.55A0. this cluster of HF molecules may be described
as (HF)n
The attractive force which binds hydrogen atom of one molecule with
electronegative atom of another molecule, generally of the same substance is
known as the hydrogen bond.
The hydrogen bonding is the strongest of all intermolecular forces including the
dipole-dipole attractions and London forces.
In the above discussion you have seen that cluster of HF molecule is described
as (HF)n and cluster of water molecule may be described as (H2O)n
Alcohols and carboxylic acids also form associated molecules for the same
reason, as shown below
Alchohols Carboxylic Acids

4.4 STRUCTURE OF LIQUIDS
In a liquid, the molecules are not as rigidly fixed an in solid. They have some
freedom of motion which, however, is much less than that in a gas. Liquids resemble
solids in being compact, incompressible and in having a definite volume. These
properties are indicative of a regular structure in liquids similar to that in solids.
From X-ray diffraction technique, it has been found that the resemblance of
liquid state with solid state is valid with in a small range; i.e. within only small distance
from a given molecule. In other words the regularly ordered structure which exists in
crystalline solids is of short range in liquids. It means it exists in only within a short
distance from any given molecule. A solid possesses short range as well as long range
order since the ordered structure extends regularly throughout the whole crystal.
Now it should be clear to you that
(i) A gas consists of molecules separated wide apart in empty space. The molecules
are free to move about throughout the container.
(ii) A liquid has molecule touching each other. However, the intermolecular space,
permit the movement of molecule throughout the liquid.
(iii) A solid has molecules, atoms or ions arranged in a certain order in fixed position in
the crystal lattice. The particles in a solid are not free to move about but vibrate in
their fixed position.
4.5 CHARACTERISTIC PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS
As you have studied earlier in this unit that the properties of liquids arise from
(i) The nature and
(ii) The magnitude of intermolecular forces of attraction existing between their
molecules. The important properties of liquids are
1. Vapour pressure
2. Surface tension
3. Viscosity
4. Refraction
Now you will study these properties in detail
4.5.1 Vapour pressure
When a liquid is an open vessel, it evaporates. You have studied in the gases
unit, that the gas molecules have a particular velocity. This is so in case of liquids also.
Only a few liquid molecules have lower or higher velocity, i.e. lower or higher kinetic
energies. The energy distribution of molecules in a liquid is shown in Fig 4.4.

Fig 4.4 energy distribution of molecules of a liquid

It is clear from the Fig 4.4 that the number of molecules with high kinetic energies, as
shown by the shaded portion ABCD of the dotted curve is very small. This number,
however, increases with rise in temperature, as shown by the shaded portion FBCE of
the bold line curve.
When a liquid is placed in an open vessel it evaporates. The molecules in the
liquid are moving with different kinetic energies. The molecules that possess above
average kinetic energies can overcome the intermolecular forces that hold them in the
liquid. These energies molecules escape from the surface as vapour. This process by
which molecules of a liquid goes into gaseous state is called vaporisation or
evaporation. The reverse process whereby gas molecules become liquid is called
condensation.
When a liquid is place in a closed vessel, the molecules with high kinetic
energies escape into space above the liquid as shown in fig 4.5. as the number of
molecule in the gas phase increases, some of them strike the liquid surface and are
recaptured (condensation).
Fig 4.5 Illustration of vapour pressure

A stage comes when the number of molecules escaping from the liquid is equal to the
number of molecules returning to the liquid. Thus a dynamic equilibrium is established
between the liquid and the vapour at a given temperature.
Liquid ⇄ vapour
Now the concentration of the vapour in the space above the liquid will remain
unchanged with lapse of time. Hence the vapour will exert a definite pressure at the
equilibrium. Hence vapour pressure of a liquid defined as:
The pressure exerted by the vapour in equilibrium with the liquid at a fixed
temperature is the vapour pressure of the liquid.
As the temperature rises, the number of molecules escaping from the liquid
surface increases as there in increase in the number of vapour molecules in the space
above the liquid when equilibrium is attained.
Hence vapour pressure of the liquid increases with increase of temperature.
4.5.1.1 Determination of vapour pressure
(a) Static method:
A simple apparatus used in this method is shown in fig 4.6. a sufficient amount
of the liquid whose vapour pressure is to be determined in placed in the bulb connected
to a mercury manometer and a vacuum pump.
Fig 4.6 Determination of vapour pressure by static method
All the air from the bulb is removed by working the vacuum pump and the stopcock
closed. A part of liquid evaporates. The system is then maintained at a fixed
temperature for enough time so that equilibrium is attained. The difference in the levels
of mercury in the manometer is equal to vapour pressure of the liquid. This method is
used for liquids having vapour pressure up to one atmosphere.
(b) Dynamic method:
The apparatus used for the dynamic method is shown in fig 4.7.

Fig 4.7 Dynamic method

An inert gas is passed through the given liquid at a constant temperature (T). The gas
saturated with the vapour of the liquid leaves the flask at the exit tube. If V is the
volume of the gas passed and m the loss in weight of the liquid the vapour pressure is
given by the expression.
Vapour pressure = RT
Where M is the molecular weight of the liquid and R the gas constant. This method is
particularly useful for liquids of very low vapour pressure
4.5.2 Surface tension
The existence of strong intermolecular forces of attraction in liquids gives rise
to a property known as surface tension. The phenomenon of surface tension can be
described as follows.
A molecule in the interior of a liquid is attracted equally in all directions by the
molecules around it. A molecule in the surface of a liquid is attracted only sideways and
towards the interior. The forces on the sides being counterbalanced, the surface is
pulled only inward the liquid. These unbalanced attractive forces acting downward tend
to draw the surface molecules into the body of the liquid and, therefore, tend to reduce
the surface to minimum. The liquid then behaves as if it were under a strain or tension.
It is this force which is called surface tension. It may be defined as “the force in dynes
acting on the surface of the liquid at right angles to one centimetre length of the
surface”. It is represented by a symbol γ (gama).
In CGS system the unit of surface tension is dynes per centimetre (dyne cm-1).
In SI system, the unit is Newton per metre (Nm-1). Both these units are related as
follows
Fig 4.8 molecular attractions

Surface energy = amount of work done = forcexdistance

amount of area extended area
Hence in CGS units we have
Surface energy = dyn x cm = dyn x cm-1 = surface tension
cm2
In SI units we have
Surface energy =Nxm = Nm-1
2
m
obviously,
1 dyne cm-1 = (10-5N) (10-2m)-1
= 10-3Nm-1
4.5.2.1 Effect of temperature on surface tension
When temperature increases, there is increase in kinetic energy of liquid
molecules (KE α T) thereby decreasing intermolecular forces. It results in decrease
in inward pull functioning on the surface of the liquid. That means you can say
surface tension decreases with increase in temperature. As surface tension arises of
the attractional forces operating between the molecules, Ramsay and Shields gave
the following relationship between the surface tension of a liquid and its
temperature.
γ(M/d)2/3 = k(tc-t-6)
where k is constant
tc is critical temperature and t any other temperature γ (M/d)2/3 represents molar surface
energy of liquid.
4.5.2.2Determination of surface tension
(i) Capillary rise method:
In this method a capillary tube of radius r is vertically inserted into the liquid. The
liquid rises to a height h and form a concave meniscus.
Fig 4.9 capillary rise method of surface tension

The surface tension γ acting in the inner circumference of the tube exactly supports the
weight of the liquid column. By definition, surface tension is force per 1 cm acting at a
tangent to the meniscus surface. If the angle between the tangent and the tube wall is θ,
the vertical component of surface tension is γ cosθ. The total surface tension along the
circular contact line of meniscus is 2πr times.
Therefore upward force = 2πrγcosθ
Where r is radius of capillary. For most liquids, θ is essentially zero, and cosθ=1
then the upward force reduces to 2πrγ
The downward force on the liquid column is due to its weight which is mass x
g, thus downward force is hπr2dg, where d is density of the liquid
Now upward force = downward force
2πrγ = hπr2dg
γ = hrdg/2 dynes/cm
once r, h and d are known γ can be calculated.
(ii) Drop weight/ number method:
When a liquid is allowed to flow very slowly through a capillary tube a drop
will form which will increase upto a certain point and then fall. If the radius of the end
of the tube be r, the total surface tension supporting the drop will be γ2πr. The drop
falls down when its weight W is just equal to this force. Hence we have
γ2πr = W = mg
Fig 4.10 determination of surface tension by drop-pipette
The apparatus employed is a glass pipette with a capillary at the lower part. This is
called a drop pipette or stalagmometer. It is cleaned, dried and filled with the
experimental liquid, say upto the mark A. (Fig 4.10). Then the surface tension is
determined by any of the following two methods.
(a) Drop weight method:
About 20 drops of the given liquid are received from the drop-pipette in a weighing
bottle and weighed. Thus weight of one drop is found. The drop-pipette is again cleaned
and dried. It is filled with the second reference liquid (say water) and weight of one
drop is determined as before.
Then we have
m1g= 2πr γ1 and m2g = 2πr γ2

γ1/γ2 =
Thus knowing the surface tension of one liquid, the surface tension of other liquid
can be found.
(b) Drop number method:
The drop pipette is filled up to the mark A with the liquid whose surface tension
is be determined. The numbers of drops are counted as the meniscus passes from A to
B. Similarly the pipette is filled with the reference liquid as the meniscus passes from A
to B. Let n1 and n2 be the number of drops produced by the same volume V of the two
liquids. Thus,
the volume of drop of the experimental liquids = V/n1
mass of one drop of this liquid = V/n1 xd1
where d1 is its density.
Similarly the mass of one drop of reference liquid = V/n2 x d2
Then we have γ1/γ2 = (V/n1)d1 = n2d1
(V/n2)d2 n1d2
The density d1 can be determined by density bottle, once γ2 and d2 are known γ1 can be
calculated.
For most liquids surface tension at room temperature vary between 27 and 42
dynes cm-1. For water however, γ is 72.8 dynes cm-1 at 200C.
This high value is obviously due to strong intermolecular forces which exists in
water as a result of extensive hydrogen bonding.
4.5.2.3 Surface tension and chemical constitution
From the study of a large number of liquids, Maclead (1923) showed that
γ1/4 = C ...........(1)
D-d
Where γ is surface tension of the liquid, D its density and d density of vapour at the
same temperature, C is a constant. Sugden (1924) modified this equation by multiplying
both sides by M, the molecular weight of the liquid
M.γ1/4/D-d = MC = [P] .....(2)
The quantity P, which is a constant for a liquid, was given the name parachor. As d is
negligible as compared to D equation (2) reduces to
Mγ1/4/D = [P]
or M/Dγ1/4 = [P]
Vγ 1/4 = [P] ........(3)
Where γ is molar volume of the liquid. If surface tension γ is unity then V= [P]
Thus parachor may be defined as the molar volume of a liquid at a temperature at
which its surface tension is unity.
Use of parachor in elucidating molecular structure:
Sugden examined the experimental parachor values of several organic
compounds of known molecular structure. He showed that parachor is both additive and
constitutive property. That is parachor of an individual compound can be expressed as
sum of

(i) Atomic parachors: which are the contributions of each of the atoms present in the
molecule.
(ii) Structural parachors: which are the contributions of various bonds, rings and other
structural factors present in the molecule. By correlating the experimental values of
parachor with molecular structure, Sugden (1924) calculated the atomic and
structural parameters. These values were further revised by Vogel (1948) on the
basis of more accurate measurements of surface tension table 4.1.
Atom Parachor Bonder ring parachor

C 8.6 single bond 0
H 15.7 double bond 19.9
O 20.0 coordinate bond 0
N 12.5 3-member ring 12.3
Cl 55.2 6- member ring 1.4
S 48.2 = CO 44.4
Table 4.1
You will see now that how these values are useful in elucidating molecular structure.
(i) Structure of benzene:
If the Kekule formula for benzene be accepted the parachor value can be calculated
by using the data:
6xc 6x8.6 = 51.6
6H 6x15.7 = 94.2
3= 3x19.9 = 59.7
6 member ring = 1.4
Total parachor value = 206.9
Fig 4.11
Experimental value of parachor of benzene is 206.2 since the calculated value tallys
with that determined by experiment, the Kekule structure for benzene is supported.
(ii) Structure of quinone:
The two possible structural proposed for quinine are

Fig 4.12
The parachor calculated for the two structure are:
Structure A Structure B
6C 6x8.6 = 51.6 6C 6x8.6 =51.6
4H 4x15.7 = 62.8 4H 4x15.7 = 62.8
2O 2x19.8 = 39.6 2O 2x19.8 = 39.6
4(=) 4x19.9 = 79.6 3(=) 3x19.9 = 59.7
1 six member ring = 1.4 2 six member ring 2.8
Total 235.0 Total 216.5
The observed value for quinine is 236.8 and hence the formula A represents correctly
the structure of its molecule.
4.5.3 Viscosity
Some liquids flow more rapidly than others. In other words, liquid molecules
pose resistance to the flow of one layer over the other. This property of liquids which
determines their flow is termed viscosity. The property of the liquid which determines
its flow is called viscosity of the liquid.
The resistance to flow of one layer of liquid molecules over another depends on the
following factors.
1. The intermolecular attractive forces do not permit a free flow of molecules in a
liquid. The strength of intermolecular forces gives a rough major of the viscosity of
the liquids.
2. The molecular weight or mass of the molecules of a liquid also determines flow of
the liquid. Thus heavier the molecule of a given liquid the greater will be its
viscosity.
3. Structure and shape of the molecules of a liquid place an important role in
influencing its viscosity. Liquids with the large irregularly shaped molecules are
generally known to be more viscous than those with small and symmetrical
molecule. Since only hard symmetrical molecules have perfectly elastic collision,
the large and irregular
molecules will have less elastic molecules amongst themselves. Thus collisions
between large molecules involves the loss of kinetic energy and as a consequence
the intermolecular forces dominating the molecules tends to stick together. This
increases the viscosity of the liquid.

4. An increase in temperature decreases the viscosity of the liquid, the molecular

motion increases at the expense of cohesive forces causing resistance to flow.
5. The increase of pressure goes to strengthen the cohesive forces between molecules.
Hence with increase of pressure the viscosity of a given liquid increases somewhat.
The flow is a characteristic property of liquids. Let us consider flow of a liquid. A
liquid may be considered to be consisting of molecular layers arranged one over the
other. When shearing force is applied, it flows.
Fig 4.13 flow of liquid on a glass surface

However the force of friction between the layers offers resistance to this flow. Viscosity
of a liquid is a measure of its frictional resistance.
Let us examine a liquid flowing on a glass surface. The molecular layer in
contact with the stationary surface has zero velocity. The successive layers above it
move with increasingly higher velocities in the direction of the flow.
Now consider two adjacent moving layers of a liquid (fig 4.11). Let these be
separated by a distance dx having velocity difference d . The force of friction (F)
resisting the relative motion of the two layers is directly proportional to the area A and
velocity difference d , while it is inversely proportional to the distance between the
layers dx.
Hence F α A d /dx
=ή A d /dx
or ή = F/A x dx/d
where ή (eta) is the proportionality constant. It is known as coefficient of viscosity or
simply viscosity of a liquid. It may be defined by the above equation as:
the force of resistance per unit area which will maintain unit different of
velocity between two layers which are unit distance apart.
Unit of viscosity:
η = F/A x d /dx
= force/area x distance/velocity
= mass x length x time-2/length2 X length/length/time
= mass x length-1 x time-1
In CGS system the unit of ή is expressed as g cm-1s-1, it is called poise. In
practice smaller units centipoise (10-2 poise) and millipoise (10-3 poise) are used.

A liquid is said to have coefficient of viscosity as one poise when a force of one
dyne maintains a velocity difference of one centimetre per second between two parallel
layers of the liquid one cm apart and have an area of contact equal to on square cm.
The reciprocal of viscosity is known as fluidity.
4.5.3.1 Effect of temperature on viscosity
As the temperature increases, the molecular motion increases at the expense of
cohesive forces causing resistance to flow. Therefore, the viscosity of liquids is found
to decrease by 1 to 2 per cent for each degree rise of temperature.
4.5.3.2 Determination of viscosity
The apparatus used for determination of viscosity in the laboratory is knwon as
Ostwald’s viscometer. A simple form of Ostwald viscometer is shown in fig 4.14, the
left- hand limb is essentially a pipette with two celibration marks A and
Fig 4.14 Ostwald viscometer

B. A length of capillary tube joins the pipette to the bulb D in the right-hand limb.
A definite volume of liquid (say about 25 ml) is poured into the bulb D with a
pipette. The liquid is sucked up near to the top of the left-hand limb with the help of
rubber tubing attached to it. The liquid is then released to flow back into the bulb D. the
time t1 to flow from A to B is noted with a stopwatch. Then the apparatus is cleaned
and the experiment is repeated with water taking about the same volume. The time of
flow of water t2 from A to B is recorded. The density of the liquid d and that of water
dw are determined with the help of density bottle. The relative viscosity is calculated
from the expression
η/ηw = dt1/dwt2
where is η is coefficient of viscosity of the experimental liquid and ηw is the
coefficient of viscosity of water. Knowing the value of coefficient of viscosity of water
ηw at the temperature of experiment, the absolute viscosity coefficient η of the given
liquid can be found.

4.5.3.3 Viscosity and chemical constitution

As you know viscosity is largly due to intermolecular attractions which resist
the flow of liquid. Therefore some sort of relationship between viscosity and molecular
structure should be there. Viscosity is also dependent on the shape, size and mass of the
liquid molecules. The following general rules have been discovered.
(i) Dunstan Rule:
Dunstan in 1909 showed that coefficient of viscosity η and molecular volume
(d/M) were related as d/M x ηx106 = 40 to 60
This expression holds only for normal (unassociated) liquids for associated
liquids the value is much higher than 60. For example the value for benzene is 73 and
for water it is 559 and for ethanol it is 189. This shows benzene is a normal liquid while
water and ethanol are associated liquids.
(ii) Molar Viscosity:
The product of molar surface and viscosity is termed as molar viscosity. That is
molar viscosity = molar surface x viscosity
= (M/d)2/3 x ή
Thorpe and Rodger (1894) found that molar viscosity is an additive property at the
boiling point. They worked out the molar viscosity contributions of several atoms (C,
H, O, S, etc) and groups. From these, they calculated the molar viscosity of liquid from
its proposed structure. By tallying this value with the experimental one, they were able
to ascertain the structure.
(iii) Rheochor:
Newton Friend (1943) showed that if molecular volume (M/d) be multiplied by
the eighth root of the coefficient of viscosity it gives a constant value [R], it is termed
as Rheochor
M/d x η1/8 = R
Like parachor, rheochor is both additive and constitutive property.
4.6 REFRACTIVE INDEX
4.6.1 Definition
When a ray of light passes from air into denser medium say a liquid, it is
bent or refracted towards the normal. The ratio of the sine of angle of incidence and the
sine of angle of refraction is constant and characteristic of that liquid. This is known as
Snell’s law. The constant ratio n is called refractive index of the liquid and may be
written as
sin i/sin r = n
The ratio of sines of the angles of incidence and refraction is identical with the
ratio of the velocity of light in two media.
Thus n= sin i/sin r = velocity in air
velocity in liquid
when a ray of light passes from a rarer to denser medium it can be shown form law of
refraction that
n1 is refractive index of rarer medium

n2 is refractive index of denser medium
Fig 4.15
4.6.2 Determination of refractive index
The instruments used for determining refractive index are known as
refractometers.
Pulfrich-refractometer:
This refractometer is very accurate and simple in principle. It is indicated
diagrammatically in fig 4.16. The main part of the instrument
Fig 4.16 The optical system of Pulfrich refractometer

is a right angled glass prism with a small glass cell connected to its top. The liquid
under examination is placed in the cell and a beam of monochromatic light is made to
enter the liquid at an angle of 900 along the surface between the liquid and the prism. If
the telescope is moved to make an angle with the horizontal which is less than i no light
can reach it. At this angle i a sharp boundary between a dark and a bright field can be
seen through the telescope.
For a ray of light passing from the liquid into the prism, if r be the angle of
refraction when the angle of incidence is 900 we have alredy stated that sin r = n1 / n2
.........(1)
Where n1 is the refractive index of the liquid and n2 is that of glass prism. It is also clear
to you from the fig 4.16 that
sin i/sin (90-r) = n2 ...........(2)
or sin i/cos r = n2 ...........(3)
or cos r = sin i/n2 ............(4)
But sin r = √(1-cos2r)
substituting the value of cos r in equation (4)
we get
sin r = √(1-sin2i/n22) ...................(5)
From equation (1) we get
n1 = n2 sin r
= √n22-sin2i
If the refractive index n2 of the glass is known and angle i is measured n1 the
refractive index n1 of liquid can be calculated.
4.6.3 Refractive index and chemical constitution
Lorenz and Lozentz (1880) purely from theoretical considerations derived the
following relation for refracting power of substance
R = n2-1 x 1 .......(1)
2
n +2 d
where R is specific refraction, d the density and n the refractive index. The value of R
was constant at all temperatures.
Molar refraction:
It is defined as the product of specific refraction and molecular mass. Thus
molar refraction is obtained by multiplying equation (1) by molecular mass (M).
RM = n2-1 x M ..............(2)
n2+2 d
The value of molar refraction is characteristic of a substance and is independent
of temperature. Since it depends on wavelength of light, the values of molar refraction
are generally reported for D-line of sodium.
Molar refraction RM is an additive and constitutive property. The molar
refraction of a molecule is thus a sum of the contributions of the atoms (atomic
refraction) and bonds (bond refraction). From the observed value of RM of appropriate
known compounds, the atomic refractions of different elements and bonds have been
worked out.

Carbon C 2.418 3-membered ring 0.710

Hydrogen H 1.100 4- membered ring 0.480
Chlorine Cl 5.967 6- membered ring 0.15
Bromine Br 8.861 O in OH group 1.525
Iodine I 13.900 O in C=O group 2.211
Double bond 1.733 O in ethers 1.64
Triple bond 2.398
Table 4.1 some atomic and bond refractions
Now we will have some examples for you to illustrate the use of molar
refractions in elucidating molecular structure
(i) Benzene :
The molar refraction of benzene (C6H6) on the basis of much disputed Kekule
formula may be calculated as:
6C = 6x2.591 = 15.546
6H = 6x1.028 = 6.168
3C=C = 3x1.575 =4.725
One 6 C ring ` = -0.150
Total RM = 26.289cm3 mole-1
The observed value of RM for benzene is 25.93. this is in good agreement with the
calculated value. Hence the Kekule formula for benzene is supported.
Now let us take the example of ethyl alcohol (CH3CH2OH). Its refractive index
is 1.3611 and its density is 0.7885 g cm-3. The molar mass of ethyl alcohol is 46. The
molar refraction can be calculated from the formula, and the value comes out equal to
12.9105 cm3 mol-1.
Let us compute now the value of molar refraction using the values from table
4.1.
Contribution of 6 hydrogens = 6x1.028 = 6.168
Contribution of 2 carbons = 2x2.591 = 5.182
Contribution of O in OH group = 1.525
Total contribution 12.875 cm3 mol-1
This value is in close agreement with the value calculated above, therefore the correct
structure of ethyl alcohol is

H H
H C C OH
H H
(ii) Optical exaltation:
A compound containing conjugate double bonds (C=C-C=C) has a higher
observed value of RM than that calculated from atomic and bond refractions. The molar
refraction is thus said to be exalted (raised) by the presence of conjugate double bond
and the phenomenon is called optical exaltation. For example, for Hexatriene
CH2 = CH CH=CH CH=CH2 the observed value of RM is 30.58 cm3 mole-1 as against
the calculated value 28.28 cm3 mole-1.
If present in closed structure as benzene, the conjugated double bonds do not
cause exaltation.
4.7 LIQUID CRYSTALS
4.7.1 Definition
There are certain solids which on heating undergo two sharp phase changes one
after the other. They first fuse sharply yielding turbid liquids and again equally sharply
at higher temperature yielding clear liquids. These changes get reversed on cooling at
the same temperature. The turbid liquid show anisotropy i.e. they have different
physical properties from different directions. Anisotropy is particularly seen in the
optical behaviour of liquids. In an anisotropic substance, the physical property are
different in different direction. On the other hand true liquids are isotropic ie same
physical properties in different directions. As anisotropic properties are associated with
crystalline state, the turbid liquids are known as liquid crystals.
This liquid crystal term, however, is not satisfactory since the substances in this
state do not have properties of crystalline state. Actually, they are more like liquids in
having properties like mobility, surface tension, viscosity etc. Amongst other names
that have been suggested are crystalline liquids and anisotropic liquids, but these are
also not satisfactory. The term mesomorphic state (meaning intermediate form)
probably fits best. But, the older term liquid crystal continues to be used even in the
present day literature.
Substances which show the above behaviour are usually some long chain
organic molecules either terminating in groups such as-OR, -COOR or having groups
like –C=N-,-N=NO-,-C=C- in the middle. The first solid showing this peculiar property
was discovered in 1888 was cholesteryl benzoate C6H5COOC27H45. It fuses sharply at
1450C to form turbid liquid and on further heating changes into clear liquid at 1780C. If
we cool, the above changes are reversed i.e., the clear liquid when cooled first changes
into turbid state at 1780C and then into the solid state at 1450C
Later on, p-azoxyanisole and p-azoxyphenetone were found to exhibit the same
properties. In 1991 P.G. De Genees, a French physicist got the Nobel Prize in Physics
for contribution to liquid crystals and polymers.

p-cholesteryl benzoate(pcb) 1450C p.c.b. 1780C p.c.b.

Solid liquid crystal liquid
Solid Liquid Liquid

state crystal state
One such substance that forms liquid crystal is p-ozoxyanisole (Fig 4.17)
Fig 4.17 p-Ozosyanisole

4.8 STRUCTURE OF LIQUID CRYSTALS
In a liquid the moleucules have random arrangement and they are able to move
fast each other. In a solid crystal the molecules have an ordered arrangement and are in
fixed positions. In a liquid crystal, however, molecules are arranged parallel to each
other and can flow like a liquid. Thus liquid crystals have the fluidity of a liquid and
optical properties of solid crystals.
Accordingly to their molecular arrangement, the liquid crystals are classified
into three types
(i) Nematic liquid crystals:
in nematic liquid crystals molecules are parallel to each other like soda straws
but they are free to slide or roll individually.
(ii) Smetic liquid crystals:
The molecules in this type of liquid crystals are also parallel but these
are arranged in layers. These layers can slide past each other (Fig 4.18).
(iii) Cholesteric liquid crystals:
As in nematic crystals in this type liquid crystals the molecules are parallel but
arranged in layers. The molecules in successive layers are slightly rotated with respect
to the layers above and below so as to form spiral structure.
Nematic liquid crystal Smetic liquid crystal

Fig 4.18

Application of liquid crystals:

On account of their remarkable optical and electrical properties, liquid crystal
found several practical applications. Some of these are given below.
Number display:
When a thin layer of nematic liquid crystal is placed between two electrodes and
an electrical field is applied, the polar molecules are pulled out of alignment. This cause
the crystal to be opaque. Transparency returns when electrical signal is removed. This
property is used in the number displays of digital watches, calculators, and other
instruments.
Monitoring body temperature:
Like the solid crystals, liquid crystals can diffract light. Only one of the
wavelengths of the white light is refracted by the crystal which appears coloured. As
the temperature changes the distance between the layers of molecules also changes.
Therefore the colours of the reflected light changes correspondingly. These colesteric
liquid crystal undergoes a series of colour changes with temperature. These crystals are
used in indicator tapes to monitor body temperature or to spot areas of overheating in
mechanical systems.
4.9 SUMMARY
In this unit you have studied liquid state in detail. Various properties of liquids
such as vapour pressure, surface tension, viscosity and refractive index have been
discussed and also their usefulness to elucidating molecular structure.
The difference between liquid, liquid crystal and solid state have been discussed
and also liquid crystal in detail.
Thought the study of the parachor, molecular viscosity, molar refraction etc. Are
useful in elucidating molecular structure of compounds, but they give some rough idea
about molecular structure. Mass Spectra, I.R., NMR are the latest methods/techniques
for elucidating molecular structure of organic compounds accurately.
(A) Multiple Choice Questions:

1. The reciprocal of viscosity is known as:
(a) Anti viscosity (b) intrinsic viscosity
(c) Reduced viscosity (d) Fluidity
Ans (d)
2. The molecules which have partial positive charge at one end and partial negative
charge at the other are called:
(a) ion pairs (b) charged molecules
(c) dipole (d) electric molecule
Ans (c)
3. With the rise of temperature the surface tension of a liquid:
(a) Increases (b) decreases
(c) remains the same (d) none of the above

Ans (b)
4. The unit in which surface tension is measured is:
(a) dyne cm (b) dyne cm-1
(c) dyne-1 cm (d) dyne-1 cm-1
Ans (b)
5. Which of the following liquids has maximum viscosity:
(a) water (b) ethyl alcohol
(c) Acetone (d) glycerine
Ans (d)
6. Small droplets are spherical in shape. It is due to:
(a) High viscosity
(b) their tendency to acquire minimum surface area
(c) Less viscosity
(d) their tendency to acquire maximum surface area
Ans (b)
(B) Short Answer Questions:
1. Define surface tension. What is its unit?
2. How does vapour pressure varies with temperature.
3. Explain why
(i) Drops of liquids are spherical in shape.
(ii) At the boiling point, the temperature of liquid does not rise
although it is being heated.
(iii) Glycerol is more viscous than water.
4. Write a note on specific refraction.
5. Write a note on liquid crystals.
6. Explain the term viscosity of a liquid.
(C) Long Answer Questions:
1. Define the terms surface tension and surface energy. Discuss capillary rise
method for determination of surface tension in the laboratory.
2. What are liquid crystals? How are they classified? How would you account for
turbidity observed in liquid crystals? What are the uses of liquid crystals?
3. Why do you use the same viscometer for the liquid and water during the
experimental determination of the viscosity of the liquid by Ostwald
viscometer? Describe the experiment.
4. Write a note on parachor. How parachor is useful in elucidating molecular
structure of compounds at 200C toluene rises 1.95 cm in the capillary tube of
radius of 0.3412 mm. Calculate the surface tension of toluene. The density of
toluene at 200C is 0.866 cc
Hint : use the formula γ= hrdg dynes/c
2
5. (a) Define viscosity of a liquid. What is the effect of temperature on
viscosity?

(c) Water passes through a viscometer in 30 seconds and ethanol in 175 seconds at
200C. If the density of water is 0.998g/cm3, density of ethanol is 0.790g/cm3 and
viscosity of water is 0.01008 poise, calculate the viscosity of ethanol.
(Hint : use formula η =ηwdt1/dwt2
ans 0.01747 poise)
6. Write notes on the following
(a) Vapour pressure
(b) Optical oxaltation
(c) Ramsay- Shields equation
................

UNIT 5: SOLID STATE

CONTENTS:
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Introduction
5.3 Definition
5.4 Definition of space lattice and unit cell
5.5 Laws of crystallography
5.5.1 Law of constancy of interfacial angle
5.5.2 Law of rational indices
5.5.3 Law of symmetry
5.6 Symmetry elements of a Crystal
5.7 Lattice sites and coordination number
5.8 X-ray diffraction of crystals
5.8.1 Bragg’s equation
5.8.2 Rotating crystal method
5.8.3 Powder Method
5.9 Structure of crystal system NaCl, KCl and CsCl
5.10 Born Haber cycle
5.10.1 Lattice energy
5.10.2 Definition
5.11 Summary
5.1 OBJECTIVES
In gaseous state you have studied that if thermal energy is much greater than the
forces of attraction then we have matter in gaseous state. Molecules in gaseous state
move with very large speeds and because of very small attraction forces, the gas
molecules move practically independent of one another.
In the liquid state the forces of attraction are greater than the thermal energy.
You have also studied that molecules in liquid state too have kinetic energy, they
cannot move very far away because of the larger forces of attraction amongst them.
Because of this property, liquids have definite volume, but they do not have definite
shape. Liquids also resemble gases in their ability to flow. Gaseous and liquid states
are, therefore, both classified as fluids.
Out of the three states of matter, solids are characterised by incompressibility,
rigidity and mechanical strength.
The molecules, atoms or ions in solids are closely packed.
5.2 INTRODUCTION
It is clear to you now that intermolecular attraction is minimum in the gaseous
state and this disappears completely when the gas in ideal. The interaction is stronger in
liquids and is strongest in solids. Thermal motion of the molecules increases or
decreases by raising or lowering of temperature. The attractive interaction between the

molecules tries to keep them together and the thermal motion is opposed to that. Hence,
it is possible to change a substance from one state to another by changing its
temperature.
A true solid possesses the following characteristics
(a) A sharp melting point
(b) A characteristic heat of fusion
(c) General incompressibility
(d) A definite three-dimensional arrangement
Hence solids are characterised by high density and low compressibility compared to
those of the gas phase. In solids, atoms, ions and molecules are held together by
relatively strong chemical forces- ionic bond, covalent bond, or by intermolecular von
der Waal’s forces. They do not translate although they vibrate to some extent on their
fixed positions. This explains why solids are rigid and have definite shape.
5.3 DEFINITION
Solids can generally be classified into two broad categories:
(i) Crystalline solids
(ii) Amorphous solids
A crystalline solid exists as small crystals, each crystal having a characteristic
geometrical shape. In a crystal, the atoms, molecules or ions are arranged in a regular,
repeating three-dimensionl pattern called the crystal lattice. examples are sugar, salt etc.
An amorphous solid has atoms, molecules or ions arranged at random and lacks the
ordered crystalline lattice. Examples of amorphous solids are rubber, plastics and glass.
In their disordered structure, amorphous solids are regarded as supercooled liquids with
high viscosity. The liquid nature of glass is sometimes apparent in very old window
panes that have become slightly thicker at the bottom due to gradual downward flow.
Anisotropy and isotropy:
Amorphous substances differ from crystalline solids and resemble liquids in
another important aspect. Their properties such as electrical conductivity, thermal
conductivity mechanical strength and refractive index are same in all directions.
Amorphous substances are said to isotropic. Liquids and gases are also isotropic.
Crystalline solids on the other hand are anisotropic, because their physical properties
are different in different directions. For example the velocity of light through a crystal
varies with the direction in which it is measured. Thus, a ray of light enter such a
crystal may split up into two components each following different velocity. This
phenomenon is known as double refraction. This can be shown in fig 5.1 in which
simple two-dimensional arrangement of

Fig 5.1 Anisotropy in crystals is due to different arrangement of particles in

different directions
only two different kinds of atoms is depicted if the properties are measured along the
direction indicated by the slanting line CD, they will be different from those measured
in the direction indicated by the vertical line AB. The reason is that while in the first
case, each row is made up of alternate types of atoms, in the second case; each row is
made up of one type of atoms only. In amorphous solids, atoms or molecules are
arranged at random and in a disorderly manner and, therefore all directions are identical
and all properties are alike in all directions.
5.4 DEFINITION OF SPACE LATTICE AND UNIT CELL
Crystals are bound by surface which is usually planner. These surfaces are
called faces and where two faces intersect an edge is formed. The angle between the
normals to the two intersecting faces is the interfacial angle or the angle between any
two faces is called interfacial angle. Although the size of the faces or even shapes of
crystals of one and the same substances may vary widely with the condition of
formation or other factors, yet the interfacial angles
between any two corresponding faces of the crystal remain invariably the same
throughout. This is shown in fig 5.2. Now it is clear to you that although the external
shape is different yet the interfacial angles are the same.
Fig 5.2 Constancy of interfacial angle

Space lattice
Rather than drawing the entire pattern, it is much more convenient to represent
the unit of pattern by a point. Each point then represents the position of an atom, ion,
molecule or group of ions and molecules. The regular three-dimensional arrangement of
identical points in space gives rise to what is known as space lattice or crystal lattice
(Fig 5.3) the positions occupied by the particles in the space lattice are called lattice
sites or lattice points.
Unit cell:
It is defined as “the smallest geometrical portion of the crystal, which when
repeated in three dimensional, would generate the complete crystal”. Each unit cell, in
turn, must be constituted of atoms, molecules or ions, as the case may be and arranged
to give the particular geometrical configuration of the crystal.
Fig 5.3 Space latice

Unit cells are of following types;
(a) Simple or primitive unit cell (P): The simplest unit cell which has the lattice
points at the corners is called a simple or primitive unit cell. It is denoted by P.
(b) Non primitive or multiple unit cell: When unit cell contains more than one
lattice points, it is called non primitive or multiple unit cell. It is further divided
into the following three categories:
(i) Face centred unit cell (F):
When a unit cell, besides the points present at the corners of the unit cell,
(a) (b) (c)

Fig 5.4 Three cubic unit cells

There is one point at the centre of each face, it is called face centred arrangement or
face centred unit cell. It is denoted by F.
(ii) Body centred unit cell (I):
When in a unit cell, besides the points at the corners of the cell, there is one point at
the centre with in its body, it is called body-centred arrangement or body-centred with
cell. It is denoted by I.
(iii) Side centre or end face unit cell:
When in a unit cell, besides the points at the corners of the cell, the points are
located at the centre of any two parallel faces of the unit cell, it is called side-centred or
end face unit cell. It is denoted by c.
5.5 LAWS OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
There are three laws of crystallography which deal with the interfacial angles
and the rational indices.
5.5.1 Law of constancy of interfacial angle
The crystal may be smaller or bigger in size and may be prepared by any
method, but the interfacial angles are always the same.
5.5.2 Law of rational indices
Now it will be clear to you that crystal lattice consists of unit cells arranged in
parallel planes. Thus each crystal plane lies parallel to the crystal face as also to the
unit cell face. These planes cut the three axes along the three crystallographic axes (ox,
oy, oz), Hauy proposed that a given crystal plane could be described in terms of
intercepts along the axes. The reciprocals of these intercepts are small whole numbers,
these numbers h,k and l are called Miller indices after the name of British Scientist
W.H. Miller. Thus Miller indices of a plane may be defined as the reciprocals of the
intercepts which the plane makes will the axes.
Fig 5.5 A unit cell plane intercepts the axes Any other plane intercepts the axes
to give interests a, b and c to give intercepts equal to la, mb
and nc
For example let us consider a crystal system with the axes OX, OY and OZ. In fig 5.4
ABC represents a unit cell surface while LMN in fig 5.5 depicts another crystal plane
under study

The intercepts of the unit plane are OA, OB and OC which have the length a,b and c
respectively. The intercepts of the plane under study are OL, OM and ON. These can be
expressed as multiples of the intercepts a,b,c i.e. la, mb and nc. Here l m and n are
either integral whole numbers or fraction of whole numbers. The reciprocal of these
numbers are written together in brackets (h,k.l) to give the Miller indices of the plane
under study.
To find the Miller indices proceed as follows.
(i) Write the intercepts as multiples of a,b,c say la, mb, nc
(ii) Take the reciprocals of l, m and n
(iii)Clear fraction to get whole numbers h,k,l.
(iv) Miller indices to the plane are (h,k,l).
Example: calculate the Miller indices of crystal planes which cut through the
crystal axes at
(i) 2a, 3b, c (ii) 6a, 5b, 3c
(i) a b c (ii) a b c
2 3 1 intercepts 6 3 3
½ 1/3 1 reciprocals 1/6 1/3 1/3
3 2 6 clear fraction 1 2 2
Hence Miller indices are (326) hence Miller indices are (122)
5.5.3 Law of symmetry
Besides the interfacial angles, another important property of crystals is their
symmetry. The law of symmetry states that:
All crystals of the same substance possess the same elements of symmetry.
Symmetry in crystals may be with respect to a plane, a line or a point,
accordingly there are three types of symmetry associated with a crystal.
5.5.3.1 Plane of symmetry
When an imaginary plane can divided a crystal into two parts such that one is
the exact mirror image of the other, the crystal is said to have a plane of symmetry.
5.5.3.2 Axis of symmetry
An axis of symmetry is a line about which the crystal is rotated such that
it presents the similar appearance more than once during complete rotation i.e. rotation
through an angle of 3600. Depending upon its nature, a crystal may have 2-fold, 3-fold,
4-fold or 6-fold axes of rotation.
Fig 5.6 various axes of symmetry

For example in the case of a cube, an axis passing perpendicularly through the
centre is such that when the cube is rotated it presents similar appearance in three

rotation of 900 each and the same appearance after the fourth rotation, such an axis is
called a four-fold or tetrad axis (fig 5.6(a)). If the same similar appearance is repeated
after an angle of 1800, the axis is called two-fold or diad axis (fig 5.6(b)). In the same
way, if the same or similar appearance is repeated after an angle of 1200, the axis is
called a three-fold or triad axis (fig 5.6(c)). If the same or similar axis is repeated after
an angle of 600, as in the case of a hexagonal crystal, the axis is called six-fold or hexad
axis (fig 5.6(d)). In general, if the same or similar appearance of a crystal is repeated on
rotation through an angle of 360/n, around an imaginary axis, the axis is called an n-
fold axis.
100, 110 and 111 planes

of a crystal
100 plane 110 plane 111 planes
Fig 5.8 three cubic unit cells

5.5.3.3 Centre of Symmetry
It is a pound at the centre of the crystal so that any line drawn through it will meet the
surface of the crystal at equal distance on either side.
It may be pointed out that a crystal may have number of planes or axis of symmetry but
it has only one centre of symmetry.
5.6 SYMMETRY ELEMENTS OF A CRYSTAL
Any crystal or any molecule of the crystal will have some combinations of symmetry
elements. These combinations of symmetry elements are known as point groups. These
points groups are called classes or systems.
Table 5.1 seven crystal systems

A careful study of the geometrical structure of crystals reveals that there are 230
crystal forms, which may be grouped into 32 classes. These 32 classes in turn may be
referred into to seven crystal systems. These
Fig 5.7 seven crystal systems

Crystal systems differ in length of the unit cell edges (a, b and c fig 5.1) and the
angles between the unit cell edges.
5.7 LATTICE SITES AND COORDINATION NUMBER
From the above discussion it may be clearly understood that it is possible to
have lattice sites other than the corners of the geometrical patterns. In fact for the
simplest lattice system, i.e., the cube, there may be three possibilities. These
possibilities are named as ‘simple cubic’, ‘body centred cubic’ and ‘face centred cubic’
depending upon the lattice sites being disposed in space in a manner that a particle is
situated at any of these is surrounded in an identical manner by other particles of the
lattice. In the simple cubic lattice, fig 5.6(a), the particles are occupying only the
corners of the cube. The body centred cubic lattice fig 5.6 (b) has particle at the centre
of the cube in addition to the four occupied
corners. But in face-centred cubic lattice fig 5.6 (c) there is one lattice site at each of the
six faces of the cube apart from the four corner sites.
Let us now calculate the number of particles, atoms or ions
(i) In simple cubic unit cell one particle is situated at each corner and there are eight
corners in the unit cell. So each corner atom is shared by 8 unit cells, hence share
of each unit cell is one-eighth. Thus number of particles in one unit cell is, z
=1/8x8=1 particle.
(ii) In body centred cubic unit cell, 8 particles are situated at 8 corners and one particle
at the centre of the cube. As each corner is shared by eight unit cells, so sharing of
8 corners=8x1/8=1 particle. One particle in the centre of the unit cell and hence
z=1+1=2 particles.
(iii) In face centred cubic unit cell, 8 particles are situated at eight corners. So their share is
8x1/8=1 particle. One particle is situated at the centre of the 6 faces which is shared by
2 unit cells. So, the share of 6 faces=6x1/2=3 particles. So z =1+3=4 particles.

Coordination number
Coordination number or legancy is defined as the number of particles immediately
adjacent to each particle in the crystal lattice.
If you carefully examine a given space lattice, in simple cubic lattice each particle is
adjourned by six other particles and so the coordination number of simple cubic system
is six. The coordination number of body-centred cubic system is eight and that of face-
centred cubic system is 12 respectively.
5.8 X-RAY DIFFRACTION OF CRYSTALS
You know that when x-rays were first investigated, problem arose of measuring
their wave length. It is a well known fact that, if light is allowed to strike a surface
consisting either of a series of edges or lines spaced closely enough to be of the same
order of magnitudes as that of the wavelength of light, the beam of light is diffracted.
And the various radiations are dispersed into a series of spectra known as, first, second,
third etc. order of spectra. Further, there is definite relation between the angle of
diffraction, the wavelength of radiation and the spacing of the lines on the ruled grating.
Since x-rays are of the same nature as light, it should be theoretically possible to
determine the wavelength of this radiation in the same way. However it is impossible
by any mechanical means to rule a grating as fine as that required, namely one with 108
lines per centimeter. For this purpose Laue (1912) suggested that crystal can act as
grating to x-rays as wavelength of x-rays is comparable to the interatomic distance.
When a beam of x-rays is allowed to fall on a crystal, a large number of images of
different intensities are formed. If the diffracted waves are in the same phase, they
reinforce each other and a series of bright spots are produced on a photographic plate
placed in their path. On the other hand, if the diffracted waves are out of phase, dark
spots are caused on the photographic plate (fig 5.8). From the overall diffraction pattern
produced by a crystal, can arrive at the detailed information regarding the position of
particles in the crystal.
5.8.1 Bragg’s equation
Bragg’s pointed that the scattering of x-rays by crystal could be taken to be
equivalent to reflection from successive planes of atoms in the crystal. However the
reflection of x-rays can take place only at certain angles which are dependent on
wavelength of the x-rays and the distance between the planes of the crystal. The
fundamental equation which gives a simple relation between the wave length of x-rays,
the interplaner distance in the crystal and the angle of reflection is known is known as
Bragg’s equation. This equation can be derided as follows.
The horizontal lines represent parallel planes in the crystal structure separated from one
another by a distance d. suppose a beam of x-rays incident at an angle falls on the
crystal. Some of them will be reflected from uppermost plane at the same angle, while
the other will be absorbed and get reflected from successive planes, as shown in

Fig 5.8 diffraction patterns produced by crystals

Let the planes ABC and DEF drawn perpendicular to the incident and reflected beams,
respectively. The waves reflected from different planes will be in phase will one
another only if the difference in the path length of the wave reflected from the
successive planes is equal to an integral number of wavelengths. Drawing perpendicular
OL and OM to the incident and reflected beams, it will be seen that the path difference
in the wavelength, say δ of the wave reflected from the first two planes is given by
δ=LN+NM ............ (1)
This should be equal to a whole number multiple of wavelength
λ, i.e.
nλ= LN+NM ..................(2)
Since the two triangle ONL and ONM are congruent LN=NM
nλ= 2LN= 2dsinθ ............(3)
Equation (3) is known as Bragg’s equation.
For a given set of lattice planes, d has a fixed value.
Therefore possibility of getting maximum diffraction (i.e., the possibility of getting
reflected waves in phase with one another) depends upon θ. If θ is increased gradually,
a number of positions will be found at which the reflection will be maximum. At these
positions, n will have values 1,2,3,4...etc. generally, in experiments on x-ray
diffractions, any set as equal to 1. If λ in known, it is possible to determine d, the
distance between atomic planes in the crystal by determining θ experimentally. Thus if
d is known λ can be calculated.
Measurement of diffraction angle:
The x-ray diffraction techniques used in the study of crystals are of two types
known as rotating crystal method and powder method. Both these techniques make use
of the x-ray spectrometer, the setting of which for the former technique is shown in Fig
5.8.
Fig 5.9 x-ray diffraction by crystals

5.8.2 Rotating crystal method

x-ray generated in the tube T are passed through a slit so as to obtain a narrow
beam which is then allowed to strike a single crystal C mounted on the turn table. The
crystal is rotated gradually by means of the turn table so as to increase the glancing
angle at which x-rays are incident at the exposed phase of the crystal. The intensities of
the refracted rays are measured on a recording device R. The recording device may be
either a photographic plate or an ionisation chamber. The angle for which reflections
are maximum give the value of θ. The process is carried out for each plane of the
crystal. The lowest angle at which maximum reflection occurs corresponds to n=1. This
is called first order reflection. The next higher angle at which maximum reflection
occurs again, corresponds to n=2. This is second order reflection, and so on.
Fig 5.10 Rotating crystal method

5.8.3 Powder Method
Power method is the simplest technique for obtaining x-ray diffraction. It was
first used by P.J.W. Debye and P. Scherer. Instead of taking a single crystal having a
definite orientation to the impinging x-rays, we can take a mass of finely divided crystal
with random orientation
Fig 5.11 The powder method

This method is better adopted due to its simplicity and versatility. In this method, the
crystal sample is need not to be taken in large quantity but a little as one milligram of
the material is sufficient for study. The power, in fact consists of many small crystals
which are oriented in all possible directions. As a result of this x-rays are scattered from
all set of planes (e.g., 100,110, etc.). The scattered rays are detected by using an x-ray
sensitive film. The principle is shown in Fig 5.9. A narrow beam of x-rays is allowed to
fall on the powder. The diffracted x-rays strike a strip of photographic film arranged in
the form of circular arc, as shown in the Fig 5.11.
In this method no rotation is necessary since the powder sample already contains
microcrystal arranged in all possible orientations. Hence, a large number of them will
have their lattice planes in correct positions for maximum x-ray reflection to occur. As
a result of this we get lighted areas in the form of arcs of lines at different distances
from the incident been as shown. These distances can be converted into scattering
angles to be used in the Bragg’s equation for different planes of crystals.
5.9 STRUCTURE OF CRYSTAL SYSTEM NaCl, KCl and CsCl
Structure of NaCl crystal
The ionic crystal of NaCl is shown in Fig 5.12. Each sodium ion is surrounding
by six chloride ions and each chloride ions is surrounded by six sodium ions. The
maximum intensity of reflection occurs at the glancing angle of 5.90, 8.40 and 5.20 for
100, 110 and 111 planes, respectively for first order reflection.
Fig 5.12 Structure of NaCl crystals
We know that,
nλ= 2dsinθ
or =2
Therefore for a particular order of reflection
d α1/sin θ
If only first order reflection are considered than,
d100:d110:d111 = 1/sin5.90: 1/sin 8.40: 1/sin 5.20
= 1/0.103: 1/0.146: 1/0.091
= 1:0.704:1.155

For face-centred cubic system the planes can be passed through the atom having
Miller indices 100, 110 and 111 at the relative spacing a/2:a/2√2: a/√3
So d100:d110:d111 = a/2:a/2√2:a/√3
= 1:0.707:1.154
This ratio is almost identical with the ratio we have calculated from
experimental observations. Hence NaCl crystal is face-centred cubic system.
Structure of KCl crystal
On investigating the KCl crystal ,the maximum reflection of x-rays,
corresponding to first order reflections are observed to occur at the glancing angles of
5.380, 7.610 and 9.380 for (100),(110) and (111) faces, respectively,
Therefore,
d100:d110:d111= 1/sin 5.380:1/sin 7.610:1/sin 9.380
= 1:0.704:0.575
For the simple cubic system the planes can be passed through the atoms having
Miller indices (100),(110) and (111) and the relative spacing for the unit cell is
a:a/√2:a/√3
So d100:d110:d111= 1:0.707:0.577
Therefore, KCl crystal has a simple cubic lattice.
Potassium Chloride is isomorphous with sodium chloride. The explanation for this
apparent anomaly is very simple and can be explained on the basis that the x-rays
scattering power for an atom or ion is governed by the number of extra-planetary
electrons. viz. atomic number.
The atomic numbers of potassium (K=19) and chlorine (Cl=17) are not very
different and the x-rays are unable to detect any difference between the two kinds of
atoms. If we imagine all the atoms to be identical, it is evident that face-centred
arrangement has become a simple cubic arrangement. This is the reason for the KCl
spectrum corresponding apparently to the simple cubic lattice. With KCl, the structure
is face-centred, but the face-centred characteristics are marked by the fact that the two
types of atoms composing the substance have nearly the same atomic numbers and
atomic weights (K=39, Cl=35.5). But in the case of sodium chloride the atomic
numbers differ considerably (Na=11, Cl=17), and so their scattering powers are
different and hence the true structure as two interpenetrating face-centred lattices
become apparent. It is only the (111) face spectra which allows us to distinguish
between the simple cubic lattice and the face-centred cubic lattice.
Structure of CsCl crystal
Cesium chloride, CsCl, has a body centred cubic structure. In its crystal lattice, each
Fig 5.13 Cesium chloride crystal lattice

Cs+ ion is surrounded by 8 Cl- ions and its coordination number is 8. The value of
distance between Cs+ ion and Cl- ion as determined by Bragg’s spectrometer is 3.5100A
Fig 5.11.
The diamond lattice consists of a series of atoms, each of which is placed between four
neighbours. The latter occupies the angular points of a regular tetrahedral, while atom
under consideration lies in the centre. The type of structure runs throughout the crystal.
The C-C bond distance is 0.154 nm. The whole lattice is continuous Fig 5.14. The
diamond crystal is regarded as giant molecule. The crystal is very hard because the
covalent links runs without a break throughout the whole crystal. The crystal can be cut
only by breaking the covalent links. High melting point can also be explained by stating
that the atoms are very firmly attached within the crystal.
Fig 5.15 crystal structure of diamond

Though diamond and graphite are both covalent crystals. The great difference between
graphite and diamond can be understood in terms of the crystal lattice. Graphite has
hexagonal networks in sheets like benzene rings. The distance between atoms in the
plain is 142 pm but the distance between these atomic layer planes is 335 pm. In two
directions the carbon atoms are tightly held as in diamond, but in the third direction, the
force of attractions appreciably less. As a result one layer can slip over the other. The
crystal are flatty.
Examples:
Q.1 At what angle (θ will x-rays of wavelength 1.542x10-10m, be reflected by plains
separated by 3.5x10-10m.
Solution:
From Bragg’s equation 2dsinθ=nλ
sinθ=nλ/2d
θ=sin-1nλ/2d
θ= sin-1 1x1.542x10-10/2x3.5x10-10
=12.730 ans
Q.2 Metallic gold Au=197 is face centred cubic lattice. Calculate (a) how many
atoms occupy the gold unit cell and (b) what is the mass number of a gold unit
cells.
Solution:

Corner atom is shared by 8 unit cells, hence share of one unit cell is 1/8, for 8 corners
1/8x8=1 atom
There are six faces, each contain 1 atom and share of one unit cell is ½ and for six faces
x 6=3 atoms
So 1+3=4 atoms occupy the gold unit cells.
Mass of gold atom =
= 197g/mole/6.022x1023 Au atoms/mole x1/4
= 8.178x10-23g ans
Q.3 Diffraction angle 2θ=16.80. for a crystal having interplaner distance in the crystal
is 0.400mm when second order reflaction was observed. Calculate the wavelength
of the x-rays used.
Solution:
Given that n=2, d=0.400nm = 0.4x10-9m, 2θ=16.80 , so θ=8.40
Now 2dsinθ=nλ
λ=2/2x0.4x10-9xsin8.40m
= 0.4x10-9x0.146m
=0.584x10-10m
=0.584A0 ans
5.10 BORN HABER CYCLE
(determination of lattice energy of an ionic crystal)

5.10.1 Lattice energy
The positive and negative ions in an ionic crystal are held together by
electrostatic forces. The bond energy is expressed in terms of the lattice energy.
5.10.2 Definition
The change in enthalpy (heat change) that occurs when
1 mole of a solid crystalline substance is formed from its gaseous ions is known as
lattice energy.
Born-Haber cycle is used to determine the lattice energy of a ionic solid. The
lattice energy of sodium chloride, for example is the change in enthalpy, ∆H0, when
Na+ and Cl- ions in the gas phase come together to form 1 mole of NaCl crystal.
Process of obtaining sodium chloride can be obtained in the following steps:
(a) Conversion of sodium metal to gaseous atoms (sublimation), energy required for
this sublimation process is ∆H=S
Na(s) Na(g), ∆H=S
(b) Conversion of gaseous sodium to sodium ions by loosing electron. Energy required
for ionisation is I.
Na(g) Na+(g) + e-, ∆H=I
(c) Dissociation of chlorine molecule to chlorine atoms. Energy required for this
process is D as half molecule is dissociated

Cl2(g) Cl(g) , ∆H= D

(d) Chlorine atoms gain electron to form chloride ions. Energy released is the electron
affinity E.
Cl(g) + e- Cl-(g), ∆H=-E
(e) Sodium and chloride ions get together and form the crystal lattice. Energy released
in this process is known as lattice energy and is equal to U.
Na+(g) + Cl-(g) NaCl (s). ∆H=-U

The enthalpy change for the direct formation of sodium chloride for sodium
metal and chlorine is heat of formation ∆H0. This amount of heat is released in this
process.
Na(s) + Cl2(g) NaCl(s), ∆H=- ∆H0
Equating these two we get,
- ∆H0 = S+I+ D-E-U
Fig 5.16 Born-Haber cycle

The cycle of changes shown in Fig 5.16 is called Born-Haber Cycle named after Max
Born and Fritz Haber, who used this method for calculating lattice energies of crystals.
Thus lattice energy U can be calculated from the above equation.
5.11 SUMMARY
In this unit you have studied details of solid state in general and crystalline state
in particular. You have studied difference between crystalline state and amorphous
state, the various law of crystallography. The importance of Bragg’s Equation which
can be used for calculating Avogadro’s number. In molecular crystals the forces which
hold the constituents of von der Waals type. These are weaker because of which

molecular crystals are soft and having law melting points example are CO2, CCl4, Ar
and most of the organic compounds.
In ionic crystals forces involved are electrostatic and these are stronger.
Therefore, the ionic crystals are strong and likely to be brittle. The melting points are
high, which decreases with increasing size of ions. In covalent crystals, the forces
involved are of chemical nature (covalent bonds). They are strong, and consequently
the crystals are strong and hard,
with high melting points examples are diamond, silicon, etc. In metallic crystals,
electrons are held loosely and hence they are good conduction of electricity. Metallic
crystals can be bond and are also strong.
(A) Multiple choice questions:
Q.1 Tetragonal crystal system has the following unit of dimensions
(a) a ≠ b≠c and α=β=γ=900 (b) a=b≠c and α=β=γ=900
(c) a=b≠c and α=β=900, γ=1200 (d) a=b=c and α=β=γ=900
ans (b)
+
Q.2 In the crystal of CSCl, the nearest neighbours of each CS ion are :
(a) six Cl- ions (b) six CS+ ions
(c) eight Cl- ions (d) six Cl- ions ans (c)
Q.3 The Bragg’s equation for diffraction of x-rays is:
(a) nλ=d sinθ (b) n=
(c) nλ=2d2 sin θ (d) nλ2 = 2d sin θ ans (b)
Q.4 Which is incorrect for hexagonal crystal system
(a) a=b=c (b) a=b≠c
0 0
(c) α=β=90 , γ=120 (d) none of these ans (a)
Q.5 The total number of atoms in a body-centred cubic unit cell each:
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4 ans (b)
(B) Short Answer questions
Q.1 Explain the terms anisotropy and isotropy
Q.2 Account for the following:
“Graphite and Diamond are both allotropic forms of carbon yet graphite is soft
while diamond is hard.”
Q.3 Why is rotation of crystal is not necessary in power method for the
determination of crystal structure?
Q.4 Write a short note on rational intercepts.
Q.5 Define the terms:
(i) unit cells (ii) plane of symmetry (iii) law of constancy of interfacial angle.
(C) Essay type questions
Q.1 Derive Bragg’s equation for diffraction of x-rays by a crystal lattice. How is this
equation used in elucidating the crystal structure?
Q.2 (i) Derive the equation 2d sin θ= nλ
(ii) Draw structure of NaCl crystal.
Q.3 Write notes of the following:

(a) Laws of crystallography

(b) Anisotropy and isotropy
(c) Power method for the determination of crystal structure.
Q.4 (a) Differentiate between crystalline and amorphous solids.
(b) What is lattice energy? How lattice energy can be determined by Born-
Haber cycle?
Q.5 (a) Enumerate various elements of symmetry of a cubic type unit cell.
(b) Draw diagrams to represent:
(i) Face centred cubic lattice.
(ii) Body centred cubic lattice.
Source of Study Material
1. Essentials of Physical Chemistry By B.S. Bahl, Arun Bahl, G.D. Tuli
2. Principles of Physical Chemistry by Puri and Sharma
3. Under graduate Physical Chemistry by J.N. Gurtu
Books recommended for further study-
1. Physical Chemisty By Walter J. Moore
2. Elements of Physical Chemistry By B.R. Puri, L.R. Sharma & M.S.
Pathania
3. A textbook of physical chemistry By K.L. Kapoor.
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UNIT 6: CHEMICAL KINETICS-I

CONTENTS:
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Introduction
6.3 Chemical kinetics and its scope
6.3.1 Scope of chemical kinetics
6.3.2 Rate of a reaction
6.3.3Units of rate
6.3.4 Factors affecting reaction velocity
6.3.5Order of reaction and molecularity
6.4. Zero, First, Second and third order reactions
6.5 Integrated law for zero and first order reaction
6.6 Rate expression for First order reaction
6.7 Summary
6.1 OBJECTIVES
The chemical reactions can be classified into following categories on the basis
of their speed:
(a) Fast reactions which proceed at very fast speed and it is practically very difficult
to measure the speed of such reactions. Examples of fast reactions include
(i) Neutralisation of acids and bases
(ii) Organic substitution reactions
(iii) Explosive reactions of oxygen with hydrogen and hydrocarbons. The rates of such
reactions can be measured by using special methods.
(b) Extremely slow reactions which proceed at a very slow speed and the speed is so
slow that it not possible to measure the speed of such reactions. Rusting of iron is very
slow reaction.
(c) Reaction which precede a measurable speed. These reactions are utilized in the
study of chemical kinetics.
Examples are Inversion of cane sugar, saponification of ethyle acetate etc. The
significance of study of kinetics of reactions is many fold. It provides very important
information on how chemical reactions occur and what is their mechanism. The
knowledge of rate of reaction is very valuable for the success of an industrial process
where it is imperative to second optimum conditions of the reactions involved when
these reactions proceed at a rate so as to give maximum yield.
6.2 INTRODUCTION
The branch of physical chemistry which deals with the speed or rate at which a
reaction occurs is called chemical kinetics. Chemical Kinetics is the study of rate of a
reaction under different conditions like different concentrations, pressures,

temperatures, catalyst, pH, dielectric constant of the medium, free radical

scavengers, neutral salts etc and suggesting a suitable mechanism for the reaction.
Chemical kinetics constitutes an important topic in physical chemistry. It
concerns itself with measurement of rates of reactions proceding under given condition
of temperature, pressure and concentration.
The study of chemical kinetics has been highly useful in determining the factors
which influence rate of reaction as well as in understanding mechanism of a number of
chemical reactions. The experimental data have led to the development of the modern
theories of chemical reactivity of molecules.
6.3 CHEMICAL KINETICS AND ITS SCOPE

6.3.1 Scope of chemical kinetics
Thermodynamics predicts that at room temperature hydrogen and oxygen react
to form water, all the reactants being essentially converted into products. When we
carry out the experiment we find that the reaction proceeds so slowly that unless we are
willing to wait indefinitely, practically no water results. On the other hand, experiment
shows that N2O4 decomposes into NO2 under atmospheric conditions almost
instantaneously even though –△G0, which is a measure of spontaneity of a reaction, is
far less for the decomposition of N2O4 than that for the reaction between hydrogen and
oxygen to form water.
Above two examples suggest that there is essentially no correlation between

thermodynamic instability and the rate of the chemical reaction. In fact, the rate of a
reaction depends upon structural and energetic factors which are not uniquely specified
by thermodynamic quantities such as the free energy change. Hence, chemical kinetics
is a technique complementary to thermodynamics for studying a given reaction.
The first stage in studying the rate and the mechanism of a chemical reaction is the
determination of overall stoichiometry of the reaction and to identify any side-reaction.
The next step involves the determination of the change of the concentration of the
reactant and product species with time. Since the reaction rate depends sharply on
temperature, the temperature of the reacting mixture must be kept constant.
Several experimental techniques have been developed to monitor the concentration of

the reactants and products and their variation with time. The selection of a typical
method depends on the nature of the species involved and how rapidly their
concentration change. For reactions that are relatively slow, conductometric,
poteniometric, optical methods, polarimetry and spectrophotometry are used. The time
taken for reactions to reach completion varies widely, from femtoseconds (1fs = 10-15 s)
to days.
For reactions in which one or more products are gases, the reaction rate involves
monitoring pressure as in the reaction :
N2O5 (g) 2NO2 (g) + O2(g).

For optical method involves monitoring optical activitiy.

Reactions in solution involving ionic species may be studied by monitoring their
conductivity. The change in EMF of an electrochemical reaction can be followed
potentiometrically. Spectrophotometry, the measurement of intensity of absorbtion in a
particular spectral region is widely used to monitor concentration. Reactions that
involve a change in concentration of H+ ions may be studied by monitoring pH of the
solution with a glass electrode. Other methods of monitoring the composition include
the detection of fluorescence and phosphorescence, mass spectrometry, gas
chromatography and magnetic resonance.
In a real time analysis the composition of reaction mixture is analysed while the
reaction is in progress by direct spectroscopic observation. In the quenching method,
the reaction is stopped after being allowed to proceed for a certain time and the
composition is analysed. The entire reaction mixture may be quenched either by sudden
cooling or by adding to it a large volume of solvent. This method is applicable for
reactions that are slow enough for there to be little reaction during the time it takes to
quench the reaction mixture.
Femtochemistry has emersed as the most exciting field for investigating

extremely fast reactions whose time-scale is of the order of femtoseconds. This method
is due to A.H. Zewail, who was awarded Nobel Prize of chemistry in 1999.
Femtochemistry is extremely useful for studying biological processes such as

the energy converting processes of photosynthesis and photostimulated processes of
vision in which the primary energy and electron-transfer reactions occur on the
femtosecond or picosecond time-scale.
6.3.2 Rate of a reaction

The rate of a reaction tells us to what speed the reaction occurs. Let us consider
a simple reaction-
A B
The concentration of A decreases and that that of B increases with time. The
rate of a reaction is defined as the change in concentration of any
of reactant or product with time. As you know during the progress of a reaction
the concentration of A keeps on falling with time. The rate of reaction at any given
instant is given by the expression-
r= –dCA/dt = kCA ……………………….(1)
where –dCA is very small decrease in concentration of A in a very small time interval
dt, CA gives the concentration of the reactant A at a given instant and k is constant
called the rate constant or velocity of the reaction.
Now the concentration of product B increases with time. Hence rate of reaction
can also be expressed in terms of increase in concentration of the product B as well.
Thus
r= dCB/dt = kCA ………………………….(2)

where dCB is very small increase in the concentration of product B in a very small time
interval of time dt.
Now it should be clear to you from (1) and (2)
r= - dCA/dt =dCB/dt= kCA
and for a reaction A+B M+N
the rate can be expressed
r= -dCA/dt = -dCB/dt = dCM/dt=dCN/dt=kCACB ………………(3)
Fig-6.1
As the reaction proceeds the reactants are consumed where by their molecular
concentration decreases. Hence the rate of a chemical reaction will also decrease with
time. The graph between reaction velocity and time will be as shown in the fig. (6.1).
Now it should be clear to you that reaction velocity is maximum to start with and then
falls gradually with time. The reaction velocity become so slow in the latter states that it
takes a
very long time for the reaction to be completed. It can be safely assumed that in the
latter stages the reaction is nearly complete.
Now let us consider a reaction-
aA+bB cC+dD
In this reaction a moles of A reacts with b moles of B to form c moles of C and

d moles of D. the rates of such a reaction can be expressed either in terms of decrease in
concentration of a reactant per mole or increase in concentration of a product per mole.
Thus we can write as follows:

r= -1/a dCA/dt = -1/b dCB/dt =1/c dCC/dt = 1/dCD/dt = k CaACbB
6.3.3 Units of rate

Reaction rate has the units of concentration divided by time. We express
concentration in moles per litre (mole/litre) but time may be given in any convenient
unit second(s), minutes (min), hours (h) days (d) or possibly years. Therefore, the units
of reaction rates may be
mole/litre/sec or mole l-1s-1
mole/litre/ minute mol l-1m-1 and so on
6.3.4 Factors affecting reaction velocity

There are a number of factors which affect the rate of a reaction, the most
important of them are:
(a) Effect of concentration: The rate of a chemical reaction is influenced by the

no. of collisions per second between the reacting molecules. On increasing the
concentration of the reactant, the number of collisions will increase and the rate of
reaction will increase and on decreasing the concentration the rate will decrease.
(b) Effect of nature of reactants: Reactions between polar or ionic molecules occur
almost instantaneously. Those reactions in which the bonds are arranged or electrons
are transferred takes a comparatively longer time than the reaction between ionic
molecules.
You can cite the examples of neutralisation reactions or double displacement

reactions which are very fast while the oxidation reduction reactions are slower.
(c) Effect of catalyst: A catalyst can increase or decrease the rate of a chemical
reaction. For example the combination of hydrogen and oxygen to form water is
slow at ordinary temperature, while it proceeds rapidly in presence of platinum.
(d) Effect of surface area of reactant: Surface area of reactants is of importance

only for heterogeneous reactions. As particle size decreases, surface area for the same
mass increases. The smaller particle thus reacts more rapidly than the larger particles.
For example, burning of coal dust in air takes place more rapidly than large lump of
coal.
(e) Effect of temperature: With the exception of few reactions, the rate of reaction is
increased considerably with an increase of temperature. Generally the rate of a
0
reaction is almost doubled or tribled by an increase of 10 C in temperature.
Rate of reaction at 350C K35 = 2 to 3

=
0
Rate of reaction at 25 C K25

6.3.5 Order of reaction and molecularity

The total number of reactant particles involved in the overall reaction, is called as
molecularity of a reaction
Thus in the reaction -
N2O5 (g) 2NO2 (g)+1/2O2(g) it is unimolecular
2HI (g) H2(g) + I2(g) it is bimolecular
and 2NO (g) + O2(g) 2NO2 it is trimolecular
Order of reaction depends only on the reactants upon which the rate of reaction
depends. It means that order is in those reactants only, by changing whose
concentration, the rate of reaction changes.
If reaction rate is independent of reactant concentration, the order is zero in that

reactant.
We can say that “Order is the sum of powers of concentration of reactants as given in a
rate law or rate equation or rate expression for the reaction under consideration”.
A reaction is said to be first order if its rate r (or dx/dt) is given by the following rate
expression -
R = dx/dt = kCa
The reaction is of second order and third order if its rate expressions are given by Eqn.
(i) and (ii) respectively
dx/dt = kCa2 or kCaCb ………………(i)
dx/dt = kCa3 or kCa2Cb or kCaCb2 ……………….(ii)
The subscripts a, b and c stand for various reactants A, B and C respectively. When the
rate expression is given by
dx/dt = kCan1 Cbn2Ccn3
The order of reaction as a whole n is given by n= n1+n2+n3………….
The molecularity of any process can only be small position integers, while order of
reaction can have zero as well as fractional values.
Difference between order of reaction and molecularity:
Molecularity Order of reaction

1 It is equal to the number of 1. It is equal to some of the power of the
molecules of reactants which take molar concentration of the reactants in the
part in a chemical reaction. rate expression.

2 It is theoretical concept. 2. It is an experimentally determined

quantity, which is obtained from the rate for
the overall reaction. It depends on rate
determining step in the reaction mechanism.
3 It is always a whole number. 3. It may be negative, zero or fractional
value generally not more than 3.
4 It is obtained from a single balanced 4. It cannot be obtained from a balanced
chemical equation. chemical equation
5 It does not reveal anything about 5. It reveals some basic facts about a
reaction mechanism. reaction mechanism.
Table 6.1
6.4. ZERO, FIRST, SECOND AND THIRD ORDER

REACTIONS
(1) Zero order reaction
Reactions, in which the reaction rate does not depend upon the initial
concentration of the reactant, are said to be zero order reactions. The Law of mass
action fails in these reactions
A B
d [A] = kA0= k
dt
Examples of zero order reactions:
1. Thermal decomposition of hydrogen iodide at gold surface is found to
be of zero order
2HI H2 + I2
2. The decomposition of ammonia on platinum surface at 8000C in kinetically
of zero order.
NH3 N2+3H2
3. The phosphine decomposition on the surface of molybdenum or tungsten at
high pressure is of zero order.
2PH3 2 P + 3H2
(2) First order reaction

A first order reaction is that in which the sum of powers to which the
concentrations of reactants must be raised while expressing the reaction rate, is one.
Expression for first order reaction is given by
A products
A P
a 0 initially
a-x x after time t

rate expression is given as

r = -d[A]/dt
= d[P]/dt
= dx/dt
=k[A]
= kCA
= k. A (at zero time)
=k (a-x) (at t time)
Example is conversion of N-chloroacetamide into parachloroacctanicide
(3) Second order reaction

A second order reaction is that in which the sum of powers to which the concentrations
of reactants must be raised while expressing the reaction rate, is two.
dx/dt = kC2A for reaction 2A products
and dx/dt = kCACB for reaction A+B products
Example of second order reactions are :
Hydrolysis of an ester by an alkali (Saponification of ester)
CH3COOC2H5+NaOH CH3COONa+C2H5OH
(4) Third order reaction

Definition of third order reaction:
A third order reaction is that in which the sum of powers to which the concentrations of
reactants must be raised while expressing the reaction rate, is three.
Reactions of third and higher order are rare, but there are infact reactions which
are definitely of third or sometimes higher order. This is due to the effect that the
probability of three molecules coming to a single point simultaneously is must less as
compared to unimolecular and bimolecular reactions.

In a reaction of the third order the number of molecules where concentration alters as a
result of chemical change is three, and the change may belong to any of the following
types
A+A+A products
A+A+B products
A+B+C products
Note: Above given examples are of elementary reactions i.e. reactions in which order
and molecularity are same and there is a single step mechanism. For complex reactions
(involving more than one step in mechanism and difference in molecularity and order),
order may be 3 even if the number of reactants is more than 3.
Examples of third order reaction is
(i) 2 FeCl3+SnCl2 2 FeCl2+SnCl4

(ii) O2+2NO 2NO2
(iii) 2NO + Cl2 2NOCl
(5) Pseudo molecular reactions [pseudo means false]
These are the reactions in which order and molecularity are different. These
reactions are named after the order and not after the molecularity. Eg. if molecularity is
2 and order is 1 than the reaction is called as pseudo first order reaction.
There are several reactions which obey first order rate equation although in reality they
are bi-or tri-molecular.
For example, consider the hydrolysis of methyl acetate in presence of an acid
CH3COOCH3+H2O(Excess) CH3COOH+CH3OH
Here molecularity is 2, while order is one in ester and zero in water i.e. overall
order is 1 + 0 = 1. The order becomes zero in the reactant which is taken in excess,
because the overall rate of reaction does not depend upon the reactant taken in excess.
If we will change the concentration of reactant taken in excess, there will not be any
change in its being in excess.
Why high molecularity reaction are rare
Most of the reactions involve one, two or at the most three molecules. The
reactions involving four or more molecules are rare. This can be explained on kinetic
molecular theory. According to this theory, the rate of a chemical reaction is
proportional to the number of collisions taking place between the reacting molecules.
The chances of simultaneous collision of reacting molecules will go on decreasing will
increase in number of molecules. Thus the possibility of three molecules colliding is
much less than in case of bimolecular collision. For a reaction of molecularity 4, the
four molecules must come closer and collide will one another at the same time.
The possibility of their doing so is much less than even in the case of termolecular
reactions. Hence the reactions involving many molecules proceed through a series of
steps, each involving two, three or less number
of molecules. Such a reaction is called complex reaction and the slowest step
determines the overall rate of reaction.
less common rare Common
Molecularity of a complex reaction:
Most chemical reactions are complex reactions. These occur in a series of steps.
Each step is an elementary reaction. The stepwise sequence of elementary reactions that
convert-reactants to products is called the mechanism of the reaction. In any
mechanism, some of the steps will be fast other will be slow. A reaction can proceed no
faster than its slowest step. Thus the slowest step is rate determining step of the
reaction.
The decomposition of N2O5
2N2O5 4 NO2+O2 is an example of complex reaction.
It occurs by the following steps
Step I : 2N2O5 2NO2+2NO3 (slow)
StepII : NO2+NO3 NO+NO2+O2 (slow)
Step III : NO+NO3 2NO2 (fast)
Adding all the three steps
2N2O5 4NO2+O2
Each elementary reaction has its own molecularity, equal to number of molecules or
atoms participating in it. It is meaningless to give the molecularity of the overall
reaction because it is made of several elementary reactions, each perhaps with different
moelcularity. At best it could be thought of as:
“The number of molecules or atoms taking part in the rate determining step.”
Thus step 2 in the above mechanism is rate determining step and has
molecularity, ‘2’ which could be considered as the molecularity of the decomposition
reaction of N2O5. As slowest step is the rate determining step. In such complex
reactions the molecularity of slowest i.e. the rate determining step, is called as order of
reaction. e.g. for decomposition of n2o5, the molecularity is 2 but order is one.
And thermal decomposition of acetaldehyde:

2CH3CHO 2CH4+2CO
6.5 INTEGRATED LAW FOR ZERO AND FIRST ORDER

REACTION
(1) Integrated law for zero order reaction

Let us consider a reaction
A B
a 0 initially
a-x x after time t
For a zero order reaction the reaction velocity at any time t is given by -
dx/dt = k (constant)
dx = kdt
ʃ dx = ʃ kdt
x = kt + I (I is integration constant)
when t=0 x=0 hence I=0
so we have x=kt
this is general rate expression for zero order reaction.
Unit of zero order reaction:
The unit of zero order rate constant is that of concentration x time-1 (as k=x/t).
Hence unit of k will be mole/litre time -1 or mole lit-1 time-1. Examples are given earlier.
6.6 RATE EXPRESSION FOR FIRST ORDER REACTION
As we know that a first order reaction is that in which the reaction rate is determined by
the change of the one concentration term of reactant only.
Let us consider a first order reaction
A B
A 0 (initially)
a-x x (after time t)
Suppose the initial concentration of the reaction A be a mole/litre.
Let x mole/litre of A decompose after time t leaving behind (a-x) mole/litre of A, the
amout of B formed will be x mole/litre.
The rate of first order reaction is proportional to the concentration of A at any particular
time. Therefore
dx/dt =kCA ………………....(1)

where k is rate constant or velocity constant.
dx/dt =k (a-x) …………..(2)
dx/a-x = kdt ……………..…..(3)
ʃ dx/a-x = ʃ kdt …………..(4)
integrating equation (4) we get
-loge(a-x) = kt+I (I= constant of integration) …….…(5)

When t=0 x=0 then

-logea =I
Then equation (5) becomes
logea-loge(a-x) = kt
or kt= loge a/a-x
k= 2.303/t log10 a/(a-x) …………………….….…(6)
It is clear from equation (6) that if we plot log10 a/a-x against time t a straight
line passing through the origin is obtained with a slope of 2.303/k.
Fig 6.3
Unit of velocity constant of first order reaction:
As the rate constant for first order reaction is k=1/t ln (a/a-x), hence unit will be
1 concentration
time concentration
i.e. 1/time
or time-1
6.7 SUMMARY
In this chapter you have studied different definitions associated with chemical kinetics,
rate laws for zero, first, second and third order reaction and will examples also rate laws
for zero order and first order reaction. The difference between order of reaction and
molecularity has been discussed. The factors affecting rate of a reaction have also been
studied namely the factors are temperature, pressure, concentration, catalyst and surface
area.
The first stage in studying the rate and mechanism of a chemical reaction is the
determination of the overall stoichiometry of the reaction and to identify any side
reaction. The next step involves the determination of the change of the concentration of
the reactant and product species with time. The reaction rate depends sharply on
temperature; the temperature of the reaction mixture must be kept constant.


Q.1 The reaction A+B+C Products is found to obey the rate
law.
r = d [A]/dt = k[A]2 [B]3/2 [C]-1/2 the overall order of reaction is
(a) 7/2 (b) 5/2 (c) 3 (d) 1 ans (c)
2 1/2
Q.2 If the rate of reaction is given by r= k[A] [B]
The overall order of reaction is
(a) 5/2 (b) ½ (c) 2 (d) 1 ans (a)
Q.3 Which reaction is pseudo-unimolecular reaction?
(a) H2+Cl2 2HCl (b) Acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of an
ester.
(c) Base-catalyzed hydrolysis of an ester.
(d) N2O5 N2O4 +1/2O2 ans (b)
Q.4 Choose the correct statement:
(a) The rate of a reaction decreases with T
(b) Order is always equal to molecularity
(c) Catalyst is always essential for a reaction
(d) For a zero order reaction the concentration of product increase linearly will
time. ans(d)
Q.5 Choose the correct statement:
(a) The rate of reaction decreases with T
(b) Order of reaction is equal to molecularity of a reaction.
(c) The units of first order rate consistent are mole lit S-2
(d) t1/2 of the first order reaction is independent of initial concentration.
ans (d)
Q.6 Reaction rates can change with
(a) Temperature
(b) The addition of a catalyst
(c) Reactant concentration
(d) all of these
ans (d)
(B) Short Answer Questions:
Q.1 Derive mathematical expression for the rate constant of a reaction

A products of the first order.
Q.2 Distinguish between reaction rate and rate constant.
Q.3 Explain why the rate of reaction cannot be measured by dividing the
total amount of a substance reacted by the total time taken.
(C) Long answer/essay type questions questions:

Q.1. Explain the following terms.
(a) Rate of reaction (b) Molecularity of a reaction

(c) Order of reaction (d) Rate constant.
Q.2 What are different factors which affect the rate of a reaction, explain.
Q.3 What is meant by the terms rate constant and order of reaction?
Starting from the rate equations derive the units of the rate constant (k)
for a zero order and first order reaction.
Q.4 Distinguish between molecularity and order of reaction. Why high
molecularity reactions are rare explain?

UNIT 7: CHEMICAL KINETICS-II

CONTENTS:
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Introduction
7.3 Rate expression for zero order reaction
7.3.1 Characteristic of zero order reactions
7.3.2 Example of zero order reaction
7.4 Rate law for First order reaction
7.4.1 First order reaction
7.4.2 Unit of first order rate constant
7.4.3 Half life time of a reaction
7.4.4 Determination of order of reaction
7.4.5 Hydrolysis of ester catalysed by hydrogen ion
7.5 Rate of radioactive disintegration
7.5.1 Average life
7.6 Concept of activation energy
7.6.1 Effect of temperature on reaction rate
7.7 Collision theory of reaction rate
7.8 Effect of catalyst
7.9 Arrhenius equation
7.10 Summary
7.1 OBJECTIVES
In the previous chapter you have studied that kinetics is important topic of
physical chemistry. It concerns will measurement of rates of reactions proceeding under
given condition of temperature, pressure and concentration. The study of this subject
has been highly useful in determining the factor which influence rates of reactions as
well as in understanding mechanism of a number of chemical reactions.
In this chapter we will study rate law for zero and first order reaction, half life period of
a reaction mean life, radioactive decay as a first order reaction, concept of energy of
activation and its importance some method of determining rate of a reaction.
7.2 INTRODUCTION
Not all chemical reaction proceeds to completion. In most reactions two or more
substances react to form products which themselves react to give back the original
substances. Thus A and B may react to form C and D which react together to form A
and B.
A+B C+D (forward reaction)
C+D A+B (backward reaction)

A reaction which can go in the forward and backward direction simultaneously

is called reversible reaction.
A+B C+D
If you start with A and B in a closed vessel, the forward reaction proceed to
form C and D. the concentration of A and B decreases and those of C and D increases
continuously. As a result the rate of forward reaction decreases and rate of backward
reaction increases. Eventually, the rate of two opposing reactions equals and the system
attains equilibrium.
We assume that a chemical reaction occurs as a result of collision between the

reacting molecules. Although some of these collision are ineffective, the chemical
change produced is proportional to number of collision actually taking
place. Thus at a fixed temperature the rate of a reaction is determined by number of

collision between the reactant molecules present in unit volume.
Now let us consider four boxes of one cubic centimeter volume; containing
different number of reacting molecules A and B (figure 7.1). they undergo collisions to
form products C and D, the rate of reaction being governed by the number of possible
collisions between them.
Fig-7.1
In the first box there is one molecule of A and one molecule of B and the
possibilities of collision at any extent is 1x1=1. In the second box the number of
molecules of A and B are two each and the possibilities of collision are 2x2=4. In the
third box there are two molecules of A and three molecules of B, the number of
possibilities of collisions between A and B are increased to 3x2=6. In the fourth box the
possibilities of number of collision between A and B are 3x3=9.
Since the rate of reaction is determined by molecular impacts, it is proportional
to moles per unit volume i.e. , molar concentration. Thus we can write
Rate of reaction ά [A][B]
= k[A][B]
The above concept is for equilibrium reactions. But most chemical reactions are
spontaneous reactions. These reactions occur from left to right till all the reactants are
converted to products. A spontaneous reaction may be slow or it may be fast.

Rate law of zero order reaction

Order of reaction:In the study of chemical kinetics, reactions are generally
classified in terms of their order. The order of reaction is defined
as the number of molecules whose concentration determine the rate of chemical
reaction at a given temperature. We may define order of reaction as sum of powers to
which the concentration ( or pressure in case of gases) terms are raised in order to
determine the rate of the reaction.
Thus a reaction is said to be zero order if the rate reaction is written as r= k0. If
the rate expression is expressed of the type r=k1CA. if the rate is given by the expression
of the type r=k2 CACB and for third order rate expression is given by the expression of
the type r= k3CACBCC or r=k3CA2CB and so on.
7.3 RATE EXPRESSION FOR ZERO ORDER REACTION

As you have studied that rate expression:
A products is given by –dCA/dt = r = kCA = dPA/dt
As the reaction progresses the concentration of reactant keeps on falling will time hence
there is negative sign. Where - dCA is very small decrease in concentration of A in an
infinitesimally small time interest dt, CA gives the concentration of the reactant A at the
given instant and k is constant called rate constant or velocity of the reaction.
For a reaction
A+B L+M
r= -dCA/dt = -dCB/dt = dCl /dt = dCM/dt = kCACB
Now consider a reaction aA+bB lL + mM
a b
The rate of this can be written as r= kCA CB
The rate of such as reaction is to be expressed in terms of fall of concentration of a
reactant per mole or increase in concentration of product per mole. According you can
express
r= -1/a dCA/dt = -1/b dCB/dt = 1/l dCL/dt =1/m dCM/dt.
There are reactions in which reaction rate is not affected by charges in
concentration of one or more reactant. These are called zero order reactions. In these
reactions, the rate may be determined by some other limiting factor such as the amount
of catalyst used in a catalytic reaction or the intensity of light absorbed in a
photochemical reaction. Mathematically for a zero order reaction.
A P
A 0 initially
The reaction velocity at any time t is given by
dx/dt = k0 (constant)
dx= k0/dt
ʃ dx =ʃ k0dt
x= k0t + I (I= constant of integration)
when t=0; x=0
then I=0.
Hence we get x=k0t

7.3.1 Characteristic of zero order reactions

(i) As k0 = x/t ; hence unit of zero order rate constant is that of concentration x
-1
time . As concentration is generally expressed as mole per litre then unit of k0 will
be mole lit-1 time-1.
(ii) Concentration of the product increases linearly with time so as plot of x
against time t will be straight line passing through the origin.
7.3.2 Example of zero order reaction

Photochemical reaction between H2 and Cl2 over water (saturated with HCl)
surface is of zero order.
Now let us consider a reaction NO2 + CO NO+CO2 at 2000C
Its rate = k[NO2]2
Here the rate does not depend on [CO] so this is not included in the rate
law and the power of [CO] is understood to be zero. The reaction is zeroth order with
respect to CO. The reaction is second order with respect to [NO2].
7.4 RATE LAW FOR FIRST ORDER REACTION

7.4.1 First order reaction
In a reaction of first order only one molecule is necessary for the
reaction to proceed.
The change may be represented in the general form
A Products
Let a be the concentration of A in gm mole per litre initially. After time t suppose the
concentration is (a-x) gm moles per litre. According to the law of mass action the
reaction velocity at any time t is given by the expression.
dx/dt = k (a-x).
To get the value of k the velocity coefficient we integrate the expression-
∫ dx/a-x = ∫ kdt
log (a-x) = kt+I (I= constant of integration)
when t=0; x=0
Hence - loga = I
-log (a-x) = kt - log a
log a – log (a-x) = kt
loge a/a-x = kt
k=1/t loge a/a-x
= 2.303/t log10 (a/a-x)
This is equation for a reaction of the first order.
When experimental values of a, x and t are inserted in the equation the value
of k always comes out to be constant, if the reaction under examination is first order.
Following important conclusions can be drawn out from the study of the
equation

(i) The time taken for the completion for the same fraction of change independent
of initial concentration.
At half change x=a/2
k=2.303/t log10 (a/a-a/2)
=2.303/t log10 a/(2a-a)/2
=2.303/t =log102a/a
=2.303/t log10 2 = 2.303/t X .3010
or t= 2.303Xlog102
So t is independent of a i.e initial concentration
(ii) A change in concentration unit will not alter the velocity coefficient
k= 1/t loge ma/m(a-x)
=1/t loge (a/a-x)
7.4.2 Unit of first order rate constant
r= -d[A]/dt =k1[A]
k1 = -1/[A] d[A]/dt
So units of k1 = _ 1_____x _mole per litre
mole per litre time
= time-1
So units of first order rate constant are time-1 ie per second, per minute, per
hour per day etc.
7.4.3 Half life time of a reaction
The time required for the half completion of a reaction is called half life time of
a reaction. Half life time of a reaction is represented by t1/2.
Half life time for a first order reaction is represented as-
k1 = 1/t1/2 logea/(a-a/2)
= 1/t1/2 loge2
= 1/t1/2 2.303log102
= 1/t1/2 2.303X.3010
= .693/t ½
or t1/2 = 0.693/ k
It is clear from the above discussion that
(i) Half life of a first order reaction is independent of the initial concentration.
(ii) Half life is inversely proportional to k.
Now you can calculate the time for completing any fraction of the reaction by
making use of first order reaction.
We know k= 2.303/t log a/a-x
Let us calculate the time in which one third of a reaction is completed.
k = 2.303/t log a/(a-a/3)
= 2.303/t log 3a/2a
= 2.303 log 3/2
= 2.303/t (log 3-log 2)

If we have to calculate the time in which two third of a reaction is completed we

proceed as under-
k = 2.303/t log a/(a-2/3a)
= 2.303/t log q/(3a-2a)/3a
= 2.303/t log 3
And half life period you can studied earlier.
7.4.4 Determination of order of reaction
(i) Integration method (Substitution in the equation)
This method consists in actually carrying out the change with known quantities of the
reactants and nothing the progress of the reaction by analyzing the reaction mixture
from time to time. These values are substituted in the velocity constant equation. When
the values are substituted in the expression for first order that is values of a, x and t are
substituted and value of k always remains constant the reaction is of first order.
Example: A solution of H2O2 when titrated against KMnO4 solution at different time
intervals gave the following results.
Time (minutes) 0 10 20
Volume of KMnO4 Used for 10 ml of H2SO4 23.8 me 14.7 me 9.1 ml
Show that the reaction if of first order
The integrated rate equation for first order reaction is
k= 2.303/t log a/a-x
Since volume of KMnO4 used in the titration is a measure of concentration of
H2O2 in solution.
a= 23.8
a-x = 14.7 in 10 minutes
a-x = 9.1 in 20 minutes
Substituting these values in the rate equation above we have
k = 2.303/10 log 23.8/14.7
= 0.2303 (log 23.8-log 14.7)
= 0.2303 (1.3766- 1.1673)
= 0.04794…………………………..……….(1)
k = 2.303/20 log 23.8/9.1
= 0.10165 (log 23.8 – log 9.1)
= 0.10165 (1.3766 – 0.9595)
= 0.04806 ……………………………………(2)
Since the value of k is almost constant hence reaction is of first order.
7.4.5 Hydrolysis of ester catalysed by hydrogen ion

The hydrolysis of ester like methyl acetate catalysed by hydrogen ion proceeds
according to the following equation. It is catalysed by mineral acids say HCl. The
hydrolysis of an ester by pure water is very slow; hence it is catalysed by an acid.
CH3COOCH3+H2O H+ CH3COO + CH3OH

This equation is pseudo-unimolecular. Since active mass of water being in large excess
remains constant and rate of reaction depends only on the concentration of ester. It’s
molecularity is two and the reaction is of first order.
To study this reaction freshly distilled methyl acetate and N/2 hydrochloric acid in
separate bottles were kept in a thermostat for half an hour. When they had acquired the
temperature of the bath, mix 5 ml of methyl acetate in 100 ml of N/2 HCl. Immediately
withdraw 5 ml of the reaction mixture with the help of the pipette and add a few pieces
of ice to freeze the equilibrium. Now titrate the solution by adding N/50 solution of
NaOH from the burette using phenolphthalein as an indicator. Similarly again pipette
out 5 ml of reaction mixture after five minutes and repeat the above procedure. Repeat
the process after 10, 20, 30, 40 minutes and finally at the end of 24 hours. As after 24
hours the reaction is almost completed.
The amount of NaOH used is equivalent to the amount of HCl present originally
and the amountof acetic acid produced in the reaction. The amount of HCl present
originally can be determined by titrating against the same alkali before the start of the
reaction. The amount of acetic acid produced after different intervals of time t can be
determined.
The amount of acetic acid formed at the end of the reaction is equivalent to the
initial amount (a) of methyl acetate. Suppose Vo, V1 and V∞ are the volume of N/50
NaOH solution used at zero, t and infinite time respectively.
The amount of acetic acid produced after time t i.e. value of x proportional to
(Vt -V0). The initial concentration of methyl acetate i.e. value of a is proportional to
(V∞ -V0).
Therefore, amount of ester present at time t i.e.
a-x ά (V∞ –V0) – (Vt -V0)
ά V∞ – Vt
Hence from first order rate expression
K= 2.303/t log (V∞ – V0/V∞ - Vt)
The value of k comes out to be constant, showing that the reaction is first order.
Inversion of cane sugar into glucose and fructose is also first order reaction, here again
water is in large excess and its active mass practically remain constant.
7.5 RATE OF RADIOACTIVE DISINTEGRATION
The rate of disintegration of a radioactive element is found to be independent of
the temperature, pressure or its state of chemical combination. Each element
disintegrates at a characteristic rate independent of all external factors. Nuclear
reactions are generally first order.
Since in a radioactive transformation an atom breaks down to give one or more
new atoms, it may be regarded as a chemical reaction in which one molecule changes to
yield one or more products (unimolecular reaction). Let us consider an atom A
changing into B.
A B
a 0 initially
a-x x after time t

if in a small time dt, dx is the number of atoms which change, the rate of
disintegration dx/dt can be expressed as:
dx/dt = k (a-x)………………….(1)
Where k is ordinarily called velocity constant and here it may well be named as
disintegration constant or transformation constant.
From equation (1) it follows
dx/a-x = kdt …………………..(2)
if dt =1 then dx/a-x = k ………(3)
Thus the disintegration constant k may be defined as the fraction of total number of
atoms dx/a-x present at any time (t) which disintegrate per second. This disintegration
constant k has a definite characteristic value for a particular radioactive element.
On integrating the equation (2) we have get

∫dx/a-x = k ∫ dt
-loge(a-x) = kt +I I= integration constant (5)
When t=0 x=0
-loge a = I (6)
Hence loge a- loge (a-x) = kt
k= 1/t loge (a/a-x)
= 2.303/t log10 a/(a-x) (7)
at half time i.e t1/2 = T x=a/2
T = 2.303/k log a/a-a/2
= 2.303/k log 2
= 0.693/k (8)
It is clear from the above that for a particular radioactive disintegration the value of t1/2
is independent of amount of the substance present and depends only on k. the time t 1/2
required for the disappearance of one half of the original amount of the radioactive
substance is called its half life period.
The statement that half life period of say radium is 1600 years means after 1600
years any given quantity of radium will disintegrate to half of it.
7.5.1 Average life

The reciprocal of the disintegration constant k gives the average life of the
disintegrating atom.
Hence λ = 1/k = T/0.693
= 1.44T

Fig-7.2
7.6 CONCEPT OF ACTIVATION ENERGY
7.6.1 Effect of temperature on reaction rate

Temperature coefficient of a reaction:
Now let us consider effect of temperature on reaction rates
It has been found that generally an increase of temperature increases the rate of
reaction. The ratio of rate constants of a reaction at two temperatures differing by 100C
is known as temperature coefficient of the reaction. The temperatures usually selected
for this purpose are 250C and 350C. Thus
Rate at 350C k35

Temperature coefficient = =
Rate at 250C k25
The value of temperature coefficient for most of the reactants is close to 2 and in some
cases it approaches to 3.
Hence temperature coefficient = Rate at 350C k35 = 2 to 3
=
Rate at 250C k25
7.7 COLLISION THEORY OF REACTION RATE
Now let us study why such small rise of temperature speeds up a reaction to
such a large extent. This can be explained on the basis of collision theory.
According to collision theory for chemical reaction to occur, there must be collisions
between reacting molecules. But all collisions are not effective. Only a small fraction of
collisions produce a reaction. Two main conditions for a collision between the reacting
molecules to be productive are-
(i) The colliding molecules must possess sufficient kinetic energy to cause a
reaction.
(ii) The reacting molecules must collide will proper orientation.

The molecules must collide with sufficient energy:

A -B + B-B 2 A-B
A chemical reaction occurs by breaking bonds between the atoms of reacting

molecules and forming new bonds in the product molecules. For breaking the bonds
energy is required and in forming the bonds energy is liberated. The energy for
breaking the bonds comes from the kinetic energy possessed by the reacting molecules,
before the collision.
The (figure 7.3) shows the energy of molecules A2 and B2 as the reaction
A2+B2 2AB progresses.
Fig 7.3
The figure 7.3 also shows the activation energy Ea, that is minimum energy required to
cause a reaction between the colliding molecules. Only the molecules that collide will a
kinetic energy greater than Ea are able to get over the barrier and react. The molecules
colliding will kinetic energies less than Ea fail to cross the barrier.
As you have studied till now that for a reaction to occur there must be collision between
molecules. And most of the collisions are ineffective. According to collision theory
those collision results in chemical reaction in which the colliding molecules are
associated with a certain minimum energy called threshold energy
Reaction progress
Fig- 7.4

Hence there is certain minimum energy called threshold energy which the colliding
molecules must acquire before they are capable of reacting. Most of the molecules have
much less kinetic energy than the threshold energy. The excess energy that the reactant
molecules having energy less than the threshold energy must acquire in order to react to
yield products is known as activation energy.
That means
Activation energy = threshold energy – energy possessed by the molecules.
Now you must have followed from the above discussion that there is energy barrier
placed between reactants and products (fig 7.4) The barrier has to be crossed before
reactants can yield product.
7.8 EFFECT OF CATALYST
As you have studied earlier a catalyst is a substance that can increase the rate of
a reaction but which itself remains unchanged in amount and chemical composition at
the end of the reaction. When a catalyst is added, a new reaction path with a lower
energy barrier is provided (dotted curve in the fig 7.5). Since the energy barrier is
reduced in magnitude, a larger number of molecules of the reactants can get over it.
This increases the rate of the reaction.
Fig- 7.5
7.9 ARRHENIUS EQUATION
For the effect of temperature Arrhenius proposed and empirical equation which is
useful in calculating energy of activation of a reaction
k = Ae-Ea/RT ……………………….(9)
Where Ea is called Arrhenius activation energy at temperature T, k is rate

constant and A is called the Arrhenius pre exponential factor, a has the same units as
the rate constant k. the units of k for a first order reaction are S-1 which is units of
frequency. Hence A is also called the frequency factor, Ea and A are called Arrhenius
parameters.
Taking logs of equation (9) we have
ln k = lnA-Ea/RT ……………….(10)

A plot of lnk against reciprocal of absolute temperature (1/T) gives a straight line with
slope = -Ea/R and intercept = lnA, and hence energy of activation Ea be obtained.
Differentiating equation (10) with respect to temperature, we get
dlnk/dT = Ea/RT2 …………………(11)
Integrating equation (11) between temperature T1 and T2 when the corresponding rate
constants are k1 and k2 respectively assuming that Ea is constant over the entire range
we get-
ln k2/k1 = Ea/R[T2-T1/T1 T2] ………………(12)
or log10 k2/k1 = Ea/2.303R [T2-T1/T1 T2]
This is the integrated Arrhenius equation. Thus knowing the rate constants at two
temperature the energy of activation Ea can be calculated.
It must be clear to you that different reactions require different amount of

energy activation energy. A reaction which has lower activation energy will proceed at
a faster rate at a given temperature. A reaction which has higher activation energy will
proceed at a slower rate.
The differences in activation energy are mainly responsible for observed

difference in rate of reaction.
If the reactants posses higher total energy than the products there will be a
release of energy. The reaction is said to be exothermic reaction. If the reactants possess
lower total energy than the products energy will be absorbed and the reaction is said to
be endothermic.
7.10 SUMMARY
From the above discussion it is clear that chemical kinetics is an important
branch of chemistry. The study of a chemical reaction is of fundamental concern to a
chemist from two aspects first his interest is to ascertain how fast or slow a reaction
proceeds secondly one is interested to study the feasibility of a reaction between
substances. And to what extent will it yield the desired products. The speed of a
reaction has been studied in this unit.
Different chemical reactions and their mechanism has been studied. It is an

important aspect that how chemical reaction takes place and what is the effect of
temperature and other factors. The energy of activation concept is useful in the study of
reactions. The activation energy depends upon the nature of the chemical bonds
undergoing rupture. It is independent of initial and final energy contents of the reacting
particles. The feasibility of a reaction is studied under ‘thermodynamics’.

The study of the subject has been highly useful in determining the factors which
influence rates of reactions as well as in understanding mechanism of a number of
chemical reactions.
The studies have also been useful in working out in conditions for getting
maximum yields of several industrial products.
(A) Solved questions:
Q.1 The rate constant of a first order reaction is 1.54x10-3 s-1

Calculate its half life time.
t ½ = 0.693/k1
= 0.693/ (1.54x10-3 s-1)

= 450 s
Q.2 The half life of a reaction A B+C which obey’s first order
kineties, is 8:0 minutes. How long it will take for the concentration of A to
reduced to 1% of it initial value
k1 = 0.693/ t1/2
= 0.693/8.0m
= 0.087min-1
Now k1 = 2.303/t log (a/a-x)
t =2.303/0.087 log(100/1)
= 52.93m
Q.3 50% 0f a first order reaction is complete in 23 minutes.

Calculate the time required to complete 90% of the reaction.
t 1/2 = 0.693/k
k = 0.693/23 m
= 0.03013 m-1
For 90% completion time required can be calculated as follows:
0.03010 = 2.303/t log(100/10)
As a-x= 100-90 =10
t = 2.303/0.0310 log10
= 76.4 min.
(B) Short answer questions:
Q1. What do you understand by energy of activation?

Q.2 What is temperature co-efficient of a reactions?

Q.3 What is interpretation of A in Arrhenius equation?
Q.4 Write Arrhenius equation.
Q.5 If the concentrations are measured in mole per liter, time in seconds, what are
the units of rate constant for :
(i) A zero order reaction.
(ii) A first order reaction.
(C) Long answer/essay type questions:
Q.1 Integrate the rate expression for a first order reaction. What is meant by
half life time of a reaction?
Q.2 What is meant by reaction being of first order, second order or zero
order? What are pseudo-unimolicular reactions?
Q.3 Bring out clearly the main features of the collision theory of reaction rate? What
do you mean by effective collisions?
Q.4 (a) Define chemical kinetics? Describe what is meant by order of a

reaction.
(b) Describe a suitable method to study the kinetics of the following

reaction
CH3COOC2H5 + H2O H+ ions CH3COOH + C2H5OH
(D) Multiple choice questions
Q.1 For a zero order reaction A Products t1/2 is proportional to

(a) [A] (b) 1/[A] (c) [A0]2 (d) 1/ [A0]2 ans (a)
Q.2 The t1/2 of a reaction is doubled as the initial concentration is doubled. The
order of reaction is
(a) 1 (b) 0 (c) 2 (d) 1/(1/2) ans (b)
Q.3 In how many years will a 100 mg sample of 14C(t1/2= 5760 years) be
reduced to 25 mg.
(a) 5760 (b) 17280 (c) 11520 (d) 23040 ans (c)
Q.4 The rate constant of a gaseous reaction is 2x10-2 dm3mole-1s-1. Its value in
cm3mole-1s-1 is –
(a) 2 (b) 0.2 (c) 20 (d) 200 ans (c)
Q.5 For a first order reaction the time required to decompose 75% is related to t1/2
(a) t75%=t1/2 (b) t75% = 3t1/2 (c) t75% = 2t1/2 (d) t75% = 7/2 t1/2
ans (c)
Q.6 If Ea>Eb; where Ea and Eb are energies of activation for forward and backward
reactions respectively, then:

(a) The reaction is endothermic (b) The reaction is exothermic

(c) The reaction is chain reaction (d) The reaction is explosive.
ans (b)
Q.7 for the reaction 2A+B Products, doubling the initial
concentration of both the reactants increases the rate by a factor of 8 and
doubling the concentration of B alone doubles the rate. The rate law for the
reaction is –
(a) r=k[A][B]2 (b) r= k[A]2[B] (c) r= k[A][B] (d)r=k[A]2[B]2
and (b)
Q. 8 for a first order reaction, A Products, t1/2 =100s . the rate

constant for the reaction is –
(a) 6.93x10-2s-1 (b) 6.93x10-4s-1 (c) 6.93x10-3s-1 (d) 6.93x10-4s
ans (c)
-------------------------

UNIT 8: COLLOIDS AND MACROMOLECULES

CONTENTS:
8.1 Objectives
8.2 Introduction
8.3 Colloidal Systems
8.3.1 Types of Colloidal Systems
8.3.2 Classification of Colloids
8.3.3 Distinction between Lyophilic and Lyophobic Colloids
8.4 Preparation of Colloidal Particles (Peptization)
8.5 Condensation methods
8.5.1 Double decomposition
8.6 Purification of sols, Dialysis and Ultra filtration
8.7 General properties of colloidal systems
8.7.1 Heterogeneous character
8.7.2 Visibility
8.7.3 Colligative properties
8.7.4 Diffusibility
8.8 Colour of the sols
8.9 Optical properties
8.9.1 Tyndall effect
8.9.2 Kinetic properties of sols
8.9.3 Charge on colloidal particles
8.10 Electrical double layer
8.11 Coagulation
8.12 Protection of colloids
8.12.1 Gold number
8.13 Stability of sols
8.13.1 Presence of charge on colloidal particles
8.13.2 Electrophoresis
8.13.3 Electro-osmosis
8.14 Determination of size of colloidal particles
8.14.1 Ultra-filtration method
8.14.2 From Brownian movement
8.14.3 From Scattering of light
8.15 Associated colloids or colloidal electrolytes
8.16 Emulsions
8.17 Gels
8.17.1 Sol-gel transformation
8.18 Application of colloids
8.19 Macromolecules
8.19.1 Molecular weight of macro molecules
8.20 Summary

8.1 OBJECTIVES
Matter exists in three states. These three states are solid, liquid and gaseous
state. A gas consists of molecules separated wide apart in empty state. A liquid state
molecule touching each other.
Solids are characterised by incompressibility, rigidity and mechanical strength.
In solid state molecules, atoms or ions that make up the solid are closely packed. They
are held together by strong cohesive forces and cannot move at random.
Some substance such as suger, salts, acids and bases when dissolved in water
can pass through parchment membrane and form true solutions. Whereas substances
such as gelatin, albumen, glue diffuse at a slow rate. These are called colloids.
The colloidal solutions are intermediate between true solutions and suspensions.
8.2 INTRODUCTION
During his research work Thomas Graham in 1861 found that while some
substances diffused readily through parchment membrane, others diffuse at slow rate.
The substance which diffuse at slow rate were given the name colloids (from Greek
Kolla means glue like). These observations led to the development of a new branch of
knowledge known as colloidal science.
Latter many investigators including Thomas Graham realised that distinction
between crystalloids and colloids was not rigid, since many crystalline substances like
sulphur, carbon and salt can be converted into colloidal form by suitable means. At the
same time the so called colloidal like gum and gelatin, were shown to have a crystalline
structure by X-ray examination. In fact, it is now well known that one and the same
substance may show colloidal behaviour at one time and crystalloidal behaviour at
another time depending upon the prevailing conditions for example, sodium salt of long
chain fatty acids (the soaps) show colloidal character in water in which they are
sparingly soluble but crystalloidal character in alcohol in which they are freely soluble.
The term ‘colloidal substances’ has, therefore been discarded in favour of ‘colloidal
state’ into which almost every substances can be brought by suitable means.
Hence colloidal solutions or colloidal dispersions are intermediate between true
solutions and suspensions.
8.3 COLLOIDAL SYSTEMS

When the diameter of the particles of substance dispersed in a solvent ranges
from about 10A0 to 2000A0, the system is said a colloidal solution, colloidal dispersion
or simply a colloid, the material will particle size in the colloidal range is said to be in
the colloidal state. A colloidal system is thus a two phase system consisting of a
continuous phase or dispersion medium in which extremely minute particles, lying

within the colloidal range of second substance termed as discontinuous phase or

dispersed phase, are suspended.
Difference between suspensions, colloidal solutions and true solution
Property Suspensions Colloidal solutions True solution
1.Nature Hetrogeneous Heterogeneous Homogeneous
2. Size range Greater than 2000A0 or Between 10A0 Less than 10a0 or 1
200 mµ to 2000 a0 or 1 mµ to mµ
200 mµ
3. Visibility Particles are visible Particles are visible Particles are not
under microscope even under visible even under
with a naked eye ultramicroscope ultramicroscope
4. Diffusibiltiy Do not diffuse Diffuse slowly Diffuse rapidly
5. Tyndall Do not exhibit Exhibit Do not exhibit

effect and
Brownian
movement
6. Molecular Low High Low

weight
Table -1
8.3.1 Types of Colloidal Systems
As we have seen in the above article, a colloidal system is made of two phases,
the substance distributed as the colloidal particle is called the dispersed phase, the
second continuous phase in which the colloidal particles are dispersed is called the
dispersion medium. If we take colloidal solution of copper in water, copper particles
constitute the dispersed phase and water dispersion medium (fig 8.1).
Fig 8.1

Now we see that either the dispersed phase or the dispersion medium can be gas
liquid or solid, these are eight types of colloidal system possible.
A colloidal dispersion of one gas in another is not possible, since the two gases
would give a homogeneous molecular mixture.
The various types of colloidal systems are given in table 2.
Dispersion Name of the Name of the colloidal Examples
medium dispersion phase system
1. Gas Liquid Liquid aerosol Clouds, mist, fog
2. Gas Solid Aerosol Smoke, dust
3. Liquid Gas Foam Shaving cream, foam
4. Liquid Liquid Emulsions Milk, hair cream, cod-
lever oil
5. Liquid Solid Colloidal solutions Colloidal gold
6. Solid
Gas Solid foam Foam rubber, occluded
gases
7. Solid Liquid Gel or jelly Butter, cheese, gels

8. Solid Solid Solid sol Alloys, ruby glass (gold
dispersed in glass)
Table-2
8.3.2 Classification of Colloids
Substance like metal, metal sulphides cannot be brought into the colloidal state
simply by bringing them in contact with solvent, these are known as lyophobic colloids
(or hydrophobic colloid if water is solvent).
Substances like proteins, starch and rubber whose molecules are large enough to
be close to the lower limit of colloidal range, pass readily into colloidal state when
mixed with a suitable solvent are called lyophilic colloids (or hydrophilic colloids if
water is solvent).
8.3.3 Distinction between Lyophilic and Lyophobic Colloids

Property Lyophobic sols Lyophilic sols
Preparation Formed by special method Formed easily
Nature Particles are true molecules Particle consists of aggregate

molecules
Viscosity Viscosity is almost the same Viscosity is much higher than

as that of the medium that of the medium
Visibility Particle can be readily Particles cannot be readily

detected under ultra detected even under

microscope ultramicroscope
Tyndall effect More distinct Less distinct
Reversibility Lyophobic salts are These are reversible

irreversible
Surface tension Surface tension is usually Surface tension is generally

the same at that of the lower than that of the
medium medium
Migration in electric field Particles migrate to anode or Medium particles migrate to

cathode anode or cathode, or not at all
Table -3
8.4 PREPARATION OF COLLOIDAL PARTICLES

The primary consideration in the preparation in the colloidal solution is that the
dispersed particle should be 10A0 to 2000 A0 (1 m µ to 200 mµ) the lyophilic sols can
readily prepared since colloidal materials such as starch, gelatin when added to water
swell up and spontaneously break into particulates of matter of colloidal range.
Lyophobic sols cannot be prepared by simple contact or slight shaking of the

substance with the solvent. Svedberg (1908-1912) suggested that there are two ways for
obtaining lyophobic sols.
(i) Dispersion methods
In these methods, larger lumps of the insoluble substance are pulverized by

mechanical or by other means till particles of colloidal dimensions are obtained.
(ii) Condensation methods:
In these methods, a molecular on ionic distribution is first prepared then by

suitable coarsening gives rise to particles of colloidal dimensions.
Dispersion methods
(i) Mechanical dispersion:
The most obvious method of dispersion consists in breaking down the courser solid
particles by one chemical grinding. This is done in the so called ‘colloidal mill’ which
generally consists of two metal discs held at a very small distance apart from one
another which are capable of revolving at very high speed in opposite direction. The
solid particles are ground down to colloidal size and are then dispersed in the liquid to
give the sol.
(ii) Bredig’s are method (1898)

This method is used for preparing hydrosols of metals like gold, silver and
platinum. This method consists in striking an arc between two electrodes of the metal
immersed in water as shown in (fig-8.2.)
Fig-8.2
A current of one ampere and voltage of 100 volts is used. The vessel in which
water is kept is surrounded by ice. On striking an arc, the vapours of metal are formed
which then immediately condense to form particles of colloidal size. Sometimes it is
necessary to add traces of electrolyte, say alkali hydroxide is added in water, to obtain
best results.
Svedberg devised a method to obtain organo sols of metal and nonmetals. In this
method electrodes are usually of iron or aluminium and an alternating current is
employed. The material to be dispersed in taken in the form of granules and pasted on
the electrodes (immersed in the organic medium) through which the electric current is
passed.
Alternative current is used which greatly diminishes the decomposition of the
liquid. Practically any metal can be obtained in the colloidal state in a liquid with which
it does not react chemically.
Peptization
Peptization is a process by means of which a suitable colloidal solution can be
produced from suitable substances originally present in massive forms, when the
particle of colloidal size pre-exist in the substance to be dispersed.
The dispersal of a precipitated material into colloidal solution by the action of
an electrolyte in solution is termed as peptization. The electrolyte used is known as
peptizing agent. An electrolyte having an ion in common with the material to be
dispersed is required for sol formation.
Peptization action is due to the preferential adsorption of one of the ions of the
electrolyte by particles of the material. As a result of the preferential adsorption of the
ion which is more closely related chemically to the precipitate, the particles acquire
positive or negative charge depending upon the change on the ion adsorbed.
Because of the presence of the same type of charge, the particles of the
precipitate are pushed apart. The precipitate thus gets dispersed resulting in the
formation of stable sol.

Thus you can see ferric hydroxide sol is obtained when a small quantity of ferric
chloride solution is added. The peptization action is due to the preferential adsorption of
Fe3+ ion. Similary silver chloride can be converted into a sol by adding hydrochloric
acid (Cl- being common ion).
8.5 CONDENSATION METHODS
Colloidal system can be obtained by various reactions such as double
decomposition, oxidation, reduction, hydrolysis etc. the conditions (temperature
concentration etc.) used are such as permit the formation of sol particles but prevent the
particles becoming too large and forming precipitate the unwanted ions present in the
sol are removed by dialysis as these ions may eventually coagulate the sol.There are
four condensation methods:-
8.5.1 (i) Double decomposition- An arsenic sulphide sol is prepared by passing a
slow stream of H2S gas through a dilute solution of arsenious oxide. This is continued
till the yellow colour of the sol attains maximum intensity. Excess H2S is removed
either by passing in a stream of hydrogen or by boiling.
(ii) Reduction:
Sols of metals such as copper, silver, gold and platinum are obtained by
reducing the aqueous solutions of their salts by non-electrolytes such as formaldehyde,
tannin, phenyl hydrazine. carbon mono oxide and phosphorus.
Thus
AgNO3+tannic acid Ag sol
Aucl3+tannic acid Au sol
(iii) Oxidation:
A sol of sulphur can be obtained by passing hydrogen sulphide into a solution of
sulpher dioxide.
2H2S+SO2 2H2O+S
(iv) Hydrolysis:
Colloidal sols of heavy metals are obtained by the hydrolysis of the solutions of
their salts.
Thus when a small amount of ferric chloride is added to boiling water, a red-brown sol
of ferric hydroxide obtained.
FeCl3+3H2O Fe(OH)3+3HCl.
8.6 PURIFICATION OF SOLS
The presence of impurities, particularly the electrolytes, renders the sols
unstable. We will discuss the cause of instability latter on. These impurities must be
eliminated by suitable means. The purification of sols can be accomplished by
following methods.
(i) Dialysis
The purification of colloidal solution by dialysis is based on the inability of the
sol particles to pass through an animal membrane or a parchment paper which allows

only the molecules or ions to pass through. The vessel in which dialysis is carried out is
known as a dialyser.
Fig-8.3
The animal membranes have very fine pours. These pores permit ions or small
molecules to pass through but not the large colloidal particles when a sol containing
dissolved ions (electrolyte) or molecules is placed in a bag of permeable membrane
dipping in pure water, the ions diffuse through the membrane. By using continuous
flow of fresh water, the concentration of electrolyte outside the membrane tends to
zero. Thus diffusion of the ions into pure water remains brisk all the time and
practically all the electrolyte present in the sol can be removed easily.
Ordinarily, the process of dialysis is quite slow, but it can be quickened by
applying an electric field if the solution in true solution is an electrolyte. The process is
then called electrodialysis.
(ii) Ultrafiltration
Ultrafiltration is a process of separating colloidal particles from the solvent and
the solutes present by specially prepared filters which allows all
other particles except the colloidal particles to pass through it.
Fig-8.4

Ordinary filter papers have pours larger than 1000 mµ, so that the colloidal particles
having a smaller size can easily pass through them. But if the pour’s are made smaller,
then the colloidal particles may be retained on the filter paper.
Ultrafiltration is a method not only for purification of the sol but also for concentrating
the sol.
8.7 GENERAL PROPERTIES OF COLLOIDAL SYSTEMS
8.7.1 Heterogeneous character
As you have seen from the above discussion every colloidal system is a
heterogeneous system. It consists of two phases, the dispersed phase and dispersion
medium.
8.7.2 Visibility
Most of the sols appear to be true solutions with naked eye, but the colloidal
particles can be seen through an ultramicroscope.
8.7.3 Colligative properties

The property which depends on the number of particles in solution and not in
any way on the size or chemical nature of the particles, is known as a colligative
property.
As you know that colloidal particles are aggregate of molecules, therefore all
the colligative properties would be reduced. Hence colloidal systems have very low
osmotic pressure, and freeze and boil at about the same temperature as the pure
dispersion medium.
8.7.4 Diffusibility
The colloidal particles do not readily diffuse through a parchment paper or any
other membrane.
8.8 COLOUR OF THE SOLS

The colour of the hydrophobic sol depends on the wavelength of the light
scattered by the dispersed particles. The wavelength of the scattered light again depends
on the size and nature of the particle. This will be clear to you with following example:
Colour of Ag sol Particle diameter
Orange yellow 6x10-5 nm
Orange red 9x10-5 nm
Purple 13x10-5 nm
Violet 15x10-5 nm

This can be seen in other cases also.
8.9 OPTICAL PROPERTIES

8.9.1 Tyndall effect
In 1867 Tyndall found that when a beam of light is passed through a true
solution, it cannot be seen unless the eye is placed directly in the path. But when the
same light beam is passed through a colloidal dispersion it is
visible as a bright beam. The phenomenon of the scattering of light by the sol particles
is called Tyndall effect. The illumination of beam or cone formed by the scattering of
light by the sol particles if often called as Tyndall beam or Tyndall cone.
This phenomenon is due to the scattering of light from the surface of colloidal
particles. In true solutions the particle size is very small to scatter the light and hence
the beam is invisible.
Fig-8.5
The intensity of the scattered light depends on the difference between the refractive
indices of the dispersed phase and dispersion medium. In lyophobic sols, the difference
is appreciable and hence the Tyndall effect is quite well-defined. In lyophilic sols the
difference is small hence the Tyndall effect is much weaker.
Sol particles cannot be seen with microscope. Zsigmondy (1903) used the
Tyndall phenomenon to set up an apparatus called ultramicroscope. The intense beam
of light is focused on a sol contained in a glass vessel. The focus of light is then
observed with a microscope at right angle to the beam individual sol particles appear as
bright specks of light against a dark background. It may be noted that under the ultra
microscope, the actual particles are not visible. It is the larger halos of scattered light
around the particles that are visible. Thus the ultra microscope does not give any
information regarding the shape and size of sol particles.
8.9.2 Kinetic properties of sols

Robert Brown an English botanist in 1827, observed that pollen grains in aqueous
suspensions were in constant motion. Later when ultramicroscope was invented, it was
found that particles of lyophobic sols were also in a state of ceaseless random motion
similar to pollen grains. This
Kinetic activity of particles suspended in a liquid is called Brownian movement.
Fig-8.6 Brownian movement
The Brownian movement is independent of the nature of the colloidal particles, but was
more rapid the smaller the particles and less viscous the solution. The Brownian
movement is due to the bombardment of colloidal particles by molecules of dispersion
medium which are in constant motion like molecules in a gas.(fig 8.6).
Fig- 8.7
As a result of bombardment the colloidal particle acquire almost the same amount of
kinetic energy as possessed by the molecules of dispersion medium. But since the
colloidal particles are considerably heavier than molecules of the dispersion medium,

their movement is considerably slower than that of the molecules of the medium. (fig
8.7).
8.9.3 Charge on colloidal particles
The most important property of colloidal dispersions is that all the suspended
particles posses either positive or negative charge. The mutual forces of repulsion
between similarly charged particles prevent them from aggregating and settling under
the action of gravity. This gives stability to the sol.
The origin of charge on colloidal particles:

It has been observed that sols are invariably associated will minute quantities of
electrolytes and that if the latter are completely removed by persistent dialysis, the sols
become unstable. It is believed therefore that charge on colloidal particles is due to
preferential adsorption of either positive or negative ion on their surface.
Ferric hydroxide sol particles are positively charges because these absorbs Fe3+
ions from ferric chloride (FeCl3) used in the preparation of the sol. Since the sol as a
whole is neutral, the charge on the particle is counterbalanced by oppositely charged
ions termed counterions (in this case Cl-) furnished by the electrolyte in medium.
The negative charge on arsenic sulphide sol is due to preferential adsorption of sulphide
ions on the surface of arsenic sulphide particle. Sulphide ions are furnished by
ionization of hydrogen sulphide which is present in traces. Thus, in ferric hydroxide sol,
ferric not chloride ions are preferred. Similarly, in arsenic sulphide sol, a sulphide ion
not hydrogen ion is preferred.
8.10 ELECTRICAL DOUBLE LAYER

The surface of colloidal particle acquires a positive charge by selective
adsorption of a layer of positive ions around it. This layer attracts counterions from the
medium which forms a second layer of negative charges. The combination of two
layers of positive and negative charges around the sol particles was called Helmholtz
Double Layer. (fig 8.8).
Fig-8.8

Helmholtz thought that positive charges next to the particle surface were fixed, while
the layer of negative charge along with the medium were mobile. More recent
considerations have shown that the double layer is made of:
(a) Compact layer of positive and negative charges which are fixed firmly on
the particle surface.
(b) Diffuse layer of counter ions (negative ions) diffuse into the medium containing
positive ions.
The combination of compact and diffuse layer is referred to as the Stern double layer.
The diffuse layer is only loosely attached to the particle surface and moves in the
opposite direction under the applied electric field. Because of the distribution of charge
around the particle, there is a difference of potential between the compact layer and the
bulk of solution across the diffuse layer. This is called Electro kinetic or Zeta potential.
8.11 COAGULATION
As you have already studied that stability of colloidal particle is due to the
adsorption of positive or negative ion by the dispersed particles. The repulsive forces
between the charged particles do not allow them to settle. If somehow, the charge is
removed, there is nothing to keep the particles apart from each other. They aggregate
and settle down under the action of gravity. This phenomenon of changing colloidal
state to the suspended state is known as coagulation, floculation or precipitation of
colloidal solution.
In case of lyophobic colloids the stability is due the electrical charge present on
the colloidal particles whereas the stability of lyophilic colloid depends upon both the
electrical charge and solvation. In order to cause precipitation of the dispersed particles,
it is necessary that they come closer to one another and form bigger aggregates which
lie outside the colloidal range.
The coagulation or precipitation of a given sol can be brought about in four
ways:
(i) By addition of electrolytes
(ii) By electropholysis
(iii) By mixing oppositely charged sols
(iv) By boiling
(i) By addition of electrolytes:
When excess of an electrolyte is added to a sol the dispersed particles are

precipitated. The electrolyte furnishes both positive and negative ions in the medium.
The sols particles adsorb the oppositely charged ions and get discharged. The
electrically neutral particles then aggregate and settle down as precipitate.
A negative ion causes the precipitation of a positively charged sol and vice versa.
The effectiveness of an anion or cation to precipitate a sol will naturally depend on the
magnitude of the charge or the valence of the effective ion.
From a study of the precipitating action of various electrolytes on a particular sol,
Hardly and Schulz gave the following rules.

(i) Coagulation is brought about ions having opposite charge to that of the sol. Hence
negative ions cause coagulation of the positively charged sol and positive ion cause
coagulation of negatively charged sol. Thus Fe(OH)3 sol which is positively charged is
coagulated by negative ions such as Cl-, NO3-, SO42- etc. Similarly As2S3 sol which is
negatively charged is coagulated by positive ions such as Na+, Ba2+, Mg2+ etc.
(ii) The higher the valency of the ion greater is its coagulating power. Thus the power of
Al3+, Na+, Ba2+ is in the order Al3+>Ba2+>Na+
Similarly the precipitating power of [Fe(CN)6]3- ,Cl- and SO42- is in the order
Fe(CN)63-> SO42-> Cl-
Quantitatively the efficacy varies directly as the square of the valence of the ion. Thus
Mg2+ ion is 4 times more effective and Al3+ ion is 9 times more effective than Na+ ion.
8.12 PROTECTION OF COLLOIDS

Lyophobic sols are easily precipitated by small amount of electrolyte. However
these sols are often stabilized by the addition of lyophilic sols. When lyophobic and
lyohilic sols are mixed and lyophilic sol is in excess then the resultant sols is avoided
from being coagulated. The sol now is more stable to temperature changes and is not
readily precipitated by electrolytes. The lyophilic colloids thus used for protecting the
lyophobic colloids are known as protective colloids. Different protective colloids have
different protective powers. Zsignondy investigated the protective action quantitatively
and gave the concept of gold number.
8.12.1 Gold number
Gold number may be defined as ‘the weight in milligrams of protective colloid
which will just stop the coagulation of 10 ml of a gold sol on adding 1 ml of 10%
solution of sodium chloride’. Gold sol is ruby red in color and becomes blue on
coagulation.
Gold number of protective colloids
Sl No. Colloid Gold number
1. Gelatin 0.005-0.01
2. Casein 0.1
3. Gum Arabic 0.15-0.25
4. Dextrin 6-20
5. Starch 25.0
Table-4
8.13 STABILITY OF SOLS
A true colloidal solution is stable. The stability of sols is mainly due to two factors:
8.13.1 (a) Presence of charge on colloidal particles
The dispersed particles of lyophobic sols possess a like electrical charge either positive
or negative, on their surface. Since like charges repel one another, the particles push
from one another and resist joining together.

However by the addition of electrolyte the lyohobic sol particles are discharged and
precipitated.
(b) Presence of solvent layer around sol particle
The lyophilic sols are stable for two reasons. Their particles posses a charge
and in addition have a layer of solvent bound on the surface. For example, a sol particle
of gelatin has a negative charge and a water layer envelopes it. When sodium chloride
is added to colloidal solution of gelatin, its particles are not precipitated. The water
layer around the gelatin particle does not allow the Na+ ions to penitrate it and
discharge the particle. Thus gelatin sol is not precipitated the addition of sodium
chloride solution.
Now it should be clear to you that why lyophilic sols are more stable than
lyophobic sols. Generally lyohobic sols are coagulated by electrolytes at 0.001-0.1M
concentrations. The coagulation is irreversible process and removal of coagulating
electrolyte does not allow the coagulam to be redispersed.
Lyophilic sols on the other hand are not easily coagulated. They require much
higher concentration of electrolyte (usually of the order of 1M) for precipitation. The
coagulation of lyophilic sol by the addition of
electrolytes is not due to neutralization of charge on the particle.The electrolyte binds
part of the water thereby getting hydrated. As a result, the polymer molecules in the
lyophilic sol get dehydrated. The dehydration leads to coagulation.
Various ions are arranged in increasing order of their efficacy for coagulating a
lyophobic sol in the form of series as shown below:
Mg2+>Ca2+>Ba2+>Na+>K+
SO42->Cl->NO3->ClO3->1-
8.13.2 Electrophoresis:
Since the solid particles and the liquid medium carry opposite charges, it is
obvious that when an electrical field is applied, the particles and the liquid will migrate
is opposite direction. The movement of sol particles under an applied electric potential
is called electrophoresis or cataphoresis.
If the sol particles migrate toward the positive electrode, they carry negative
charge. On the other hand, if they move toward the negative electrode they are
positively charged. Thus by noting the direction of movement of the sol particles, we
can determine whether they carry positive or negative charge.
Fig-8.9

The phenomenon of electrolysis can be demonstrated by placing a layer of

As2S3 sol under two limbs of a U-tube. When a potential difference of 100 volts is
applied across the two platinum electrodes dipping in deionised water, it is observed
that the level of the sol drops on the negative electrode side and rises on the positive
electrode side (fig-8.9). This shows that As2S3 sol has migrated to the positive
electrode, indicating that the particles are negatively charged. Similarly a sol of ferric
hydroxide will move to the negative electrode showing that its particle carry positive
charge.
Aplications of electrophoresis:
Some important applications of electrophoresis are: (1) Removal of smoke from
chimney gases; (2) Removal of suspended impurities ; (3) Electroplating of rubber on
metal surfaces from latex (a sol) ; (4) Painting of metal parts of cars from colloidal
pigmants.
8.13.3 Electro-osmosis:
The movement of dispersion medium with respect to dispersed phase as a result
of an electric field is known as electro-osmosis. Or when electrophoresis of dispersed
particles in a colloidal system is prevented by suitable means, it is observed that the
dispersion medium itself begins to move in an electric field. This phenomenon is called
electro-osmosis.
Fig-8.10
It can be observed as shown in (fig 8.10)
The colloidal system is put in a central chamber A which is separated from the
side chambers B and C with water, by a dialysing membranes M and M-. The water in
the chamber B and C extends to the side tubes T and T- respectively. The membrane
does not allow the colloidal particles to pass through it. So when a potential difference
is applied across the electrodes held close to the membranes in chambers B and C, the
water starts to move. If the particles carry negative charge, the water will carry positive
charge. So it would start moving towards the cathode and so the level of water in side
tube ‘T--’ would be observed to rise. If on the contrary the particles carry positive
charge the water will carry a negative charge. The level of water will now start moving
towards the anode and its level in the side tube T would start rising.
The theoretical interpretation of electro-osmosis has been given by Helmholtz,
Lamb, Perrin and Smoluchowski.
Application of electro-osmosis:
(i) In the preparation of pure colloids. The case in point is the preparation of
colloidal silicic acid of low molecular weight i.e. in a state of fine subdivision.
(ii) In the tanning of hides and impregnation of similar materials.
(iii) In the manufacture of gelatin for photographic emulsions. The object is to get a
gelatin free from fat, mineral and reducing constituents. The phenomenon is also
applied in the manufacture of high grade glue.
(iv) In the dying of peat, a process due to Schwerin.
8.14 DETERMINATION OF SIZE OF COLLOIDAL

PARTICLES
There are number of methods for the determination of size of colloidal particles. Some
important methods are given below-
8.14.1 Ultra-filtration method

The size of the pours of the ultrafilters can be calculated from the measurement
of the pressure required to force air through the membrane saturated with water or by
measuring the volume of water forced through unit area of the membrane in unit time
by a known pressure. It may be repeated that in addition to the size of the particle,
adsorption and electric charge will hold the particles and may simulate a lower porosity
than should be present according to the size of the pours of the ultrafilters.
By finding which of the ultrafilters will just permit the particles of a sol to pass
into the filtrate, while the next filter just stops the passage, the diameter of the colloidal
particle can be determined, provided the particles are assumed to be spherical.
8.14.2 From Brownian movement

Colloidal particles suspended in the liquid medium exhibit Brownian motion.
They tend to settle down due to gravity. Due to the influence of both these effects, the
colloidal particles distribute themselves in a vertical column according to the equation:
2.303RT log10(n1) =4 πr3 (h2-h1)(d-d1) ……………(a)

N ( n2) 3
Since the number of particles n1 and n2 at heights h1 and h2 of the vertical
column can be counted with the help of ultramicroscoe and densities d and d1 of the
dispersed phase and dispersion medium can be determined by
usual methods. Knowing the value of Avogadro’s number (N) r the radius of the
particle can be calculated.
8.14.3 From Scattering of light

Zsigmondy used ultramicroscope for determining size of colloidal particles.
Each spot of light seen in an ultramicroscope, corresponds to a particle. So the number
of particles in a given volume of a solution can be counted. The observation is made a
number of times and an average is taken. The length and breadth of the field of vision
are measured by an eye piece micrometer. The depth is measured by rotating the slit
through 900. From this data the exact volume of the solution containing the observed
number of particles can be measured. Thus the number of particles per unit volume of
the solution can be calculated.
Next, a known volume of a colloidal is evaporated to dryness. From the weight

of residue the mass of colloidal particles per unit volume is calculated. Let it be m gm,
Now assuming the colloidal particles to be spherical and density of (d) of the colloidal
particles to be the same as that in the bulk state, the volume of the colloidal phase is
m = 4 πr3n
d 3
Hence r can be calculated.
8.15 ASSOCIATED COLLOIDS OR COLLOIDAL
ELECTROLYTES
The molecule of substances as soap and artificial detergents are smaller than the
colloidal particles. However in concentrated solutions these molecules form aggregates
of colloidal size.
Substances whose molecules aggregate spontaneously in a given solvent to form
particles of colloidal dimensions are called associated or associated colloids.
Fig-8.11
The colloidal aggregates of soap or detergent molecules formed in the solvent

are referred to as micelles.

Example is sodium stearate C17H35COO-Na+

Explanation:
Soap or detergent molecules ionises in water to form an anion and sodium ion.
Thus we get C17H35COO- ano Na+ ions. As many as 70 stearate ions aggregate to form
a miscelle of colloidal size. The stearate ion has a long carbon chain (17 carbons) with a
polar – COO- group at one end. The zig zag hydrocarbon tail is shown by a wavy line
and the polar head by a hollow circle. In the micelle formation, the tail being insoluble
in water are directed toward the centre, while soluble polar heads are on the surface in
contact with water (fig-8.11). The charge on the micelle due to the polar heads accounts
for the stability of the particle.
8.16 EMULSIONS
Definition
Dispersion of finely divided liquid droplets in another liquid are called
emulsion. The particles of dispersed phase in emulsions are generally bigger than those
is sols and are sometimes visible under microscope. In most of the cases one of the
liquid phases is an oil and the other is water. Accordingly, there are two types of
emulsions: oil-in-water (O/W) type in which oil is the dispersed phase and water is the
dispersion medium and water-in-oil (W/O) type in which water is the dispersed phase
and oil is dispersion medium.
Fig-8.12
Milk is an emulsion of O/W type in which tiny droplets of fat are dispersed in
water. Stiff greases are emulsions of W/O type, water being dispersed in lubricating oil.
Emulsifiers
When two imericible liquids such as a hydrocarbon oil and water are shaken
together vigorously a milky looking solution result.
This is an emulsion consisting of small droplets of oil suspended in water. However the
droplets remain suspended in water for a short time only. On standing the two liquids

soon separate, the oil droplets rising to the top and forming a separate oil phase. This is
because the cohesive forces between the molecules of each layer exceed the adhesive
forces between two liquids. In
other words the emulsion formed by merely shaking the two immiscible liquids
together is highly unstable. In order to get stable emulsions of fairly high concentrations
it is necessary to add another substance known as emulsifier or emulsifying agent in a
small quantity.
Role of emulsifier
The emulsifier concentrates at the interface and reduces surface tension on the
side of one liquid which rolls into droplets. Soap for example is made of a long
hydrocarbon tail, which is oil soluble, with a polar head – COONa+ (water soluble).
Fig 8.13
In O/W type emulsions the tail is pegged into the oil droplet which the head extends
into water. Thus the soap acts as a go-between and the emulsified droplets are not
allowed to coalesce.
8.17 GELS
Definition
Several lyophilic sols and a few lyophobic sols, when coagulated under certain
conditions, change into a semi-rigid mass, enclosing the entire amount of the liquid
with in itself. Such a product is gel. The process of transformation of a sol into a gel is
known as gelation.
Gel is a colloidal solution in which a liquid is dispersed in a solid.
Elastic and non elastic gels:
There are two types of gels namely elastic gels and non-elastic gels. Elastic gels
are reversible. When partially dehydrated, they change into a solid mass which however
changes back into original form on simple addition of water followed by slight
warming if necessary. Non-elastic gels are irreversible. When dehydrated they become

glassy or change into a powder which on addition of water and followed by warming
does not change back into the original gel.
Gelatin, agar-agar and starch are examples of elastic gels as they are reversible.
Silica, alumina and ferric oxide gels are non-elastic as they are irreversible.
Elastic gels can imbibe water when placed in it and undergo swelling, non-
elastic gels are incapable of doing so. This phenomenon is known as imbibition or
swelling.
8.17.1 Sol-gel transformation
Sol transformation is a phenomenon in which a gel is formed from a sol. When
a freshly prepared sol of CeO2 containing about 10g per litre was transformed into a gel
by coagulation with electrolyte. But if the sol of CeO2 was kept for 200-300 days then it
lost its power and gave a precipitate instead of a gel, by the addition of electrolytes. But
in case of some lyophilic sols, such as gelatin in water, agar in water, the sol-gel
transformation is well known and the transformation is reversible with in certain limits.
If gelatin sol is prepared by heating gelatin with water upto 700C, and it is then
cooled, it is seen that the sol sets to a gel at low temperature. If the gel is again warmed,
it liquefies to a sol. This process can be repeated as and when desired. This sol- gel
transformation is actually reversible as long as the temperature 650-700 is not exceeded.
At higher temperature the product formed are not reversible and sol-gel transformation
does not take place.
8.18 APPLICATION OF COLLOIDS
Colloids play an important role in our daily life as well as in industry,

agriculture, medicine and biology.
(i) Foods:
Many of our foods are colloidal in nature. Milk is an emulsion of butter fat in
water protected by a protein, casein. Casein in nutrient of great value. Gelatin is added
to ice cream (colloidal solution of ice in cream) as a protective agent as as to presence
its smoothness.
Whipped cream, fruit jellies, salad dressings egg and a host of other materials
used as food are colloidal in nature.
(ii) Medicines:
A number of medicinal and pharmaceutical preparations are emulsions. It is
believed that in this form they can be more effective and are easily assimilated. Many
ointments for application to skin consist of physiologically active components dissolved
in oil and made into an emulsion with water.
Antibiotics such as penicillin and streptomycin are produced in colloidal form
suitable for injections.
(iii) Electrical precipitation of smoke:
Smokes and dusts are a nuisance and create health problems in industrial areas.
Actually those are dispersions of electrically charged colloidal particles in air.
The removal of these particles from air involves the principle of electrophoresis.
The air from a furnace or industrial plant carrying these particles is passed between

metal electrodes maintained at high difference of potential (about 50,000 volts). The
particles are discharged and deposited as precipitates on the oppositely charged
electrodes from which they can be scrapped mechanically.
(iv) Industrial goods:
Soap is a colloidal electrolyte. A series of newer detergent and wetting agents
have been produced in recent years. Paints varnishes, enamals, celluloses, resins, gums,
glues and other adhesives: rayon, nylon, terylene textiles, leather, paper etc. Are all
colloidal in nature. Industrial processes such as tanning, dyeing, lubrication etc are all
colloidal in nature.
(v) Rubber-plating:
The negatively charged particles of rubber (latex) are made to deposit on to
wires or handles of various tools (in order to insulate them) by electrophoresis. The
article to be rubber plated is made the anode. The rubber particles migrate in an
electrical field towards the anode and get deposited on it.
(vi) Sewage disposal:
Sewage water consists of particles of dirt, rubbish, mud etc which are of
colloidal dimensions and carry electrical charge and therefore do not settle down easily.
On creating an electrical field in the sewage tank, these
Particles migrate to the oppositely charged electrodes, get neutralized and settle
down at the bottom. This is electrophoresis property of colloids.
(vii) Detergent action of soap:
Most of the dirt and dust sticks on to grease or some oily material which
somehow gathers on cloth. As grease is not easily wetted by water. It is difficult to
clean the garments by water alone. The addition of soap lowers the interfacial tension
between water and grease and this causes the emulsification of grease in water. The
mechanical action, such as rubbing etc releases the dirt.
(viii) Artificial kidney machine:
Human kidneys purify blood by dialysis through natural membranes. The toxic
waste products such as urea and uric acid pass through the membranes while colloid
size particles of blood proteins are retained. Kidney failure therefore leads to death due
to accumulation of poisonous waste products in blood. Now-a-days patient’s blood can
be cleansed by shunting it into a artificial kidney machine. Here the impure blood is
made to pass through a series of cellophane tubes surrounded by washing solution in
water. The toxic waste chemicals diffuse across the tube walls into the washing
solution. The purified blood is returned to the patient.
(ix) Formation of deltas:
The river water contains colloidal particles of sand and clay which carry
negative charge. The sea water, on the other hand contains positive ions such as Na+,
Mg+, Ca2+. As the river water meets sea water these ions discharge the sand or clay
particles which are precipitate as deltas.
Other uses are purification of water formation of smoke screen artificial rain and
many more.
8.19 MACROMOLECULES

Definition
Colloidal solutions are formed by aggregation of atoms or molecules to give
paticles of colloidal size. There are substances which are themselves composed of
giant molecules and dissolve in a solvent to yield colloidal solution directly. These
giant molecules are termed macromelecules or polymers.
The dimensions of the macromolecules fall in a range between 10A0 to
10,000A0. The molar mass of polymer may vary from 5000 to several millions.
Proteins, synthetic polymers (plastic), synthetic rubber, cellulose and and starch all
posses macromolecules.
Solutions of macromoelcules behave like reversible colloids or lyophilic sols.
They show a weak Tyndall effect and possess high viscosity. Macromolecules in
solution do not carry an electric charge and do not show electrophoresis.
Research in synthetic polymer chemistry has grown at huge pace. Several
industries in U.S.A. Japan and some Europian countries have specialized in the
synthesis of high molar mass compounds from low molar mass compounds as starting
materials. Some industries have specialized in the production of plastic, synthetic
rubber, synthetic fibre, lacquers, paints varnishes, adhesives and insulators. In fact
plastic industry covers several varities of systhetic polymers having wide range of
properties. Some of them are superior to even gold and platinum in chemical resistance
and retain their mechanical propertics even when cooled to -500C and heated to 5000C.
The strength of other polymers equals that of metals approaching even diamond in
hardness. Some varieties of systhetic rubbers act as gas-impermeable and petrol and
oil-resistant. Synthetic fibres are far stronger than natural fibres. These can be
converted into crease proof fabrics and excellent artificial furs.
A major discovery in the late 1970’s was the preparation of conducting organic
polymers such as hydrogen derivative of polyacetylene and the one-dimensional
polymers (SN)x.
8.19.1 Molecular weight of macro molecules
The molecular weight is an important property of polymeric substances such as
proteins, polymers (plastics, starch) and other macro molecules. Generally; molecules
of protein or a polymer may not be of the same size. Therefore all the experimental
methods of molecular weight determination will give some kind of an average value.
Two types of average molecular weights have been defined.
(i) Number-average molecular weight MN
(ii) Mass-average molecular weight MM.
For a sample consisting of N polymer molecules containing n1 monomer molecules
of molar mass M1, n2 monomer molecules of molar mass M2, etc, the number-average
molecular weight is defined as
MN = n1M1+n2M2+ = ∑niMi/ ∑ ni ................(1)
n1+n2…..
And mass-average molecular weight is
Defined as
2 2
MM= n1M1 +n2M2 +...... = ∑niMi2 /∑niMj .......(2)

N1M1+n2M2 + ……
If c denotes the concentration of polymer solution in grams per unit volume then
Ci=∑niMi
so that MM = ∑niMi2/∑ci
The mass- average molecular weight is larger than the number-average molecular
weight.
Determination of molecular weight of macro-molecules:
There are a number of methods available for the determination of molecular weight of
macromolecules.
(1) Osmotic pressure measurement
(2) Diffusion method
(3) Sedimentation method
(4) Viscosity determination method
(5) Light scattering method
Viscosity method:
It is a simple method for determining molecular weight of macromolecules.
The pressure of macromolecules raises the viscosity of the solvent. By measuring the
viscosity of pure solvent and the solution in the laboratory we can calculate the
molecular weight of the polymer.
The relative viscosity of a solution of a polymer, denoted by ήr is given by the
expression
ήr = ή/ ή0 .......................(1)
Where ή is viscosity of the solution and ή0 is viscosity of pure solvent at same
temperature.
Fig 8.4
The specific viscosity, ήsp is given by
ήsp =ή r-1 …….(2)
in terms of eqn.(1) and eqn.(2) intrinsic viscosity is defined as
[ή] = lim (ήsp/c)
c 0
where c is concentration of solute. The plot of ήsp/c against c gives a straight

line. Extrapolation to c=0 yields the intrinsic viscosity.
Fig(8.4)
It was shown by Staudinger that the empirical relationship exist between
intrinsic viscosity [ή] and molecular weight [M] of high polymer
[ή] = kMx
Where k and x are constant for a specific polymer in a specific solvent. Once
k and x are known for a polymer solvent combination, M may be calculated.
8.20 SUMMARY
In this chapter you have studied that colloidal system is a two phase
heterogeneous system in which one phase is dispersed in a fine state of subdivision in
another medium termed as dispersion medium. In actual instances the size limit is not
rigid and may vary on either side but most systems conform to the above description.
The wide variety of proteins obtained from the living world form the most
important group of naturally occuring macromolecules. These are produced from
repetitive linking of various amino acids. As a result the proteins are amphoteric in
nature.
The sub-topics studied in this chapter include definition, type of colloidal
systems, properties of sols. Preparation of sols, purification of sols, zeta potential,
electrophoresis, electro-osmosis, coagulation of colloids, origin of charge on colloidal
particles.
Emulsions and gels and their properties have also been studied in this chapter.
Most important above all is wide range of uses of colloids in different areas in our
daily life and industry.
(1) In a true solutions, the diameter of the dispersed particles is of
the range from-
(a) 1A0 to 10A0 (b) 10A0 to 100 A0
(c) 100 A0 to 200 A0 (d) 200 A0 to 500 A0 ans(a)
(2) The precipitating power of Al3+, Na+ and Ca2+ is in the order
(a) Na+>Ca2+>Al3+ (b) Na+>Al3+>Ca2+
(c) Ca2+>Na+>Al3+ (d) Al3+>Ca2+>Na+ ans(d)
(3) Ice cream is a dispersion of ........................in cream.
(a) Water (b) Water vapour
(c) Ice (d) Cooling agent
ans(c)
(B) Short answer questions:
(1) Define the following terms:
(a) Sol (b) Gel
(c) Lyophilic Colloids (d) emulsion

(2) How are colloidal solutions classified.What is meant by colloidal state of matter.
(3) Explain why-
(a) Deltas are formed at a place where the rivers pour their water into the sea.
(b) Define number average and weight average molecular weight.
(C) Long answer questions:
Q.1 What is a molecular colloid? How does a lyophilic colloid
stabilise a lyophobic one? Give an account of gold number in
this respect.
Q.2 Discuss the origin of charge on a colloidal particles. What is
meant by electrical double layer?
Q.3 What are lyophilic and lyophobic sols? Discuss the main
differences between lyophilic and lyophobic colloids.
Q.4 Explain the following:
(a) stability of colloids
(b) Difference between gels and emulsions.
(c) The Schulze-Hardy rule of coagulation.
Q.5 Equal number of molecules with M1=10,000 M2=10,000. are mixed. Calculate
number average molecular weight and mass average molecular weight.
Q.6 (a) What are various methods for determining size of the
colloidal particles? Describe one method in detail.
(b) Write a note on Brownian movement.
----------------------

UNIT 9: CATALYSIS
CONTENTS:
9.1 Objective
9.2 Introduction
9.3 Types of catalysis
9.3.1 Homogenous catalysis
9.3.2 Heterogeneous catalysis
9.4 Characteristic of catalytic reactions
9.5 Promoters
9.6 Catalytic poisoning
9.7 Negative catalysis
9.8 Theories of Catalysis
9.8.1 Theories of homogeneous catalysis
9.8.2 Theories of heterogeneous catalysis
9.8.3 Active centres on catalyst surface
9.8.4 The adsorption theory explains catalytic activity
9.9 Activation energy and catalysis
9.10 Acid-base catalysis
9.10.1 Definition
9.10.2 Theory of acid base catalysis
9.11 Enzyme catalysis (Biochemical catalysis)
9.11.1 Definfition
9.11.2 Characteristics of enzyme catalysis
9.11.3 Examples of enzyme catalysis
9.11.4 Mechanism of enzyme catalysis
9.11.5 Kinetics of enzyme catalysis
9.12 Industrial application of catalysis
9.13 Summary
9.2 OBJECTIVE
It is an interesting aspect of chemistry that certain reactions which do not
proceed to completion even when carried out for indefinite periods of time, get
completed within a matter of few minutes when small quantity of a foreign substances
added. This substance is known as catalyst. Because of this property it is important to
study this topic in detail particularly for many industrial processes.
Autocatalysis:
In certain reactions, one of the product acts as a catalyst. For example, the
oxidation of oxalic acid by acidified potassium permanganate becomes much more
rapid due to the presence of manganese (II) ions which are formed in the reaction.

This type of reaction in which one of the products itself acts as a catalyst is known as
auto-catalysis.
9.1 INTRODUCTION
There are certain reactions which do not proceed to completion even when
carried out for indefinite periods of time. These reactions get completed very soon
when small quantity of a foreign substance is added. Berzelius in 1836 realised that
there are substances which increase the rate of a reaction without themselves being
consumed. These substances are called catalyst. A catalyst is defined as a substance
which increases the rate of the chemical reaction without undergoing any change and
can be recovered as such at the completion of the reaction. The phenomenon of increase
in the rate of a reaction with the help of the catalyst is known as catalysis.
Usually a catalyst accelerates a reaction as was originally thought by Berzelius.

But a number of cases are now known where the catalyst definitely retards the progress
of a reaction.
Thus a catalyst is a substance which alters the rate of a chemical reaction,

itself remaining unchanged chemically at the end of the reaction. The process is
called as catalysis.
Now it is evident from the above definition a catalyst may increase or decrease
the rate of a reaction. A catalyst which increases the rate of a reaction is called positive
catalyst and the process positive catalysis or simply catalysis. A catalyst which retards
the rate of a reaction is called negative catalyst and the process negative catalysis.
The decomposition of potassium chlorate takes place much more rapidly and at
a much lower temperature if a little of manganese dioxide is added to it. Manganese
dioxide is not used up at all and can be recovered unchanged.
The combination of hydrogen and oxygen to form water which is slow at

ordinary temperature proceeds more rapidly in the presence of platinum.
While studying chemical kinetics you have studied that when a catalyst is added
a new reaction path with a lower energy barrier is provided
Fig-9.1

Since energy barrier is reduced in magnitude a large number of molecules of the

reactants can get over it. This increases the rate of the reaction. In this case the catalyst
does not alter the position of the equilibrium in a reversible reaction. It simply hastens
the approach of the equilibrium by speeding up both the forward and the backward
reactions. How the catalyst works you will study in this chapter later.
9.3 TYPES OF CATALYSIS
There are two types of catalysis:
(a) Homogenius catalysis

(b) Heterogenius catalysis
A third type of catalysis known as enzyme catalysis which is largely of
biological interest, you will study in this chapter later on.
9.3.1 Homogenius catalysis
When the catalyst is present in the same phase as that of the reactants, the
phenomenon is known as homogeneous catalysis. Following are some
examples of homogeneous catalysis: Gas phase:
(i) Oxidation of sulpher dioxide (SO2) into sulphurtrioxide (SO3) with nitric oxide
(NO) as catalyst.
2SO2 + O2 + [NO] 2SO3+[NO]
gas gas gas gas
(ii) Decomposition of acetaldehyde (CH3CHO) with iodine (I2) as catalyst
CH3CHO+[I2] CH4+CO+[I2]
vapour vapour gas gas
example of homogeneous catalysis in solution phase:
Many reactions in solutions are catalysed by acids (H+) and bases (OH-).
(i) Hydrolysis of cane sugar in aqueous solution in the presence of mineral acid as
catalyst.
C12H22O11 + H2O H2SO4 C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 + [H2SO4]
cane sugar glucose fructose
(ii) Hydrolysis of an ester in the presence of acid or alkali
H+ / OH
CH3COOC2H5 + H2O CH3COOH + C2H5OH
ethyl acetate acetic acid ehtenol
9.3.2 Heterogeneous catalysis
The catalysis in which the catalyst is in a different physical state from the
reactants is termed as heterogeneous catalysis. The most important of such reactions
are those in which reactants are in the gas phase while the catalyst in solid phase. This
form of catalysis has great industrial importance, as you will study later in this
chapter.

Example of heterogeneous catalysis
(i) Oxidation of ammonia to nitric oxide in the presence of a platinum gauze.

4NH3 + 5O2 + [Pt] 4NO + 6H2O + [Pt]
gas gas solid
(ii) Combination of hydrogen and nitrogen to form ammonia in the presence of
finely divided iron (Haber’s process for ammonia).
N2 + 3H2 + [Fe] 2NH3 + [Fe]
gas gas solid
(iii) Combination of sulphur dioxide (SO2) and oxygen in the presence of
finely divided platinum or vanadium pentoxide, V2O2, (Contact process for
sulphuric acid).
2SO2 + O2 + [Pt] 2SO3 + [Pt]
gas gas solid
(iv) Hydrogination reaction of unsaturated organic compounds are catalysed by
finely divided nickel
H2C = CH2+H2+[Ni] H3C-CH3+[Ni]
(v) Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide in aqueous solution is catalysed by
gold and platinum in colloidal form as well as by mercury and oxides of
metals like lead, manganese cobalt, nickel etc.
2H2O2 + [Pt] 2H2O + O2 + [Pt]
(vi) The decomposition of potassium chlorate is catalysed by manganese
dioxide is shown below
2KClO3 + [MnO2] 2KCl + 3O2 + [MnO2]
The above reaction is heterogeneous, though both reactants are in the same
phase (solid), because every solid forms a new phase.
9.4 CHARACTERISTIC OF CATALYTIC REACTIONS

As you have studied that a catalyst remains unchanged during the chemical reaction
although there are different type of catalytic reactions, the following characteristics
are common to most of them. These features are often referred as the criteria of
catalysis.
1. A catalyst remains unchanged in mass and chemical composition at the end of the
reaction. However the catalyst may undergo a physical change. Thus granular
manganese dioxide used as a catalyst in the thermal decomposition of potassium
chlorate is left in a fine powder at the end of the reaction.
2. A small quantity of catalyst is generally needed to produce almost unlimited
reaction. Sometime a trace of metal catalyst is required to affect very large amounts
of reactants. For example one ten-millionth of its mass of finely divided platinum is
all that needed to catalyse the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide.
On the other hand, there are catalysts which need to be present in relatively
large amount to be effective. Thus in Friedel-Crafts reaction,
AlCl
C6H6 + C2H5Cl 3 C6H5C2H5 + HCl + [AlCl3]

Anhydrous aluminium chloride functions as a catalyst effectively when present to

the extent of 30 per cent of the mass of benzene.
3. A catalyst is more effective when finely divided in heterogeneous catalysis; the
solid catalyst is more effective when in a state of fine subdivision that it is used in
bulk. Finely divided nickel is more effective as catalyst than lump of solid nickel.
4. A catalyst is specific in action. While a particular catalyst works for one reaction it
will not necessarily work for another reaction. Different catalysts can bring about
completely different reactions for the same reaction. For example ethanol gives ethene
when passed over hot aluminum oxide.
C2H5OH + [Al2O3] C2H4 + H2O + [Al2O3]
But with hot copper it gives ethanol (CH3CHO).
C2H5OH + [Cu] CH3CHO + H2 + [Cu]
5. A catalyst cannot in general initiate a reaction.
As you have studied earlier that in most cases a catalyst speeds up a reaction
already in progress and does not start the reaction but there are certain reactions
where the reactants do not combine for very long time.
For example a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen which remains unchanged almost
indefinitely at room temperature can be brought to reaction by the catalyst platinum
black in a few seconds.
H2 + O2 room temp. No reaction
2H2 + O2 Pt black 2H2O
This is because the reacting molecules do not possess minimum kinetic
energies for successful collsion.The molecules rebound from collisions without
reacting at all. But in the presence of the catalyst they get sufficient energies after
reacting with catalyst and are now in a position to give products after further collision
with other molecules.
6. A catalyst does not affect the final position of equilibrium although it shortens the
time required to establish the equilibrium. It means that in a reversible reaction the
catalyst accelerates the forward and reverse reactions equally. Thus the ratio of the
rates of two opposing reactions i.e. equilibrium constant remains unchanged.
The effect of a catalyst on the time required for equilibrium to be established for
the reaction
A+B C+D
is shown in fig-9.2
Fig-9.2

To start with the concentration of A and B are at the maximum and hence rate of
forward reaction is maximum. As the time passes the rate of reaction decreases till the
equilibrium is established. For the reverse reaction the initial concentration of C and
D are zero and the rate of reaction is lowest. As the time passed the rate of reaction
increases till the equilibrium is established. Similar curves of the rates of reactions with
the catalyst show that the rates of the forward reaction and the reverse reaction are
altered equally but the equilibrium is established in a much shorter time.
7. The catalyst cannot alter the nature of products of the reaction. The combination
of hydrogen and nitrogen under suitable conditions results invariably in the formation of
ammonia whether a catalyst is added or not.
8. Change of temperature alters the rate of a catalytic reaction as it would do for the
same reaction with a catalyst. You have already studied in your earlier classes the effect
of temperature on reversible reactions under Le Chatelier’s Principle, which says that
“If equilibrium is subjected to a stress, the equilibrium shifts in such a way as to
reduce the stress”.
Some catalysts are, however, physically altered by a rise in temperature and
hence their catalytic activity may be decreased. This is particularly true with colloidal
solutions like that of platinum, since a rise of temperature may cause their coagulation.
In such a case the rate of reaction increases up to certain point and then gradually
decreases. The rate of reaction is maximum at a particular temperature called the
optimum temperature.
9.5 PROMOTERS
It has been observed in a number of cases that the activity of a catalyst is considerably
increased by the addition of a second substance which by itself has no catalytic
property. Such a substance which promotes the activity of catalyst is called promoter.
Thus molybdenum (Mo) or aluminium oxide (Al2O3) promotes the activity of iron
catalyst in the Haber synthesis for the manufacture of ammonia.
N2 + 3H2 Fe 2 NH3
+Mo
In the synthesis of methanol (CH3OH) from carbon monoxide and hydrogen, a
mixture of zinc oxide and chromium oxide is used as catalyst.
CO + 2H2 ZnO CH3OH
Cr2O3
Explanation of promoter action
The action of promoter is not clearly known, this action may be because of the
following points:
(1) Change of lattice spacing:
The lattice spacing of the catalyst is changed. Thus enhancing the spaces between
catalyst particles. The adsorbed molecules of the reactant (say H2) are further
weakened and cleaved. This makes the reaction go faster (fig 9.3).

Fig-9.3
(2) Increased peaks and cracks:
The presence of promoter increases the peaks and cracks on the catalyst surface. This
increases the concentration of the reactant molecules and hence the rate of reaction.
9.6 CATALYTIC POISONING

A substance which destroys the activity of the catalyst to accelerate a reaction is
called a poison and the process and the process is called catalytic poisoning.
Example of catalytic poisoning

(i) The platinum catalyst used in the oxidation of sulphurdioxide is poisoned by arsenic
oxide (AS2O3).
SO2 + O2 Pt 2SO3
Poisoned By As2O3
(ii) The iron catalyst used in the synthesis of ammonia is poisoned by H2S
N2 + 2H2 Fe 2NH3
Poisoned by H2S
(iii) The platinum catalyst used in the oxidation of hydrogen is poisoned by
carbon monoxide.
2H2 + O2 Pt 2H2O
Poisoned by CO
Explanation of catalytic poisoning
(i) The poison is adsorbed on the catalyst surface is presence of the reactants. It has
been found that even a monolayer renders the surface unavailable for further
adsorption of the reactants. The poisoning by As2O3 or CO appears to be of this
kind.

Fig -9.4
(ii) The catalyst may combine chemically with the impurity.

The poisoning of iron catalyst by H2S falls in this class.
Fe + H2S FeS + H2
9.7 NEGATIVE CATALYSIS

In some cases it has been found that a catalyst instead of speeding up a reaction may
actually retard it. Such substances are called negative catalysts or inhibitors. The
negative catalysts are of great use when it is desired to slow down altogether a
particular reaction.
(i) In the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide a small amount of acetanilide or
glycerine when added slow down the reaction.
(ii) When tetraethyl lead Pb(C2H5)4 is added to petrol it retards the too rapid or
explosive combustion of the fuel which is responsible for knocking of the
engine.
Explanation of negative catalysis
Negative action of substances to catalyst could be different for different reactions.
(i) By poisoning the catalyst:
The negative catalyst may function by poisoning a catalyst which already happens to
be present in the reaction mixture. For example the traces of alkali dissolved
from the glass of a container, catalyse the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2). But the addition of an acid would destroy the alkali catalyst thus prevents
decomposition.
(ii) By breaking the chain reaction:
In some cases negative catalysis are believed to operate by breaking the chain
of reaction. For example, the combination of hydrogen (H2) and chlorine (Cl2) which
is a chain reaction is negatively catalysed by nitrogen trichloride (NCl3).
Cl2 Cl* + Cl*
H2 + Cl* HCl + H*
H* + Cl2 HCl + Cl*

NCl3 breaks the chain of reactions by absorbing the propagating species (Cl*)
and the reaction stops.
NCl3 + Cl* ½ N2 + 2Cl2
9.8 THEORIES OF CATALYSIS

9.8.1 Theories of homogeneous catalysis
It is believed that in homogeneous catalysis, a reactive intermediate compound
is first formed by the interaction of one of the reactants with catalyst. The
intermediate compound then reacts with the other reactant or reactants giving the final
product and at the same time regenerating the catalyst in its original form.
(i) The combination of sulphur dioxide and oxygen, catalysed by nitric oxide
gas, is represented as under:
2NO + O2 2NO2 …………(1)

catalyst one reactant intermediate
compound
2NO2 + 2SO2 2SO3 + 2NO ………(2)
intermediate second product catalyst
compound reactant regenerated
The reaction would have taken place in the absence of catalyst shown
below:
2SO2 + O2 2SO3 …….. …………(3)
The reaction represented by equation (2) takes place much more rapidly than
that represented by equation (3). This explains the catalytic effect of nitric
oxide.
(ii) Preparation of diethyl ether (C2H5)2O from ethanol (C2H5OH) using
sulphuric acid as catalyst can be explained as:
C2H5OH + H2SO4 C2H5HSO4 + H2O
reactant catalyst intermediate
first molecule compound
C2H5HSO4 + C2H5OH (C2H5)2O + H2SO4
Intermediate reactant product catalyst
compound second molecule regenerated
(iii) Thermal decomposition of potassium chlorate (KClO3) in presence of

manganese dioxide can be explained as:
2KClO3 + 6MnO2 6MnO3 + 2KCl

Intermediate
compound
6 MnO3 6 MnO2 + 3O2

9.8.2 Theories of heterogeneous catalysis

In homogeneous catalysis the intermediate compound formation theory is
applicable. The second theory known as adsorption theory, is applicable to
heterogeneous catalysis in most of the cases.
According to this theory catalyst functions by adsorption of the reacting

molecules. This theory was originated by Faraday in 1833. He suggested that the
reacting gases collect on the surface of the solid to form a film. As the concentration of
reactants is high in the film, the reaction takes place at a faster rate in the presence of
the solid than its absence. Now the formation of such gaseous films on the solid
surface is well established by the researches of Langmuir and others.
four steps can be put forwarded for heterogeneous catalysis. For example, if the
general reaction is
A(g) + B(g) catalyst C(g) + D(g)
A+B +M C+D + M
reactants catalyst products catalyst
A + M AM
one catalyst intermediate
reactant
AM + B C+D + M
intermediate other reactant product catalyst
Step-1 Adsorption of reactant molecules:
The reactant molecules A and B strike the catalyst surface. They are held up at
the surface by weak von der Waal’s forces (Physical adsorption) or by partial
chemical bonds (chemical adsorption).
Step-2 Formation of activated complex:
The particles of the reactants adjacent to one another join to form an
intermediate complex (A-B). The activated complex is constable. It has very short
existence.
Step-3 Decomposition of activated complex:
The activated complex breaks to form the products C and D. The separated
particles of the products hold to the catalyst surface by partial chemical bonds.

Fig-9.5
Step-4 Desorption of products:
The particles of products are desorbed or released from the surface. They are stable and
can lead an independent existence.
The mechanism of contact catalysis may vary in details, depending on
the nature of reactants.
Let us consider the example of hydrogenation of ethene in presence of nikel. In
this case, ethene adds hydrogen in the presence of nickel as a catalyst to yield ethane.
Fig-9.6 (a), 9.6 (b), 9.6 (c) & 9.6 (d)

The functioning of catalyst in this reaction is as follows:
Step-1 Adsorption of hydrogen molecules:
Hydrogen molecules are adsorbed on the nickel surface due to residual valence bonds
of the nickel atoms (fig 9.6a)
Step-2 H-H bonds are broken:
The H-H bond is smaller than Ni-Ni bond. Therefore, the H-H bond of the adsorbed
hydrogen molecule is stretched and weakened. The weakened bond breaks, separating
the hydrogen atoms. The separated hydrogen atoms are held to the nickel surface by
chemical bonds (fig- 9.6 b).
Step-3 Formation of the activated complex:

The chemisorbed hydrogen atoms then attach to ethene molecule by partial chemical
bonds. Therefore, unstable activated complex is formed (fig 9.6c).
Step-4 Decomposition of activated complex and desorption of ethane molecule:
The unstable activated complex decomposes to form ethane molecule. The freed
catalyst surface is again available for further action (fig 9.6d) In the case of reaction
between sulphur dioxide and oxygen in the presence of platinum catalyst, the
molecules are first adsorbed at adjacent points and then those possessing sufficient
energy react with the surface of the catalyst yielding an adsorbed activated complex.
The complex then readily dcomposes to give sulphur dioxide which gets readily
desorbed.
If one of the reactants is adsorbed strongly on the solid, it will cover most of
the surface of the catalyst leaving very little space for the adsorption of the second
reactant. The formation of activated complex, therefore, will be slowed down. At the
same time, if one of the reactants is adsorbed to a small extent, the catalytic effect
will be negligible. For efficient catalysis, therefore, it is desirable that both the
reacting gases should be adsorbed appreciably. At the same time it is essential that the
products of the reaction are desorbed readily from the surface so that necessary space
for the adsorption of the reacting molecules is made available once again.
If the reaction involves only one molecular species for example the
decomposition of ammonia gas on the surface of tungsten or that of hydrogen iodide
on platinum, it should be adsorbed strongly so that the ‘adsorbed activated complex’
is formed readily and the reaction is quickened.
9.8.3 Active centres on catalyst surface
The catalyst surface has unbalanced chemical bonds on it. The reactant
gaseous molecules are adsorbed on the surface by these free bonds. This accelerates
the rate of a reaction. The distribution of free bonds on the catalyst surface is not
uniform. These are crowded at peaks, cracks and corners of the catalyst. (fig 9.7) The
catalytic activity due to adsorption of reacting molecules is maximum at these spots.
These are therefore referred at the active centres.
Fig-9.7

The active centres increase the rate of reaction not only by increasing the concentration
of the reactants but they also activate the molecule adsorbed at two such centres by
stretching it.
9.8.4 The adsorption theory explains catalytic activity

(i) Metals in a state of fine subdivision or colloidal form are rich in free valance
bonds and hence they are more efficient catalysts than the metal in lumps.
Fig-9.8
(ii) A promoter increases the valance bonds on the catalyst surface by changing the
crystal lattice and thereby increasing the active centres. (fig- 9.8).
(iii) Catalytic poisoning occurs because the so called poison blocks the free valence
bonds on its surface by preferential adsorption or by chemical combination.
9.9 ACTIVATION ENERGY AND CATALYSIS
As you have studied in chemical kinetics a reaction occurs by the collision between the
reactant molecules (or ions). At ordinary temperature, the molecules do not possess
enough energy and hence collisions are not effective. However, when the temperature
of the system raised, the kinetic energy of the molecules increases. But the molecules
do not react unless they attain minimum amount of energy.
The minimum amount of energy required to cause a chemical reaction is known as
activation energy.
The activated molecules on collision first form an activated complex. As a result
of breaking of old bonds and forming of new bonds the activated complex dissociates
to yield product molecules.
Fig-9.9

A catalyst lowers the activation energy of the reaction by providing a new pathway
(fig 9.10). Thus larger number of effective collisions occurs in the presence of the
catalyst, than would occur at the same temperature without the presence of catalyst. In
this way the presence of catalyst makes the reaction go faster, other condition
remaining the same.
Fig-9.10
9.10 ACID-BASE CATALYSIS
9.10.1 Definition
There are a number of homogeneous catalytic reactions which are brought about by
acids and bases. The subject of acid-base catalysis therefore has assumed a special
importance.
Arrhenius pointed out that acid catalysis was, infact, brought about by H+ ions
supplied by strong acids, while base catalysis was caused by OH- ions supplied by
strong bases.
The catalytic effect of the dilute mineral acids on
(i) The inversion of sucrose has been well known for a long time:
C12H22O11 + H2O H+ C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
sucrose glucose fructose
+
(ii) Decomposition of nitramide catalysed by H ion takes place as follows:
NH2NO2 H+ N2 O + H2 O
(iii) Hydrolysis of nitrile, first to amino acid and then to ammonium salt of the
corresponding fatty acid,is catalysed by acid and bases.
RCN + H2O H+/OH- RCONH2
nitrile amide
+ -
RCONH2 + H2O H /OH RCOONH4
amide Ammonium salt

(iv) Hydrolysis of an ester to give corresponding acid and alcohol is accelerated

in the presence of acids.
CH3COOC2H5 H+ CH3COOH + C2H5OH
ethyl acetate acetic acid ethanol
The recent work has shown that in the reactions catalysed by acids not only hydrogen
ions but also undissociated acids even cations of weak bases (such as NH4+), in short,
all substances which have tendency to give up proton, can show catalytic activity.
Similarly in the reactions catalysed by bases, not also undissociated bases and even
anions of weak acid (such as CH3COO-), can function as catalysts. It is this discovery
which leads to the development of modern concept of acids and bases.
According to this concept, a reaction which is catalysed by an acid is also
catalysed by any substance which defined as a substance which has a tendency to lose
a proton. This is known as general acid catalysis and an acid is defined as a substance
which has a tendency to lose a proton. Similarly, a reaction, which is catalysed by a
base, is also catalysed by all substances which has tendency to gain a proton. This is
known as general base catalysis and a base is defined as a substance which has
tendency to gain a proton.
Some reaction such as mutarotation of glucose, hydrolysis of nitriles and esters
and enolisation of acetone are catalysed by both acids and bases.
9.10.2 Theory of acid base catalysis
Careful experiments have shown that the catalytic activity of an acid (or a base)
for the given reaction depends upon its readiness to lose (or gain) a proton. Therefore
the mechanism of acid-base catalysis appears to involve loosing or gaining of protons.
It is believed that a complex is formed first by the transfer of proton (from the acid
catalyst) to the reactant molecule. This process, which is slow and determines the rate
of the reaction, is followed by a rapid internal rearrangement giving rise to the
product. The proton set free in this rearrangement is removed by the base catalyst.
Following are few examples considered to illustrate the mechanism of acid-base
catalysis.
(i) Mutarotation of glucose:
Let GH represent ά - glucose and HG its isomer,
ß - glucose. The catalysed transformation of ά - glucose into ß - glucose may be
represented as below:
H+ + GH HGH+ rearrangement HG + H+
Proton supplied the intermediate ß
glucose proton
by acid catalyst complex
(product) removed by
base catalyst
the rate of mutarotation of glucose is very small in pyridine, a base, and also in cresol,
an acid, but is appreciably high in a mixture of two solvents.
(ii) Hydrolysis of ethyle acetate:
The acid catalysed hydrolysis of ethyl acetate proceed in the following steps.

Evidently, one out of the two molecules of water acts as a base as it takes up the
proton.
(iii) An example of a base catalysed reaction is given by the decomposition of
nitramide:
9.11 ENZYME CATALYSIS (BIOCHEMICAL CATALYSIS)

9.11.1 Definition
Enzymes are complex nitrogeneous organic compounds. They are produced in
living cells of plants and animals. When dissolved in water they produce colloidal
solution, hence they behave as very active catalysts in certain biochemical reactions.
They are thus known as biochemical catalysts and the phenomenon itself is known as
biochemical catalysis.
Enzyme is proteins having high molar mass of the order of 10,000 or even more.
Each enzyme can catalyse a specific reaction.
9.11.2 Characteristics of enzyme catalysis
(i) Enzymes form a colloidal solution in water and hence they are very active
catalysts.
(ii) Like inorganic catalysts they cannot disturb the final state of equilibrium of a
reversible reaction.
(iii) They are highly specific in nature, i.e. , one catalyst cannot catalyse more
than one reaction.
(iv) They are highly specific to temperature. The optimum temperature of their
activity is 350C to 400C. They are deactivated at 700C.
(v) Their activity is increased in the presence of certain substances known as
co-enzymes.

(vi) A small quantity of enzyme catalyst is sufficient for a large change.

(vii) They are destroyed by U.V. rays.
(viii) Their efficiency is decreased in the presence of electrolytes.
9.11.3 Examples of enzyme catalysis

(i) Conversion of starch into maltose sugar:
The enzyme diastate produced in the germinated barley seeds converts
starch into maltose sugar.
2 (C6H10O5)n + nH2O diastase nC12H22O11
(ii) The enzyme zymase produced by living yeast cells converts
glucose into ethyl alcohol.
C6H12O6 zymase 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
Glucose ethyl alcohol
(iii) The enzyme urease present in soyabean hydrolyses urea into
ammonia.
NH2 CONH2 + H2 urease 2NH3 + CO2
urea ammonia
(iv) Canesugar converted into glucose and fructose by the enzyme invertase.
C12H22O11 + H2O invertase C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
canesugar glucose fructose
The catalytic activity of enzymes is due to their capacity to lower the
activation energy for a particular reaction.
9.11.4 Mechanism of enzyme catalysis
The long chain of the enzyme (protein) molecules is coiled on each other to make a
rigid colloidal particle with cavities on its surface. These cavitites which are of
chacteristic shape and abound in active group (NH2, COOH, OH, SH), are termed
as active centres. The molecules of substrate (reactant) which has complementary
shape, fit into these cavities just as key fits into a lock (lock and key theory). By
virtue of the presence of active groups, the enzyme forms an activated complex
with the substrate which at once decomposes to yield the products. Thus the
substrate molecules enter the cavities, forms complex and reacts and at once the
products get out of the cavities.
Michaelis and Menton (1913) preposed the following mechanism for enzyme
catalysis
E=Enzyme S= substrat (reactant) ES = activated complex P=product

Fig-9.11

9.11.5 Kinetics of enzyme catalysis:

A reactant in enzyme catalysed reaction is known as substrate. According to
mechanism of enzyme catalysis, the enzyme combines with the substrate to form a
complex as suggested by Henry (1903). He also suggested that this complex remains in
equilibrium with the enzyme and the substrate. Later on in 1925 Briggs and Haldane
showed that a steady state treatment could be easily applied to the kinetics of enzymes.
Some photochemical reactions and some enzymic reactions are reactions of zero order.
With S representing the substrate E the enzyme, ES enzyme-substrate complex and the
products, the mechanism of the enzyme catalysed reaction is presumed to be adequately
represented by
E+S k1 ES k3 E+P
k2
Where k1, k2 and k3 are the rate constant for the respective reactions.
By adopting steady state concept we can determine the order of reaction of enzyme
catalysed reactions.
9.12 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION OF CATALYSIS
The following are a few important examples of heterogeneous catalytic reactions of
industrial importance.
1. Haber’s process for manufacture of ammonia
N2 + 2H2 Fe/MO 2NH3
Finely divided iron and molybdenum (as promoter) 200 atm. pressure and
temperature range is 4000C – 5000C are applied in this process.
2. The manufacture of chlorine by Deacon’s process.
4HCl + O2 CuCl2 2H2O + 2Cl2
In this case cupric chloride is catalyst and excess of air functions as
promoter. The temperature should be 5000C.
3. Ostwald’s process for the manufacture of HNO3.
4NH3 + 5O2 4NO + 6H2O
2NO + O2 2NO2
4NO2 +2H2O + O2 4HNO3
Conditions for better yield are platinised asbestos as catalyst + excess of air
(as promoter) and temperature 3000C.
4. Manufacture of hydrogen by Bosch’s process.
(CO + H2) +H2 CO2 + H2
water gas
In this process ferric oxide acts as catalyst, chromic oxide as promoter and
temperature is maintained between 4000C- 6000C.
5. In the manufacture of methyl alcohol from water gas
(CO + H2) + H2 CH3OH
water gas
Zinc oxide is used as catalyst, chromic oxide as promoter pressure 200 atms. and
temperature 4500C.
6. In Chamber process for manufacture of H2SO4, nitric oxide is used as catalyst.

2SO2 + O2 + [NO] 2SO3 + [NO]

catalyst
SO3 + H2O H2SO4
7. In the manufacture of acetic acid from acetaldehyde.
2CH3CHO + O2 2CH3COOH
Vanadium oxide (V2O5) is used as catalyst.
9.13 SUMMARY
It is indeed, a fascinating aspect of chemistry that certain reactions which do
not proceed to completion even when carried out for indefinite period of time, that
completed within a matter of few minutes when small
Quantity of a catalyst is added. A catalyst provides for the reaction another

path that has a lower energy of activation Ea. A Better explanation is offered by the
activated complex theory on the basis of the decrease in free energy of activation. The
presence of catalyst is very useful in many industrially important reactions which are
either very slow or takes place at a very high temperature. Hence to decrease the cost
of production it is essential to make use of a suitable catalyst.
In this chapter you have studied definition of catalysis, types of catalysis,

catalytic promoters, negative catalysis, acid-base catalysis, enzyme catalysis, different
theories of catalysis and uses of catalysis.

Q.1 In the hydrogenation of oils the catalyst used is:
(a) Iron (b) Platinum
(c) Nickel (d) Molybdenum ans (c)
Q.2 Which of the following is most likely to increase the rate of the reaction?
(a) decreasing the temperature.
(b) increasing the volume of the vessel.
(c) reducing the activation energy.
(d) decreasing the concentration of the reactant in the reaction vessel.
ans (c)
Q.3 Which of the following statement is universally correct?
(a) A catalyst remains unchanged at the end of the reaction.
(b) A catalyst physically changes at the end of the reaction.
(c) A catalyst take part in a chemical reaction.
(d) A catalyst can induce chemical reaction. ans (a)
Q.4 A substance that retards the rate of chemical reaction in the presence of
catalyst is called:
(a) An inhibitor.
(b) A positive catalyst.
(c) An autocatalyst/

(d) A promoter. ans (a)

Q.5 A catalyst
(a) may be in the same phase with the reactants or in a different phase.
(b) may accelerate a reaction.
(c) affect a reaction without being consumed in the process.
(d) all of the above. ans(d)
Q.6 The energy needed to overcome for a reaction to occur is called:
(a) activation energy.
(b) energy of vapourisation.
(c) specific heat
(d) potential energy ans (a)
(B) Short answer and very short answer type questions:
1. Define catalyst and catalysis.
2. Explain how a catalyst increases the rate of a reaction.
3. Define the terms
(i) catalytic promoter
(ii) catalyst inhibitor
(iii) catalytic poison
4. Explain the term homogeneous catalysis and heterogeneous catalysis.
5. What is an enzyme? Describe its characteristics?
6. Explain why solid catalysts are generally used in the finely divided state.
7. What is the role of an inhibitor in a chemical reaction?
8. Where are the following used as catalyst?
(i) Finely divided nickel
(ii) Platinum gauge
(iii) Ferric oxide
(iv) Manganese dioxide.
9. Write a note on adsorption theory of catalysis.
10. Explain with examples what is negative catalyst.
(C) Essay type or long answer questions:
1. Write a brief account of the theories of catalysis. Explain the function of
active centres.
2. Write an essay on catalysis.
3. Give a brief account of adsorption theory. How does this theory explain the
characteristics of contact catalysis?
4. Explain the important characteristics of enzyme catalysis with examples.
5. (a) Describe the theory of homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis.
(b) Give an example each for enzyme catalysis and acid base catalysis.
6. Write notes on:
(a) catalyst and energy of activation.
(b) specificity of catalytic action.
(c) auto catalyst.
--------------------

UNIT 10: BASIC CONCEPTS OF THERMODYNAMICS
CONTENTS:
10.1 Objectives
10.2 Introduction
10.3 Definition of thermodynamic terms
10.3.1 Temperature
10.3.2 System and surroundings
10.3.3 Homogeneous and heterogeneous system
10.3.4 Types of systems
10.3.5 Intensive and extensive properties
10.3.6 Processes and their types
10.4 Reversible and irreversible processes
10.5 State of a system
10.6 Thermodynamic equilibrium
10.6.1 Thermal equilibrium
10.6.2 Mechanical equilibrium
10.6.3 Chemical equilibrium
10.7 Nature of heat and work
10.7.1 Unit of heat
10.7.2 Sign convention of heat
10.7.3 Sign convention of work
10.7.4 Pressure - volume work
10.7.5 Work done in reversible isothermal expansion
10.7.6 Work done in reversible isothermal compression
10.7.8 Work done in irreversible isothermal expansion
10.8 State function, Exact and Inexact differentials
10.8.1 The Euler reciprocal relation
10.9 Summary
10.10 Terminal questions
10.1 OBJECTIVES
Literally speaking thermodynamics concerns itself with the flow of heat and it
deals with relation between heat and work. Heat, as we all know, is a form of energy
and the conversion of heat into useful work and vice versa come under the domain of
thermodynamics. The science of thermodynamics governs not only the transformation
of heat into work but also includes all types of inter-conversion of one kind of energy
into another; e.g., electricity into work, chemical energy to electrical energy, etc.
10.2 INTRODUCTION
The study of flow of heat or any other form of energy into or out of a system as
the system undergoes a physical or chemical transformation is called thermodynamics.

The most distinguishing feature of thermodynamics, however, is its predominant

concern with temperature and temperature-dependent variables.
Thermodynamics is essentially a practical science and it has its verification

extending mainly to the fields of chemistry, physics and engineering. With the
assistance of thermodynamics the chemist predicts the possibility of a chemical reaction
or the maximum yield in a chemical process under a given set of circumstances. Using
thermodynamic laws the physicist explains the phenomena where phase changes or
inter-actions with radiations or electromagnetic field are involved. To the engineers it is
the most powerful weapon to solve problems of power and consumptions, in the
prediction of efficiencies of heat-engines and refrigerators, in the design of engines and
so on.
The thermodynamic principles correlate different observable properties of a

system but cannot always give us the exact magnitude of a property of the system.
These relations help us in predicting the behaviour of a system or the ultimate result
that a process would lead to. Thus, from thermodynamics we can predict under a set of
defined conditions the maximum yield in a chemical process, but we cannot say
anything about the rate of the reaction or the mechanism of the reaction.
Thermodynamics does not make any hypothesis as to the structure of matter.

Thermodynamics derives from various laws, relations between properties
experimentally observed but not offer any explanation as to why these properties arise
in a system. The approach in thermodynamics is thus entirely different from that in the
atomic constitution of matter. For example, in kinetic theory we consider the pressure
of a gas is measure of the impact of the molecules on the wall per second, while in
thermodynamics, pressure is a property of the state of a system. Similarly temperature
is, according to kinetic theory, a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules
while it is a simple property of state from the view-point of thermodynamics.
10.3 DEFINITION OF THERMODYNAMIC TERMS

10.3.1 Temperature
The hotness or the coldness of an object is understood fundamentally by our
senses. The hotter body will have a higher temperature than the colder body. We also
have another experience in nature. Suppose there are two bodies, A and B, A being
hotter than B. If A is brought in contact with B, it is found that A gradually becomes
colder and B becomes warmer. During this process, other changes in pressure or
volume may also occur. Ultimately, we find that both A and B are equally warm, i.e.
they have attained the same temperature. A and B are now said to be in thermal
equilibrium. During this process, some energy (really the heat-energy) have moved
from the hotter body A to the colder body B. Temperature then determines the direction
in which in which heat would flow, namely, from the hotter body to colder body. In
other words “temperature is the driving forces for the flow of heat.”

Zeroth law of thermodynamics:
Let us consider three systems A, B and C. Suppose A is in thermal contact with

B through a diathermic wall. A diathermic wall is that which permits the systems in
contact to influence each other. And again B is also in thermal contact with C (fig
10.1). Sufficient time being allowed A will be in thermal equilibrium.
Fig 10.1 Zeroth law of thermodynamics
With B. Similarly, C will also in thermal equilibrium with B. If B is now

removed and A is brought in thermal contact with C, it is found that there is no change
in the coordinates of A and C. The systems A and C are in thermal equilibrium with
each other. Hence
“Two systems in thermal equilibrium with a third are in thermal equilibrium with each
other”. This is Zeroth law of thermodynamics.
10.3.2 System and surroundings

A system may be defined as any specified portion of matter under study which
is separated from rest of the universe with a bounding surface. A system may consist of
one or more substances.
The rest of the universe which might be in a position to exchange matter and
energy with the system with the system is called surroundings. The real or imaginary
surface separating the system from the surroundings is called the boundary. The
boundary may be real or imaginary.
Fig 10.2 thermodynamic system and surroundings

A quantity of a gas in a closed cylinder has real and defined boundaries, but if
the same gas flows through a zigzag pipe, its boundaries constantly change and have to
be followed in imagination as it progresses. If say 250 ml of water contained in a
beaker it will constitute a thermodynamic system. The beaker and the air in contact, are
the surroundings.
If one mole of a gas confined in a cylinder fitted with a piston, is a thermodynamics

system. The cylinder, the piston and all other objects outside the cylinder, form the
surroundings. Here the boundary between the system (gas) and the surroundings
(cylinder and piston) is clearly defined. A system and its surroundings constitute the
universe.
System + surroundings = universe
10.3.3 Homogeneous and heterogeneous system

A system is said to be homogeneous if it is completely uniform throughout. In
such a system there is only one phase. A phase is defined as a homogeneous, physically
distinct and mechanically separable portion of a system. Examples of homogeneous
system are pure single solid, liquid or gas, mixture of gases and true solution of solid in
a liquid.
A system is said to be heterogeneous, when it is not uniform throughout. In such a
system there are two or more phases. Examples of heterogeneous system are: ice in
contact with water, ice in contact with vapour, etc. Here ice, water and vapour
constitute separate phases.
10.3.4 Types of systems
There are three types of thermodynamics systems depending on the nature of
boundary.
10.3.4.1Open system
A system which can exchange matter as well as energy with its surroundings is
said to be an open system. Hot water contained in a beaker placed on laboratory table is
an open system. Here the water vapour (matter) and also heat (energy) is transferred to
the surroundings through the imaginary boundary.
10.3.4.2 Closed system A system which can exchange energy not matter with its
surroundings is called a closed system. A specific quantity of hot water contained in a
sealed tube in an example of a closed system. While no water vapour can escape from
this system, it can transfer heat through the walls of tube to the surroundings.
10.3.4.3 Isolated system A system which can exchange neither matter nor energy
with its surroundings is called an isolated system.
Let us consider a system 100 ml of water in contact with its vapour in a closed
vessel which is insulated. Since the vessel is sealed, no water vapour (matter) can
escape from it. Also as the vessel is insulated, no heat (energy) can be exchanged with
its surroundings.
Isothermal and adiabatic systems:

If a system is maintained at a constant temperature it is termed as isothermal

system. If a system is so insulated from its surroundings that no heat flows in or out of
the system its termed as adiabatic system.
Fig 10.3 three types of thermodynamic systems
10.3.5 Intensive and extensive properties

The macroscopic or bulk properties of a system (volume, pressure, mass etc.) can be
devided into two classes
(a) Intensive properties
(b) Extensive properties
In intensive property of a system is that which is independent of the amount of the
substance present in the system. The examples are temperature, pressure, density,
concentration, viscosity. Refractive index, surface tension and specific heat.
A property that does depend on the quantity of matter present in the system is called an
extensive property. Some examples of extensive properties are volume, no. of moles,
enthalpy, entropy, mass and Gibbs free energy.
Table 10.1 common properties of a system

10.3.6 Processes and their types
When a thermodynamic system changes from one state to another, the operation
is called a process. When a system changes from one state to another it is accompanied
by change in energy. In the case of open systems, there may be change of matter as
well.
The following types of processes are known:
(1) Isothermal process:
A process is said to be isothermal if the temperature of the system remains constant
during each state of process. For an isothermal process dT=0

(2) Adiabatic process:

A process is said be adiabatic if no heat enters or leaves the system during any step
of the process. Adiabatic conditions can be approached by carrying the process in
an insulated container such as ‘thermos bottle.’ High vacuum and highly polished
surfaces help to achieve thermal insulation.
For an adiabatic process dq=0
(3) Isobaric process:
Those processes which take place at constant pressure are called isobaric processes.
Heating of water to its boiling point and its vaporisation takes place at the same
atmospheric pressure is an example of isobaric process.
For an isobaric process dP=0
(4) Isochoric process:
A process in which volume remains constant is known as isochoric process. The
heating of a substance in a non-expanding chamber is an example of isochoric process.
For an isochoric process dV=0
(5) Cyclic process:
When a system in a given state goes through a number of different processes and finally
returns to its initial state, the overall process is called a cyclic process.
For cyclic process dE=0, dH=0.
Fig 10.4 cyclic process

10.4 REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES
A process carried out infinitesimally slowly and its direction at any point can be
reversed by an infinitesimal change in the state of a system is a reversible process.
In fact, reversible process is considered to proceed from initial state to final state
through an infinite series of infinitesimally small stages. At the initial, final and all
intermediate stages, the system is in equilibrium state, this is so because an
infinitesimal change in the state of the system at each intermediate step is negligible.
When a process goes from initial state to the final state in a single step and
cannot be carried in the reverse order, it is said to an irreversible process. Here the
system is in equilibrium state in the beginning and at the end, but not at points in
between.

A reversible process cannot be realised in practice, it would require infinite time

for its completion. Hence, all those reactions which occur in nature or in laboratory are
irreversible. A reversible process is thus theoretical and imaginary.
Example:
Let us consider a certain quantity of gas contained in a cylinder having a
weightless and frictionless piston. The expansion of the gas is carried out by two
methods illustrated in fig 10.5.
Fig 10.5 reversible expansion of a gas (a) irreversible expansion of a gas (b)
Let the pressure applied to the piston be P and this is equal to the internal
pressure of the gas. Since the external and internal pressure are exactly
counterbalanced, the piston remains stationary and there is no change in the volume of
the gas. Now suppose the pressure on the piston is decreased by an infinitesimal
amount dP. Thus the external pressure on the piston being P-dP, the piston moves up
and the gas will expand by an infinitesimal small amount. The gas will, therefore, be
expanded infinitely slowly i.e., by a thermodynamically reversible process. At all stages
in the expansion of the gas, dP being negligibly small the gas is maintained in a state of
equilibrium throughout. If at any point of the process the pressure is increased by dP,
the gas would contract reversibly ( Fig 10.4 a).
On the other hand, the expansion is irreversible (Fig 10.4b) if the pressure on
the piston is decreased suddenly. It moves upwards rapidly in a single operation. The
gas is in equilibrium state in the initial and final stages only. The expansion of the gas,
in this case, takes place in an irreversible manner.
10.5 STATE OF A SYSTEM
A thermodynamic system is said to be in a certain state when all its properties
are fixed. The fundamental properties which determine the states of a system are
pressure (P), temperature (T), volume (V), mass and composition. Since the change in
the magnitude of such properties alters the state of the system, these are referred to as
state variables or state functions or thermodynamic parameters.
In actual practice, it is not necessary to specify all the variables because some of
them are interdependent. In the case of a single gas composition is fixed, because it
remains always 100 percent. Further, if the gas is ideal and one mole of gas is under

examination, it obey’s the equation PV=RT, where R is universal gas constant. Hence it
is clear that if only two of the three variables (P,V and T) are known, the third can
easily be calculated. The two variables, generally specified, are temperature and
pressure. These are called independent variables. The third variable, generally
volume, is said to be dependent variable, as its value depends on the value of P and
T. Thus, the thermodynamic state of a system consisting of a single gaseous substance
may be completely defined by specifying any two of the three variables, viz.
temperature pressure and volume.
In a closed system, consisting of one or more components, mass is not a state
variable.
10.6 THERMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM
A system in which the state variables have constant values throughout the
system is said to be in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium. In fact, the term
thermodynamic equilibrium implies the existence of three kinds of equilibrium in the
system. These are (i) thermal equilibrium (ii) mechanical equilibrium and (iii) chemical
equilibrium.
10.6.1 Thermal equilibrium
A system is said to be in thermal equilibrium if there is no flow of heat from one
portion of system to another. This is possible if the temperature remains the same
throughout in all parts of the system.
10.6.2 Mechanical equilibrium
A system is said to be in mechanical equilibrium if no mechanical work is done
by one part of the system on another part of the system. This is possible if the pressure
remains the same throughout in all parts of the system.
10.6.3 Chemical equilibrium
A system is said to be in chemical equilibrium if the composition of the system
is uniform and there is not net chemical change.
Difference between reversible and irreversible processes.
Reversible process Irreversible process
1. It takes place in infinite number of It takes place in finite time.

Infinitesimally small steps and it would
take infinite time to occur.
2. It is an imaginary process as it assumes It is real and can be performed
the presence of frictionless and weightless actually.
piston.
3. It is an equilibrium state at all stages of It is an equilibrium state only
of the operation. at the initial and final stages of
equilibrium.
4. All changes are reversed when the After this type of process has
process is carried out in reverse occurred all changes do not
direction. Return in the initial state by
themselves.

5. It is extremely slow. It proceeds at measurable speed.

6. Work done by a reversible process Work done by an irreversible
is greater than the corresponding process is smaller than the
irreversible process. Corresponding reversible
Process.
10.7 NATURE OF HEAT AND WORK
Whenever a system changes from one state to another, there is always a change in
energy. The change in energy may appear in the form of heat, work, light etc.
We shall refer the term ‘work’ for mechanical work which is defined as
Force X work.
James Joule, in 1850, showed that there is a definite relationship between mechanical
work W and heat produced H (If we rub our palms together we feel the warmth).
WαH or W=JH
J is known as the joule mechanical equivalent of heat.
In CGS system the unit of energy is erg. Which is defined as the work done when a
resistance of one dyne is moved through a distance of one centimetre. Since erg is small
quantity, a bigger unit, called joule (=107 ergs) is often used.
1 joule = 107 ergs

For large quantities of work we often use kilojoule (kj)
1 kj= 1000J
10.7.1 Unit of heat
The unit of heat, which is used for many years is calorie (cal). A calorie is
defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water by
10C in the vicinity of 150C. Since heat and work are interrelated, s1 unit of heat is the
joule (J).
1 joule = 0.2390 calorie
1 calorie = 4.184 J
or 1 kcal = 4.184 kJ
10.7.2 Sign convention of heat
The symbol of heat is q. If the heat flows from the surrounding into the system
to raise the energy of the system, it is taken to be positive, +q. If heat flows from the
system to the surrounding, thus lowering the energy of the system, it is taken to be
negative, – q.

Fig 10.6 sign convention for heat flow in a thermodynamic system

10.7.3 Sign convention of work
The symbol of work is . If work is done on the system by the surroundings and
the energy of the system is thus increased, it is taken to be positive, + . If work is done
by the system on the surroundings and energy of the system is decreased, it is taken to
be negative, - .
Thus we may summarise
Heat flows into the system, q is +ve
Heat flows out of the system, q is -ve
Heat is done on the system, is +ve
Heat is done by the system, is –ve
10.7.4 Pressure - volume work
As you know in physics mechanical work is defined as force multiplied by the
distance through which the force acts. In elementary thermodynamics the only type of
work generally considered is the work done in expansion (or compression) of a gas.
This is known as pressure-volume work or PV work or expansion work.
10.7.5 Work done in reversible isothermal expansion
Consider a gas enclosed in a cylinder fitted with a weightless frictionless piston
as shown in fig 10.7. The cylinder is not insulated. It is supposed to be in thermal
equilibrium with the surroundings so that the temperature of the gas remains constant.
Fig 10.7 pressure volume work of a system

The external pressure on the piston is equal to the pressure of the gas within the
cylinder as shown in fig 10.7 a. If the external pressure is lowered by infinitesimal
amount dP that is it falls from P to P-dP fig 10.7b, the gas will expand by infinitesional
volume dV, i.e., the volume changes from V to V+dV. As a result of expansion, the
pressure of the gas within the cylinder falls to P-dP, i.e., it becomes again equal to
external pressure. The piston then comes to rest.
If the external pressure is lowered again second time by the same infinitesimal
amount dP, the gas will undergo the second infinitesimal expansion dV before the
pressure again equals the new external pressure. The piston again comes to rest. The
process is continued such that the external pressure is lowered by successive small
amounts and, as a result, the gas undergoes a series of small successive increments of
volume dV at a time.
It should be clear to you that since the system is in thermal equilibrium with the
surroundings, the infinitesimally small cooling produced as a result of infinitesimally
small expansion of the gas at each step, is offset by the heat absorbed from the
surroundings and the temperature remains constant throughout the operation.
Since during expansion, pressure decreases and volume increases these two
parameters are assigned opposite signs. The work done by the gas in an infinitesimal
expansion is thus given by
d = -(P-dP)(dV)
= -PdV .............(1)
As the product dP.dV is neglected (both dP and dV being very very small).
The total work done by the gas in expansion, say from original volume V1 to
final value V2, will be sum of the series of the terms PdV in which the pressure keeps
on decreasing gradually. The result may be expressed mathematically as
W= - ...........(2)
Where V1 is the volume of the gas initial state and V2 in the final state.
The above integral may be evaluates by substituting
P=RT/V for one mole of an ideal gas. Thus,
W= - RT .............(3)
For an ideal gas P1V1 = P2V2, at constant temperature, the above equation may
also be written as
W= ...........(4)
For n moles, the above expressions may be written as
W=-nRTln ...........(5)
Since during expansion, V2 is more than V1 and P2 is less than P1, hence from
equation (5) the work comes out to be negative in conformity with the convention used
in this regard. When work is done by system it is taken as negative.
10.7.6 Work done in reversible isothermal compression
Now let us suppose the gas undergoes isothermal reversible compression from
volume V2 to V1. The external pressure will now be made infinitesimally hiper than P,
the pressure of the gas inside the cylinder. Let the external pressure be P+dP. There will
be an infinitesimal contraction in volume, say dV, of the gas. Since during compression
of gas, the pressure increases and the volume decreases, hence these two parameters are
assigned opposite signs as before. Thus, the work done by the surroundings on the
system for this infinitesimal step is given by
d = - (P+dP)dV= -PdV .............(6)
Ignoring the quantity dPdV as before.
If the compression is carried out reversibly in a series of steps from initial
volume V2 to final volume V1, the work done ( ) by the surrounding on the gas will be
given by
ώ=- ..........(7)

assuming the gas to be ideal, P as before, may be substituted by RT/V in the

above equation so that
ώ=- ..........(8)
= - RT ln V1/V2 ...........(9)
= -RT ln P2/P1 ............(10)
For n moles of the gas the above expression can be written as
ώ = -nRT ln V1/V2 = -nRT ln P2/P1 .............(11)
Since during compression, the initial volume V2 is greater than the final volume
V1 and also since the initial P2 is less than the final pressure P1, hence according to
equation (11), the work done ώ comes out to be positive, as was chosen as a convention
in this regard.
10.7.8 Work done in irreversible isothermal expansion
Suppose we have an ideal gas contained in a cylinder with a piston. This time
the process of expansion of the gas is performed irreversible i.e., by instantaneously
dropping the external pressure Pext to the final pressure P2. The work done by the
system is now against the pressure P2 throughout the whole expansion and is given by
the following expression
Work = pressure x change of volume
Wir =-
ext
=- x dV
ext
=- dV
= - Pext (V2-V1) .................(12)
ext
Since P is less than P1 the work done during isothermal irreversible expansion
is numerically less than the work done during reversible isothermal expansion in which
Pext is almost equal to P.
Now it should be clear to you that when there is free expansion that is when gas
expands against zero pressure, work done will be zero.
10.8 STATE FUNCTION, EXACT AND INEXACT
DIFFERENTIALS
State variables which are determined by the initial and final states of the system
only and not by the path followed are called state functions. State variables which are
determined or depend upon path followed are called path functions.
The state function is a property of a thermodynamic system which has a definite
value for a particular state of the system. It is independent of the manner in which the
state is reached. The change in the state function accompanying the change in the state
of the system depends only on the initial and final states of the system and not on the
path by which the change is brought about. Pressure, volume, temperature and energy
are state functions. On the other hand work ( ) is not state function because the work
done in a given change of state depends upon the manner in which the change is
brought about. If the work is done reversibly its value is different than the value

obtained irreversibly as you have seen above. And also work done would be zero if the
gas expands in vacuum. First law equation ( E =q+w), E is a definite quantity; hence if
w is not a state function, q also is not a state function. Mathematically, this is expressed
by saying that while the differential of energy, dE, is an exact differential, the
differentials of heat and work, viz., dq and dw respectively, are inexact differentials.
Exact differentials can be integrated between the appropriate limits. This cannot be
done in the case of inexact differentials. Thus
.....................(13)
But q2-q1 and w2-w1 ..........(14)
10.8.1 The Euler reciprocal relation

Let z be a state function of two independent variables x and y of the system, i.e.,
z= since z is state function, hence differential of z is an exact differential and
can be written as
dz = y dx+ x dy
= M(x,y)dx + N(x,y) dy . ...........(15)
Where M(x,y)= y and N(x,y) = x ........(16)
x = and y =
Taking mixed second derivatives, we get –
Since =
Hence x = y
This equation is known as Euler’s reciprocal relation. This is applicable to state

functions only. Since z is a state function. The finite change, z as the system passes
from initial state A to final state B, is given by z =zB-zA
Also where cyclic integral means that the system is in the same state
at the end of its path as it was at the beginning, i.e., it has traversed a close path. Thus,
dz is an exact differential.
10.9 SUMMARY
You have studied in this unit that thermodynamics is an important branch of
chemistry which deals with energy transformation in all types of physical chemical
process. In studying and evaluating the flow of energy into or out of a system it is
useful to consider changes in certain properties of the system. These properties include
temperature, pressure, volume and concentration of a system. Measuring the changes in
these properties from the initial state to the final state, can provide information
concerning changes in energy and related quantities such as heat and work.

10.10 TERMINAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWER
(A) Objective type questions:

1. Thermodynamics is applicable to
(a) Microscopic systems only (b) macroscopic systems only
(c) Homogeneous systems only (d) heterogeneous systems only
Ans (b)
2. A gas contained in a cylinder fitted with a piston constitutes
(a) An open system (b) A closed system
(c) A heterogeneous system (d) An isolated system
Ans (b)
3. A system that can transfer neither matter nor energy to and from its
surroundings is called
(a) an open system (b) a closed system
(c) an isolated system (d) a heterogeneous system
Ans (c)
4. The work differential dw is
(a) a state function (b) an exact differential
(c) an inexact differential (d) none of the above
Ans (c)
5. Two moles of an ideal gas expands spontaneously into a vacuum. The work
done is
(a) 2 J (b) infinity (c) J (d) zero
Ans (d)
(B) Short answer type questions:
6. Define the terms
(a) Closed system
(b) Extensive properties
(c) Isothermal process
(d) Ideal gas
7. Define and explain the following terms
(a) Adiabatic process
(b) Open and closed systems
(c) Homogeneous and heterogeneous system
(d) Zeroth law of thermodynamics
(C) Long answer type questions:
8 (a) Differentiate clearly between reversible and irreversible processes.

(c) Calculate the work done in isothermal reversible explanation of an
ideal gas.
9. Write notes on the following

(a) Euler reciprocal relation
(b) Sign convention of heat and work

(c) System and surroundings.

10. Differentiate between
(a) exact and inexact differentials
(b) homogeneous and heterogeneous systems
(c) intensive and extensive properties
(d) system and surroundings
**********

UNIT 11: FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
CONTENTS:
11.1 Objectives
11.2 Introduction
11.3 First law of thermodynamics
11.4 Internal energy
11.5 Internal energy and first law of thermodynamics
11.6 Mathematical statement of the first law of thermodynamics
11.7 Enthalpy of a system
11.8 Relation between ∆H and ∆E
11.9 Heat capacity
11.9.1 Heat capacity at constant volume
11.9.2 Heat capacity at constant pressure
11.9.3 Internal energy change with volume and pressure:
11.9.4 Relation between CP and CV
11.10 Joule-Thomson effect
11.10.1 Joule-Thomson experiment
11.10.2 Explanation
11.10.3 Joule-Thomson coefficient
11.10.4 InversionTemperature
11.11 Reversible work: isothermal expansion, isothermal compression and adiabatic
11.11.1 Isothermal reversible expansion
11.11.2 Work done in isothermal reversible compression
11.11.3 Maximum work
11.11.4 Work done in isothermal irreversible expansion
11.11.5 Adiabatic expansion
11.11.6 Calculation of dE, and dH
11.12 Summary
11.1 OBJECTIVES
Historically, the science of thermodynamics was developed to provide a better
understanding of heat engines with particular reference to the conversion of heat into
useful work. Thermodynamics is based on three generations, called the first, second and
third law of thermodynamics. All these laws are based on human experience. There is
no proof of these laws, but the results we get from these laws are always correct. All
that one can say is that nothing contrary to these laws has been known to happen
whenever we consider the behaviour of matter in bulk. Scientists are of the view that
nothing contrary to these laws will ever be known.

11.2 INTRODUCTION
Most of the important generalisations of physical chemistry say Van’t Hoff law
of dilute solutions, Raoult’s law of lowering vapour pressure, elevation in boiling point,
lowering of melting point, distribution law, laws of thermochemistry and many more,
can be deduced from the laws of thermodynamics.
Thermodynamics helps to lay down the criteria for predicting feasibility of a

process, including a chemical reaction, under a given set of conditions. It also help us to
determine the extent to which a process, including a chemical reaction can proceed
before attainment of equilibrium.
You have studied in unit 10 that there is constant proportionality between heat
and work.
W= JH
Where J is constant of proportionality between the work performed and the heat
produced H, J is amount of work required to produce unit quantity of heat and it called
the mechanical equivalent of heat.
In this unit you will study the origin of first law, its different consequences and
other related topics.
11.3 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Joule in his experiment, carried out the performance of work is diverse ways.
The work was done by (a) agitating paddle wheels in a mass of water or mercury, (b)
rubbing iron rings in mercury, (c) passing electricity through a wire of known resistance
etc. The heat so produced was measured, latter on many workers namely Rowlands,
Callender and Barnes, Laby and Hercus carried on the determination of the value of J
with considerable accuracy. The accepted value of J is 4.1858x107 ergs per calorie.
This relation between heat and work is the origin of first law of
thermodynamics. The first law can be enunciated as “If or whenever, heat is obtained
from work the amount of heat produced is proportional to the work spent. There are
many instances to show that not only heat can be converted into work but different
form of energy are also interconvertible into one another. A given quantity of electrical
energy which is comparatively easily measurable, was found to be equivalent to a
definite amount of heat or mechanical work. You will study in this unit that such
equivalent did not only exist between heat and work but between any two forms of
energy.
Hence if
X units of energy A ≡ y units of energy B

Then mx units of energy A ≡ my units of energy B
The proportionality between quantities of two given forms of energy is

universally constant and the constancy of this proportionality is essence of the first law.
The first law of thermodynamics is, in fact, an application of the broad principle
known as the law of conservation of energy to the thermodynamics systems.
The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can neither be created
nor destroyed, although in can be transferred from one form to another. Thus,
whenever energy in one form disappears, an equal amount of energy in some other
form must appear.
Since the disappearance of an amount of energy causes appearance of an

equivalent amount of energy of another form, neither more nor less, we are compelled
to accept that energy cannot be completely destroyed nor it can be created from
nothing.
Clausius, therefore, enunciated that varied changes and transformation might

occur but the total energy of the universe must remain constant, hence the first law
of thermodynamics is really the law of conservation of energy.
11.4 INTERNAL ENERGY

Every substance is associated with a definite amount of energy which depends
upon its chemical nature as well as upon its temperature, pressure and volume. Or by
virtue of its pressure each substance is associated with certain amount of energy. This is
known as internal energy of the system. This energy includes not only the translational
kinetic energy of the molecules but also other molecular energies such as rotational,
vibrational energies.
The total of all the possible kinds of energies of a system is called its internal
energy.
The exact magnitude of this energy is not known because the chemical nature
includes such factors as the translational, rotational and vibrational movements of the
molecules, the manner in which the molecules are put together, the nature of the
individual atoms, the arrangement and number of electrons, the energy possessed by the
nucleus, etc. But, one thing is certain that the internal energy of a substance or a system
is a definite quantity and it is a function only of the state (i.e., chemical nature,
composition, temperature, pressure and volume) of the system at the given moment,
irrespective of the manner in which that state has been brought about.
It is neither possible nor necessary to calculate the absolute value of internal

energy of a system. In thermodynamics we concerned only with the energy changes
when a system changes from one state to another. The amount of internal energy

depends on the thermodynamics state and hence on thermodynamics parameters of the

system. It is represented by E.
The internal energy is dependent on the internal structure and composition of

the system. So, in a system of constant composition, the magnitude of E will depends
upon other thermodynamics variables (P,V,T), any two of which may be regarded as
independent variables. Thus,
E= f (P,T); or E=f (P,V), or E=f(V,T)
An explanation of the existence of the internal energy comes from the kinetic theory,
the translator motion of the molecules, the vibrations and rotations of the atoms, the
electronic revolutions etc. contribute to the internal energy.
11.5 INTERNAL ENERGY AND FIRST LAW OF

THERMODYNAMICS
Suppose, a system is subjected to change of pressure and volume. Let the initial
state is represented by A and the final state by B (fig. 11.1) and let EA and EB represent
energies associated with the system in its state A and B
Fig 11.1 internal energy
respectively. These will be definite quantities as explained above. Then, the change in
internal energy,
∆E= EB-EA
must be a definite quantity, irrespective of the path or the manner in which the change
is brought about. If it were not so, it would again be possible to construct a perpetual
motion machine, a machine which can produce energy without expenditure of energy.
Suppose, that the system changes from state A to state B by following path I and is
accompanied by change of energy equal to ∆E. Now suppose the same change of state

is brought about by another path, say, path II and the change of energy is ∆E`. Suppose,
∆E >∆E`, then coupling of these two processes:
A B (by path I) and
A B (by path II)
As shown in fig 11.1, the system would return to its initial state and at the same time a
surplus of energy equal to ∆E-∆E` would become available. By repeating the same
cycle over and over again, energy would be generated continuously and a perpetual
motion machine would be possible. This is contrary to the first law. Hence ∆E=∆E`.
Thus the energy change accompanying a process is a function only of the initial and the
final states of the system and is independent of the path or the manner by which the
change is brought about.
11.6 MATHEMATICAL STATEMENT OF THE FIRST LAW

OF THERMODYNAMICS
The first law of thermodynamics is, in fact, an application of the broad principle
known as law of conservation of energy to the thermodynamic system. It states that:
The total energy of an isolated system remains constant though it may change
from one form to another.
Let us consider a system in a state A having internal energy EA undergoing a

change to a state B. During the transaction let the system absorbs a small amount of
heat say q, then the net amount of energy of the system would become EA+q. In the
process of transformation, the system might have also performed some work W of any
type. If EB be the internal energy of the system at state B, then the net energy after the
transformation would be EB+W
Then from principle of conservation of energy, we clearly see
EA+q = EB +W
q = (EB-EA)+W = ∆E+W
for infinitesimal change
δq=dE+δw ......(11.1)
that is, heat taken up by a system would be equal to internal-energy increase of the
system plus the work done by the system. This is mathematical statement of first law.
Here E is state function hence its change is shown as dE and q, the heat supplied and w,
the work obtained depends upon the path of the change, hence shown as δq and δw
respectively.

Now a few comments may be made on the above equation
(a) If the system is an isolated one, so that there is no heat exchange with the
surroundings, i.e., in an adiabatic process
δq=0
hence ∆E+W=0
or W= -∆E .............11.2
that means the decrease in internal energy is exactly equal to the work done on
the system by the surroundings.
(b) In a cyclic process, ∮dE=0
Hence ∮δq = ∮dE+∮δw
or ∮δq =∮δw ............11.3
The total work obtained is equal to the net heat supplied and no excess work can
be obtained. Thus, establishes the impossibility of perpetual motion of the first
kind, which is our experience.
(c) For an adiabatic process there is no change in heat gained or lost
i.e. q=0
Then ∆E= -W ..............11.4
That means the decrease in internal energy is exactly equal to work done on the
system by the surroundings or we can say work is done at the expense of internal
energy and internal energy will decrease.
(d) For an isobaric process there is no change in pressure, i.e., P remains constant.
Hence
∆E =q-W
=q-P∆V ................11.5
11.7 ENTHALPY OF A SYSTEM
In a process carried out at constant volume (say in a sealed tube), the heat
content of a system is the same as internal energy E, as no PV work is done. But in a
constant-pressure process, the system (a gas) also expends energy in doing PV work.
Therefore, total heat content of a system at constant pressure is equivalent to the
internal energy E plus the PV energy. This is called enthalpy of the system and is
represented by the symbol H. Thus enthalpy is defined by the equation.
H=E+PV ..................11.6
Suppose the change of state of a system is brought about at constant pressure. In that
case, there will be change of volume, let the volume increases from VA to VB at
constant pressure P. Then the work done (W) by the system will be given by
W= -P(VB-VA) ....................11.7
Substituting the value of W in equation 11.5 we have
∆E = q + [-P(VB-VA)]
= q - P(VB-VA)
= q- PVB+PVA ...................11.8
If EA be internal energy in the initial state aw EB the internal energy at final state, then
∆E = EB-EA

So equation 11.8 becomes

EB-EA = q-PVB+PVA
EB + PVB = q+EA + PVA ................11.9
As the quantity H=E+PV is known as enthalpy of the system. It represents the total
energy stored in the system.
From equation 11.6 and 11.9
HB = q+HA
or q = (HB-HA) = ∆H ................11.10
Since HB and HA are definite quantities, it is evident that ∆H, like E, is a definite
quantity depending only on the initial and final states of the system. Obviously, H
represents increase in the enthalpy of a system when it changes from state A to state B.
Putting the value of q in equation 11.9 we get
EB-EA = ∆H-PVB + PVA
∆E = ∆H-P∆V
∆H =∆E + P∆V .....................11.11
From equation 11.6 by definition of enthalpy
H=E+PV
Its differential form dH=dE+PdV+VdP
If a system undergoes a change at constant pressure then change in enthalpy,
dHP = dEP+PdVP .....................11.12
the suffix P used to indicate constancy of pressure.
The first law states
δq=dE+δW ......................11.12a
The work δW may be mechanical, electrical, chemical or any type. If we

consider processes in which the entire work is mechanical, i.e., expansion or
compression of the system, then δW would depend on the values P and V. Further, if
the change of the system be carried out at constant pressure then,
δWP = PdVP
Hence from the first law, for change at constant pressure
δqp = dEP + δWP = dEP + PdVP ..............11.13
From equation 11.12 and equation 11.13
δqp = dHP ..............11.14
That is the increase in heat content of a system during a given transformation is
the heat absorbed at constant pressure during the process.
11.8 RELATION BETWEEN ∆H AND ∆E
From equation 11.11
∆E= ∆H – PdV
or
∆H = ∆E + PdV ..........11.15

This equation means when heat supplied to a system it is used in two ways (a) to
increase the internal energy of the system and (b) secondly to perform some work
(PdV)
If gases are involved in a reaction, they account for most of the volume change
as the volumes of solids and liquids are negligibly small in comparison.
Suppose we have n1 moles of gases before reaction and n2 moles of gases after
reaction. If we assume behaviour
PV2 = n2RT
and PV1 = n1RT
P(V2-V1) = (n2-n1) RT
P∆V = ∆n RT ∆n is change in no. of moles.
Substituting this value in 11.11 we get
∆H = ∆E + ∆nRT
11.9 HEAT CAPACITY
If q amount of heat is given to a system of mass m, temperature is raised from
T1 to T2. Then
q α (T2-T1)m
or q = m.C(T2-T1) ..........11.16
here C is known as heat capacity of the system
If m=1 and T2-T1=1 then q=C, that means heat capacity is the amount of heat required
to raise the temperature of unit mass of substance by one degree.
From eqn. 11.16 we have
C= q/m(T2-T1) ..........11.17
When one mole is considered then
C=
Then C is molar heat capacity
Since the heat capacity varies with temperature, hence the true molar heat
capacity is defined by the differential equation.
C= .......11.18
Where dq is a small quantity of heat absorbed by the system producing a small
temperature rise dT.
Thus heat capacity may be defined as the ratio of the amount of heat
absorbed to the rise in temperature.
From equation 11.17 it is clear that units of molar heat capacity are calorie per
degree per mole (cal K-1 mole-1) and in SI unit joule per degree per mole (JK-1mole-1)
It is found that amount of heat required by a system for one degree change
depends upon the conditions in which the change occurs. That means heat capacity is
not a state function two specific conditions are found to be very useful, whether heat is
supplied at constant volume or at constant pressure.
11.9.1 Heat capacity at constant volume

As you have studied above that specific heat is amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of the system by one degree. In case of solid and liquids there is very
little or no change of volume when temperature is raised by an degree but in case of
gases there is change of volume also. Thus if volume is kept constant heat capacity will
have different value than in case pressure is kept constant.
Heat capacity at constant volume is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of the system by one degree keeping volume constant it is denoted by cv.
If one mole of gas is under consideration then it is molar heat capacity, defined
as amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one mole of the gas by one
degree at constant volume.
Molar heat at constant volume is represented as Cv.
From first law of thermodynamics
dq = dE + PdV
dividing both sides by dT we get
At constant volume dV=0 so
= Cv .........11.19
11.9.2 Heat capacity at constant pressure
If temperature is raised by one degree keeping the pressure constant, the

amount of heat required is called heat capacity at constant pressure, denoted by Cp. If
the system contains one mole of a substance then the molar heat capacity at constant
pressure is Cp.
∆q = dE+δw
= dE+ PdV
dividing of dT
We know H= E+ PV
Keeping pressure constant

Hence p
Here in our discussion some times d has been written and in some cases (del) has
been adopted for changes. The difference is that if we simply see the change in some
property say, enthalpy with temperature we write but if put some restrictions, say if
volume is kept constant then change in enthalpy with temperature will be V. Then
p means change in enthalpy when pressure is constant.

It is clear from the above that two heat capacities are not equal and Cp is greater
than Cv by a factor which is related to the work done. At constant pressure part of heat
absorbed by the system is used up in increasing the internal energy of the system and
the other for doing work by the system. While at constant volume the whole of the heat
absorbed is utilised in increasing the internal energy of the system as there is no work
done by the system. Thus Cp is greater than Cv.
11.9.3 Internal energy change with volume and pressure
Gay Lussac and Joule carried out experiments to find out changes in internal
energy of a gas. The experiment was very simple. As shown in fig 11.2, two containers
A and B connected by a stop clock at the middle were taken and kept immersed in the
water of a thermostat. Initially A was filled up with the
Fig 11.2 Joule’s experiment

gas and B was evacuated. When thermal equilibrium was established, the stopcock was
opened and the gas passed into B. The flow continued until equilibrium was again
reached. Since the gas expanded against zero pressure, no work was involved. δw=0.
Very careful and repeated observations showed no change in temperature of the water
in the thermostat. Hence δq=0. Yet the volume of the gas has changed. From the first
law of thermodynamics we can say that
dE= δq-δw =0
again dE= T dV + v dT
since dT=0 and dE=0

hence T dV=0
but dV ≠ 0
that means T =0
T = T T
Again T ≠ 0, hence T =0
We conclude T =0, T =0 ...............11.20

This is true for an ideal gas.
11.9.4 Relation between CP and CV
We know E=(V,T) ( E is a function of volume and temperature)
Change in E can be written as
dE= T dV + V dT
dividing this equation by T and the keeping pressure constant we have
P = T P + V .....11.21
As CP= P and CV= V
Now Cp- Cv = P – V
But H=E+PV
P = (E+PV)P – V
= P +P P – v ......11.22
Putting the value of P from equation 11.21 we get
CP-CV = V + T P +P P – V
= T P +P P
= P { T + P} ......11.23
This equation is generally applicable for an ideal gas
T =0
so CP-CV = P .P
As PV=RT

P =
So CP-CV = =R ........11.24
11.10 JOULE-THOMSON EFFECT

If a gas is allowed to pass from a region of high pressure to low pressure
region through a porous plug or through a narrow orifice and the system is thermally
insulated, its temperature was lowered.
The phenomenon of producing lowering of temperature when a gas is made to

expand adiabatically from a region of high pressure to a region of low pressure is
known as Joule-Thomson effect or Joule-Kelvin effect.
11.10.1 Joule-Thomson experiment
The apparatus used by Joule and Thomson to measure the temperature

change on expansion of a given volume of gas is shown in fig 11.3. An insulated tube
is fitted with a porous plug in the middle and two frictionless pistons A and B on the
sides. Let a volume V1 of a gas at pressure P1 be forced
Fig 11.3 Joule Thomson experiment
through the porous plug by a slow movement of piston A. The gas in the right-hand
chamber be allowed to expand to volume V2 and pressure P2 by moving the piston B
outward. The change in temperature is found by taking readings on two thermometers.
Most gases were found to undergo cooling on expansion through the porous
plug. Hydrogen and helium were exceptions as these gases showed a warming up
instead of cooling.
11.10.2 Explanation

The work done on the gas (is pressure multiplied by the change in volume) at
the piston A is (P1V1) (As initial volume on left hand side of the plug was V1) and work
done by the gas at the piston B is P2V2.
So,
Work done on the system at the piston A = P1V1 and work done by the system
at piston B = P2V2
Net work done by the system = P2V2 – P1V1
w= P2V2- P1V1 .....11.25
∆E = q-w
But the process is adiabatic and therefore q=0
Hence, ∆E= -w and ∆E=E2-E1
So E2-E1 = -w = -(P2V2 + P1V1)
Rearranging the terms
E2 +P2V2 = E1 + P1V1
As H=E+PV
so H2=H1
Or, ∆H=0 ..........11.27
Thus, the Joule-Thomson expansion of a real gas occurs not with constant internal
energy, but with constant enthalpy. This is therefore called isoenthalpic process.
11.10.3 Joule-Thomson coefficient
The rate of change in temperature with pressure when enthalpy remains

constant is called Joule-Thomson’s coefficient, µ.
µ= H .....11.28
If µ is positive there is cooling effect and if µ is negative it means heating effect will be
there. In most of the cases at ordinary temperature cooling effect is there but hydrogen
and helium get warmed up under similar conditions. We will discuss the reason later
(when we will discuss inversion temperature).

In Joule-Thomson effect gas runs from high pressure to low pressure hence dP
is negative. Hence µ will be positive if dT is also negative, i.e., if temperature falls.
Whether µ is positive (cooling) or negative (heating) we can explain this in the
following way. We know, H(enthalpy) is a function of temperature and pressure, so
H=∫(P,T)
dH = T dP P dT ......11.29
In an isoenthalpic change as in Joule-Thomson effect, dH=0
:. P dT = T dP
Dividing this equation by dP and keeping enthalpy (H) constant
We get
P H =- T
H =- T/ P
µ= T .....11.30
since H=E+PV
µ=- (E+PV)T
=- T – {( (PV)}T ......11.31
This relation is applicable both to ideal and also to real gases. In the case of an ideal
gas, both the terms on the right-hand side separately vanish. As for and ideal gas T
=0 (equation 11.20) and PV=RT hence (PV)T =0,
hence µ=0
A truly ideal gas has no J.T. coefficient.
Now let us discuss the case of a real gas. We can write equation 11.31 this way
µ=- T T – { (PV)}T ..........11.32

In this equation ( E/ V)T of a gas is usually positive, while ( V/ P)T for any gas is
always negative. As a result the first term is always positive. The magnitude of second
term may be negative or may be positive. At low temperature and at low pressure,
{ / P (PV)}T is negative. Under such conditions both the terms in the equation being
negative, µ has a positive value and cooling will be there in Joule-Thomson’s
experiment.
11.10.4 Inversion temperature
The cooling effect is observed at relatively low temperatures but if the

temperature be high, then instead of cooling the gas become heated, i.e., in J.T. effect µ
becomes negative. For every gas there is a temperature where µ=0, when neither
heating nor cooing of the gas due to passage the porous plug would occur. This is called
inversion temperature Ti of the gas. The value of Ti can be calculated to be equal to
= Ti ......11.33
So if a and b for a gas are known inversion temperature can be calculated. The
inversion temperature for hydrogen is – 800C and that of helium is - 2400C.
The Joule-Thomson effect support to the view that attractive forces do exist
between gas molecules. As the gas expands, the molecules fall apart from one another.
Therefore, work has to be done in order to overcome the cohesive or attractive forces
which tend to hold the molecules together. This work is done by the system at the
expense of the kinetic energy of the gaseous molecules. Consequently, the kinetic
energy decreases and since this is proportional to temperature, cooling results. It may
be noted that in this case no external work has been done by the gas in expansion.
11.11 REVERSIBLE WORK: ISOTHERMAL EXPANSION,

ISOTHERMAL COMPRESSION AND ADIABATIC
11.11.1 Isothermal reversible expansion
From first law of thermodynamics we know energy neither be created nor

destroyed, for an isolated system total energy always remains constant. Whole universe
can be divided into very large number of isolated systems, for each isolated system
energy remains constant, that means total energy of universe remains constant.
The mathematical representation of first law of thermodynamics
is δq =dE+δw, or q=dE+w
Which means when δq amount of heat is given to a system it is used up in two

ways, first in increasing the internal energy dE of the system and secondly to perform
certain amount of work δw. Here heat absorbed (or evolved) and work done (on the
system or by the system) are not state functions, they depend on the path of
transformation but internal energy does not depend upon path and hence it is a state
function.
Let us consider a gas enclosed in a cylinder fitted with a piston (which is

weightless and frictionless) as shown in fig 11.4. The cylinder is not insulated. The
external pressure P on the piston is equal to the pressure of the gas within the cylinder,
as shown in fig 11.4(a). If the external pressure is lowered by infinitesimal amount dP,
that means pressure is now P-dP fig 11.4(b), the gas will expand by an infinitesimal
Fig 11.4 Isothermal reversible expansion work
volume dV, i.e., the volume changes (increases) from V to V+dV. As a result of
expansion, the pressure of the gas within the cylinder falls from P to P-dP, i.e., it
becomes again equal to external pressure. The piston then comes to rest.
If the external pressure is lowered again second time by the same infinitesimal
amount dP, the gas will undergo the second very small expansion dV before the
pressure again equals the new external pressure. The piston again comes to rest. The
process is continued such that the external pressure is lowered by successive small
amounts and, as a result, the gas undergoes a series of small successive increments of
volume dV at a time.
Since the system is in thermal equilibrium with the surroundings, it is noted that
the infinitesimally small cooling produced as a result of infinitesimally small expansion
of the gas at each step, is offset by the heat absorbed from the surroundings and the
temperature remains constant throughout the operation.
Work done by the gas in driving the piston upwards
= - (P-dP)dV
= - PdV ........11.34
As dPdV is negligibly small and can be neglected the total work done by the
gas, w in expansion from volume V1 to volume V2, will be sum of the series of the

terms pdV in which pressure keeps on increasing gradually. The result may be
expressed mathematically as
W= - ..........11.35
Where V1 is initial volume and V2 is volume in the final state.
As PV=RT hence
W= -
= -RT lm .............11.36
As we know P1V1 =P2V2
W= - RT ln P1/P2 ..............11.36
For n moles the work above expression can be written as
W= - nRTln = - nRTln ...................11.37
Since V2 is greater than V1 and P1 is greater than P2, it is clear from the above equation
that W comes out to be negative meaning thereby that work is done by the gas.
11.11.2 Work done in isothermal reversible compression
Let us suppose the gas undergoes isothermal reversible compression from V2 to

V1. The external pressure will now be made infinitesimally higher than P, the pressure
of the gas inside the cylinder. Let the external pressure be P+dP. There will be
infinitesimal contraction in volume, say dV, of the gas. Since during compression of a
gas, the pressure increases and volume decreases, hence these two parameters are
assigned opposite signs as before. Thus, the work done by the surroundings on the
system for this infinitesimal step is given by
dW= = - (P-dP)dV
= - PdV ......11.38
Ignoring the quantity dPdV, as before.
If the compression is carried out reversibly in a series of steps from initial volume V2 to
final volume V1, the work done by the surrounding on the gas will be given by
.............11.39

If the gas under consideration is ideal than P can be replaced by RT/V
= ..............11.40
For n moles of the gas the above expression can be written
as = -nRT ln ........11.41
11.11.3 Maximum work
As we have discussed above, the work done by a gas during expansion is given
by the product Pext∆V where ∆V is increase in volume. If the external pressure Pext is
only infinitesimally smaller than the pressure P of the gas (fig 11.4(b) then , expansion
is said to place reversibly. If , however, the external pressure is much smaller than the
gas pressure (fig 11.4 c), the expansion will take place rapidly, i.e., irreversibly and the
work done for the same amount of expansion will be much smaller since Pext is now
much small than before. Taking the extreme case, if the external pressure is zero (i.e.,
the expand in vacuum) the work done will be zero. Hence, it follows that when a gas
expands freely, i.e., when it expands against vacuum such that Pext =0 no work is done
by the gas.
Now it is clear from the above discussion that the magnitude of work done by a
system on expansion depends upon the magnitude of opposing external pressure. The
closer is the opposing pressure to the pressure of the gaseous system in the cylinder, the
greater is the work performed by the system on expansion. In another words maximum
work is obtained when the two opposing pressure differ only by an infinitesimal
amount from each other. This condition is evidently demanded for a thermodynamically
reversible process, as discussion earlier. Hence, the condition for maximum work
concides with that for a thermodynamics reversibility.
11.11.4 Work done in isothermal irreversible expansion
Suppose we have an ideal gas contained in a cylinder with a piston. This time
the process of expansion of the gas is performed irreversibly i.e., by instantaneously
dropping the external pressure, Pext, to the final pressure P2. The work done by the
system is now against the pressure P2 throughout the whole expansion and is given by
the following expression:
= -Pext

= -P2 (V2-V1)
= -P2 dV
In both the process, reversible and irreversible, the same state of the system has
changed from the initial to the final state. The work done is smaller in irreversible
expansion than the reversible expansion. Thus mechanical work is not a state function
as it depends on the path by which the process is performed rather than on the initial
and final states, it is a path function.
11.11.5 Adiabatic expansion
In adiabatic process no heat is allowed to enter or leave the system.

Hence in an adiabatic system q=0. From equation 11.5
q= dE+w
or dE= -w .......11.42
since the work is done at the expense of internal energy, the internal energy of
the system decreases and the temperature falls.
Let us consider one mole of an ideal gas at pressure P and volume V. For an
infinitesimal increase in volume dV at pressure P the work done by the gas is –PdV.
The internal energy decreases by dE, then from equation 11.42
dE = - PdV .........11.43
By definition of molar heat capacity at constant volume
dE = CV dT .........11.44
From equation 11.43 and equation 11.44
CV dT = - PdV = - dV (gas being ideal)
or CV =- dV
on integrating between limits when volume is V1 temperature T1 and when volume is

V2 temperature falls to T2
CV ln T2/T1 = -R ln V2/V1
Since R= CP-CV for an ideal gas we have:

CV ln T2/T1 = - (CP-CV) ln V2/V1
ln T2/T1 = - V2/V1 ........11.45
the ratio of CP/CV is often written as γ (gama)
equation 11.45 then becomes
ln T2/T1 = - (γ-1) ln (V2/V1) = (γ-1) ln )
or T2/T1=
or T2V2 γ-1 = T1V1 γ-1
or TVγ-1 =constant ......11.46
we know P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2
so T2/T1 = P2V2/P1V1
substituting the value of T2/T1 in equation 11.46 we get
= γ-1
or P2V2γ = P1V1γ
or PVγ = constant = K ........11.47
This equation is known as adiabatic expansion ratio.
11.11.6 Calculation of dE, and dH
Calculation of ∆E
As we have studied earlier the molar heat capacity at constant volume of an

ideal gas is given by
CV = (
Accordingly dE= CV dT
And for a finite change ∆E= CV dT ........11.48
Calculation of ∆H
The enthalpy equation (equation 11.15) is given as

∆H= ∆E+P∆V
As PV=RT
P∆V=R∆T
So ∆H = ∆E+R∆T
= (CV∆T+R∆T) from equation 11.48
= (Cv+R) ∆T
or ∆H = CP ∆T .........11.49
11.12 SUMMARY
In the above discussion we have studied first law of thermodynamics and its
consequences in detail. The various forms of first law of thermodynamics, various
definitions, namely internal energy, enthalpy, heat capacity at constant volume, heat
capacity at constant pressure, work done in reversible and irreversible processes and the
difference between CP and CV have been discussed.
Most important of these in Joule-Thomson effect which is useful in producing

low temperature or cooling. At the inversion temperature, there is no Joule-Thomson
effect. If a gas under pressure passes through a porous plug and expands adiabatically
into a region of very low pressure at the inversion temperature, there is neither fall nor
rise of temperature. If, however the expansion takes place above the conversion
temperature, there is small rise in temperature and if it takes place below the inversion
temperature there is small fall of temperature.

1. The mathematical relation for first law of thermodynamics is
(a) ∆E=q-w (b) ∆E=0 for a cyclic process
(c) ∆E=q for an isochoric process (d) All of these
Ans (d)
2. Heat capacity at constant pressure is the change in
(a) Internal energy with temperature at constant pressure.
(b) Internal energy with temperature at constant volume.

(c) Enthalpy with temperature at constant pressure.
(d) Enthalpy with temperature at constant volume.
Ans (c)
3. Which of the following is not correct?
(a) H=E+PV (b) H-E=PV
(c) H-E-PV=0 (d) H=E-PV
Ans (d)
4. The heat capacity at constant pressure is related with heat capacity at constant
volume by the relation
(a) CP+R=w (b) CV-R=CP
(c) CP-R=CV (d) R-CP=CV
Ans (c)
5. For an ideal gas Joule-Thomson coefficient is
(a) Positive (b) Negative (c) Zero

Ans (c)
6. Define molar heat capacity at constant volume and molar heat capacity at
constant pressure.
7. State and explain first law of thermodynamics.
8. For an adiabatic process prove PVγ = constant
9. Write a note on enthalpy and internal energy.
10. Derive expression for the work done in isothermal reversible expansion and
isothermal reversible compression of an ideal gas. What is meant by maximum
work.
11. (a) Give two definitions of first law of thermodynamics
(b) Calculate the work of expansion of one mole of an ideal gas at

250C under isothermal conditions, the pressure being changed from 1 to 5

atmosphere, given R=8.314 Joule.
12. What is Joule-Thomson effect? How do you account for it? Define inversion
temperature. Show that Joule-Thomson coefficient is zero for an ideal gas.
*********

UNIT 12: THERMOCHEMISTRY

CONTENTS:
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Heat of reaction
12.3 Exothermic and endothermic reactions
12.4 Relation between enthalpy of reaction at constant volume and at constant
pressure
12.5 Factors affecting heat of reaction
12.6 Enthalpy of reaction or heat of reaction
12.7 Variation of heat of reaction with temperature
12.8 Different types of heat of reaction (enthalpy of reaction)
12.9 Heat of combustion
12.10 Uses of heat of combustion
12.11 Heat of solution
12.12 Heat of neutralisation
12.13 Some other definitions
12.13.1 Heat of fusion
12.13.2 Heat of vaporisation
12.13.3 Heat of sublimation
12.13.4 Heat of transition
12.14 Hess’s law of constant heat summation
12.14.1 Application of Hess’s law
12.15 Bond energies
12.16 Summary
12.1 INTRODUCTION
The chemical reactions are invariably accompanied by energy changes which,
ordinarily, appear in the form of evolution or absorption of heat.
Thermochemistry is the branch of physical chemistry which deals with the

thermal or heat changes caused by chemical reactions. The energy change that occurs in
a chemical reaction is largely due to change of bond energy, i.e., change of potential
energy that results from the breaking of bonds in reactants and formation of new bonds
in products.
We have studied in unit 11 that every substance has a definite amount of energy
known as intrinsic or internal energy, E. Its exact value cannot be determined but the
change in internal energy, can be accurately measured experimentally.

When internal energy of reactants (Er) is greater internal energy of products

(EP), the difference in internal energy, is released as heat energy.
Eproducts - Ereactants
or = EP- Er
Such a reaction is called exothermic reaction. If the internal energy of the

products (EP) is greater than internal energy of reactants (Er), heat is absorbed from the
surroundings. Such a reaction is called endothermic reaction. The amount of heat
released or absorbed in a chemical reaction is called the heat of reaction.
As we have discussed above the energy changes in chemical reactions are

largely due to the breaking of existing bonds between the atoms and formation of new
bonds. Thus thermochemistry provides useful information regarding bond energies.
12.2 HEAT OF REACTION

Thermochemical reactions are studied either at (a) constant volume or at (b)
constant pressure. The magnitude of changes observed under the two conditions is
different.
The change in internal energy ( is the heat change accompanying a chemical

reaction at constant volume because no external work is performed. But at constant
pressure there is change in the internal energy and work is also involved because of
expansion or contraction. In the laboratory most of the chemical reactions are carried
out at constant pressure (atmospheric pressure) rather than at constant volume. In order
to study heat changes for reactions taking place at constant pressure and constant
temperature, a new term enthalpy have been introduced.
As we have studied in unit- 11 the enthalpy of a system is defined as the sum of

the internal energy and the product of its volume with pressure. That is
H=E+PV
Where H is enthalpy, E is internal energy, P is the pressure and V is the volume of the
system. The term H is also called heat content.
Like internal energy enthalpy is also a state function and it is not possible to
measure its absolute value. However a change in enthalpy ( accompanying a
process can be measured accurately and is given by the expression.
= Hproducts - Hreactants
= HP - Hr

At constant pressure and temperature the change in the enthalpy will be equal to
change in the internal energy and the work done in expansion or contraction P V
Hence = …………….12.1
Therefore, while heat change in a process is equal to its change in internal

energy at constant volume, it gives at constant pressure the enthalpy change .
= heat change at constant volume
= heat change at constant pressure
For reactions involving solids and liquids only, the change in volume ( is very
small and hence the term PX is so small that it is neglected. For such reactions is
equal to . In case of gases, we have to specify whether the reaction is taking place at
constant pressure or at constant volume, because the value of PX is appreciable.
Most of such reactions are however, studied at constant pressure and change in enthalpy
is involved.
12.3 EXOTHERMIC AND ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS

Reactions that gives out heat, i.e., which are accompanied by evolution of heat,
are called exothermic reactions. On the other hand the reactions which are accompanied
by absorption of heat are called endothermic reactions.
Let us consider a general reaction at constant pressure
A+B C+D
Suppose enthalpy of A is HA, enthalpy of B is HB, enthalpy of C is HC and

enthalpy of D is HD then heat of reaction at constant pressure is equal to difference
in enthalpy of the products and the reactants, i.e.,
= Hproducts - Hreactants
= [HC +HD] – [HA+HB]
The value of heat of reaction may be zero, negative or positive. When is

equal to zero, the enthalpy of reactants and products being the same, no heat is evolved
or absorbed. In case is negative, the sum of enthalpies of the products is less than
that of the reactants and the difference in enthalpy is given out in the form of heat.
Such reactions in which evolution of heat energy takes place are called
exothermic reactions.

When is positive meaning there by, the enthalpy or heat content of the
products is more than of the reactants, an equivalent heat is absorbed by the system
from the surroundings.
Such reactions which are accompanied by absorption of heat are called
endothermic reactions.
Fig 12.1 enthalpy diagram for an exothermic and endothermic reaction
Thus for an endothermic reactions HP>Hr and =+ve and for an exothermic
reactions HP<Hr and = -ve.
In chemistry, it is customary to represent thermochemical changes as,
For exothermic reaction: HCl + NaOH = NaCl+H2O+ 13700 cal
For endothermic reaction: N2+O2 = 2NO – 42000 cal
That is, in case of heat-evolution, the quantity of heat evolved is written with the
products with a positive sign. In heat absorption, the quantity of heat is written with the
products with a negative sign.
Hence 13700 cal = H(HCl+NaOH) –
And -42000 cal=H( + )-H(2NO)
In thermochimisty, the attention is concentrated on the system. In exothermic changes

heat content or energy content of the system would diminish, in endothermic changes
these would increase. Hence, we write
HCl +NaOH = NaCl+H2O H = -13700 cal
N2 +O2 = 2 NO H = + 42000 cal

In these cases however HP and Hv i.e., qP and qv would be equal, as there is no

volume change involved. Now we take the following equation
C7H8+ 9O2 = 7CO2 + H2O
In this case qP = - 930 Kcal
qv = -928.8 Kcal
12.4 RELATION BETWEEN ENTHALPY OF REACTION

AT CONSTANT VOLUME AND AT CONSTANT
PRESSURE
The quantities H and E are related to each other by the expression from
equation 12.1 H= E+P V
Where V is the change in volume that takes place in a given reaction.
Since qv = E and qp = H
Then qp = qv + P V
for n moles of an ideal gas
PV=nRT
Suppose n1 and n2 represent the number of moles of gaseous reactants and gaseous
products, respectively and suppose n2 is greater than n1. Then increase in
number of gaseous moles = n2-n1 = ng
Then P V = PV/n ng = RTx n As PV=nRT
P V = ngRT
Let us discuss, for example dissociation of ammonia into nitrogen and hydrogen.
2NHO3(g) N2(g) + 3H2(g)
2 moles 1 mole 3 mole
ng =4-2=2
So qP = qv+2RT
In the reaction involving combination of hydrogen and nitrogen

2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(g)
2 moles 1 mole 2 moles
n= 2-3=-1
qP = qv – RT
Since in reactions involving only solids and liquids, V is negligible, qP=qv, i.e.,
the enthalpy of reaction at constant pressure is almost the same as the enthalpy of
reaction at constant volume.
12.5 FACTORS AFFECTING HEAT OF REACTION

There are some factors which affect the quantity of heat evolved or absorbed during a
physical or chemical transformation. These factors are:
(1) At constant pressure or at constant volume

(2) Physical state of reactants and products.
(3) Amount of reactants and products.
(4) Temperature.
(5) Pressure.
The physical states in a thermochemical reaction are represented by the symbols (s), (l),
(g) and (aq) for solid, liquid, gas and aqueous states respectively.
Consider a reaction
H2 + ½ O2 H2 O H= - 68.32 kcal
This reaction indicates that when one mole of hydrogenreacts with 0.5 mole of oxygen,
one mole of water is formed and 68.32 kcal of heat is evolved at constant pressure. If
two moles of hydrogen are burnt, the heat evolved would be 2x68.32 kcal. This
equation is not complete thermochemical equation because it does not specify water is
in the form of steam or liquid. There is difference in the value of H if water is in the
liquid or gaseous state as given below.
H2(g) + ½ O2(g) H2O(l) ; H= - 68.32 kcal
And H2(g) + ½ O2(g) H2O(g) ; H= - 57.80 kcal
12.6 ENTHALPY OF REACTION OR HEAT OF REACTION

The heat of reaction is simply the amount of heat absorbed or evolved in the
reaction. As we know that amount of heat absorbed or evolved at constant temperature
and pressure is called enthalpy. Hence the amount of heat change during a reaction at

constant pressure and temperature may also be called enthalpy change. Heat of
reaction may be defined as the amount of heat absorbed or evolved in a reaction
when number of moles of reactants as represented by the balanced chemical
equation change completely into the products.
It is very important to note that heat of reaction varies with change in

temperature. Hence we must mention the temperature at which the reaction is taking
place. It is also convenient for comparison to fix up some temperature as standard or
reference. By thermodynamic convention, the state of a substance at 298K and one
atmosphere pressure is taken as its standard state. The heat change accompanying a
reaction taking place at 298K and one atmosphere pressure is called standard heat
change or standard enthalpy change. It is denoted by ∆H0.
12.7 VARIATION OF HEAT OF REACTION WITH

TEMPERATURE
The heat of reaction changes with change in temperature of a gas due to
variation in its specific heat.
The equation representing the variation of heat change of reaction with

temperature is known as Kirchoff’s equation.
At constant volume, the heat of reaction, ∆E, is given by the relation
∆E= E2-E1
Where E2 is internal energy of products and E1 is the internal energy of reactants.
Differentiating this equation with respect to temperature keeping volume constant we

get
/ )v- / )v ........12.2
But we know Cv
Hence = (Cv)2- (Cv)1 ...12.3
= v
Here (Cv)2 is heat capacity of products and (Cv)1 is heat capacity of reactants.
On integrating the above equation between the limits T1 and T2 and keeping in
view that when temperature is T1 heat of reaction is ∆E1 and when temperature is T2
heat of reaction is ∆E2

or E2- E1= Cv (T2-T1) .....12.4
Similarly heat of reaction at constant pressure is given by the relation.
∆H=H2-H1 .......12.5
Where H2 aw H1 are heat content or enthalpy of products and reactants

respectively.
Differentiating equation 12.5 with respect to temperature at constant pressure.
/ - /
We have
= (CP)2 – (CP)1= ∆Cp .......12.6
Here (CP)2 and (CP)1, are the heat capacities of products and reactants respectively.
or d (∆H) = ∆CpdT
integrating the equation between temperature T1 and T2
we have
∆H2-∆H1 =
= ∆Cp (T2-T1) ......12.7
The relations (12.3), (12.4), (12.6) and (12.7) were first derived by Kirchoff and
are called Kirchoff’s equations.
These equations are used to calculate heat of reaction at a given temperature

provided heat of reaction at some other temperature and when the heat capacities of
products and reactants are known.
12.8 DIFFERENT TYPES OF HEAT OF REACTION

(ENTHALPY OF REACTION)
Heat of formation
The change in enthalpy that takes place when one mole of the compound is
formed from its elements is known as heat of formation. It is denoted by ∆Hf. For
example the heat of formation of ferrous oxide may be expressed as

Fe(s) + S(s) Fe S(s) ∆Hf = -24.0 kcal
This equation can be explained as, one mole of Fe (in solid from) reacts with
one mole of sulphur (in solid form) to form one mole of ferrous sulphide (in solid form)
and 24 kcal heat in evolved.
The reaction between gaseous hydrogen and gaseous chlorine to form gaseous
hydrogen chloride is represented by the equation.
H2(g) + Cl2(g) 2H Cl(g) ∆H= -44 kcal
This equation means one mole of gaseous hydrogen reacts until one mole of
gaseous chlorine to form two moles of gaseous hydrogen chloride and 44 kcal heat is
evolved. It may be noted in this case that 44 kcal is not heat of formation of HCl
because this amount of heat is evolved when two moles of hydrogen chloride are
formed. The heat of formation of hydrogen chloride would be - 44/2= - 22 kcal and the
equation can be written as
½ H2(g) + ½ Cl2(g) HCl(g) ∆H = -22 kcal

Standard heat of formation
The standard heat of formation, ∆H0f, is the enthalpy change when one mole of a
substance is formed from its elements in their standard states. That is all substances are
at 298K and one atmosphere pressure. ∆H0f values may be exothermic or endothermic.
Table 12.1 Standard heat of formation of some common compounds
Determination of enthalpy of reaction
Enthalpies of reaction at 250C (298K) can be determined if ∆H0f of reactants and

products involved in the reactions are known since
∆H0 = ∆H0f (products) - ∆H0f (reactants)

By convention, ∆H0f values for elements in their standard states are taken as
zero. This aspect has been shown in the following example.
Example: Calculate ∆H0 for the equation
CO2(g) + H2(g) CO(g) + H2O(g) given that ∆H0f for CO2(g),

CO(g) and H2O(g) are -393.5, -111.31 and -241.80 kJ mole-1 respectively.
∆H0 = ∆H0f (products)- ∆H0f(reactants)
= [∆H0f CO(g) + ∆H0f H2O(g)] – [∆H0f CO2(g) + ∆H0f H2(g)]
= -111.31 – 291.80 – (-393.5-0)
= -353.11+393.5
= 40.4 kJ
12.9 HEAT OF COMBUSTION

Heat of combustion of a substance is change in enthalpy when one mole of
substance is completely burnt in excess of oxygen. Heat of combustion is denoted by
∆HC. Thus combustion of methane shown as
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + H2O(l) ∆HC = -87.78 kJ
Combustion of hydrogen similarly can be represented as
H2(g) + ½ O2(g) H2O(l) ∆HC = -285.29 kJ.
Now let us consider the following chemical equations.
C(S) + ½ O2(g) CO(g) ∆H =-26 kcal ........(A)
C(S) + O2(g) CO2(g) ∆H =-94.3 kcal .........(B)
It may be noted that -94.3 kcal is the heat of combustion of carbon as

combustion is complete in equation (B). In the first case (A) carbon has been converted
into carbon monoxide and by no means completely oxidised, it can be further oxidised
to carbon dioxide.
12.10 USES OF HEAT OF COMBUSTION

(i) Calculation of heat of formation
The heat of combustion of organic compounds can be easily determined, these

are employed to calculate their heat of formation.

Example : The enthalpy of combustion of glucose C6H12O6(S) is -2816 kJ. Heat of

formation of CO2(g) and H2O(l) are -393.5 kJ mole-1 and -285.9 kJ mole-1 respectively.
Calculate the heat of formation of glucose.
Ans. We have to calculate
6C(S) + 6H2(g) + 3O2(g) C6H12O6(S) ∆H=?
Given that
(1) C6H12O6(S) + 6O2(g) 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(g)∆H= -2816kJ

(2) C(S) +O2(g) CO2(g) ∆H=-393.5 kJ
(3) H2(g) + ½ O2(g) H2O(l) ∆H = -285.9 kJ
Multiplying eqn.(2) by 6 and equation (3) by 6 and adding
We get
(4) 6 C(S) + 6 O2(g) + 6H2(g) + 6/2 O2(g) 6 CO2(g)+ 6H2O(l)
∆H = - 6x393.5-6x285.9
= -4086.4 kJ
Subtracting eqn (1) from eqn (4) we get
6C(S) + 6O2(g) + 6H2(g) + 3O2 – C6H12O6(S) = 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) – 6O(l)
∆H = - 4076.4+2816
= - 1260.4
Hence 6C(S) + 3O2 +6H2(g) C6H12O6(S) , ∆H= - 1260.4
So heat of formation glucose is – 1260.4 kJ
(ii) Calorific value of foods and fuels
The amount of heat produced when one gram of substance is completely burnt
is known as calorific value of food or fuel efficiency.
It is expressed in cal per gram or kcal per gram or kJ per gram.
Methane has better fuel efficiency than ethane as it produces more heat per
gram. It can be explained by comparing heat of combustion of methane and ethane.
Heat of combustion of methane is -890.3 KJ and that of ethane is – 1559.7 KJ
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 3H2O(l) ∆H = - 890.3 kJ

and C2H6(g) + 3/2 O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l) ∆H = - 1559.7 kJ
for methane heat produced per gram is -
= - 55.64 kJ g-1 and for ethane heat produced per gram
is – = - 51.90 kJg-1 (molecular weight of methane is 16 and that of ethane is 30).

Thus methane has better fuel efficiency than ethane as it produces more heat per gram.
(iii) Deciding constitution
Heat of combustion of organic compounds is to a large extent an additive

property as shown by the fact that in a homologous series the difference between the
heats of combustion of successive members is nearly constant and its equal to 158 cals.
Constants corresponding to the heats of combustion of various atoms and linkages have
been worked out. The heat of combustion of an organic substance can be calculated
from its probable structural formula by adding up the values of the constants
corresponding to the atoms and linkages involved therein. If the value so obtained
comes out to be the same as the experimental value of the heat of combustion of the
compound, the assumed formula must be correct.
12.11 HEAT OF SOLUTION

When a substance is dissolved in a solvent heat changes are usually observed.
When reaction takes place in solution, heat of solution of reactants and products must
be taken into account.
The heat of solution is defined as:
The change in enthalpy when one mole of substance dissolved in a specific

quantity of solvent at a given temperature. If a substance is dissolved in a solvent
certain amount of heat is evolved or absorbed. If the solution is further diluted, there
will be again be change in enthalpy. If we go on diluting the solution, a stage will come
when further dilution produces no thermal effect. This is called the state of infinite
dilution. To avoid the quantity of the solvent, we have to incorporate the idea of infinite
dilution in the definition which may be stated as:
The heat of solution is the change in enthalpy when one mole of substance is
dissolved in a solvent so that further dilution does not give any change in enthalpy.
Thus
KCl(S) + H2O(l) KCl(ag) ∆H = -4.4 kcal
MgSO4(S) + H2O(l) MgSO4(ag) ∆H = -20.28 kcal

The heat of solution of an electrolyte may be due to energy change involved

during ionisation or some hydrate formation as in sulphuric acid. Usually heat is
absorbed when ions are torn apart from each other in the process of solution and heat is
evolved during hydrate formation.
12.12 HEAT OF NEUTRALISATION

The change in heat content (enthalpy) of the system when one gram
equivalent of an acid is neutralised by one gram equivalent of base or vice versa in
dilute solution is known as heat of neutralisation.
Following are some examples of the heat of neutralisation
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) ∆H = - 13.68 kcal
HNO3(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l) ∆H = - 13.69 kcal
HNO3(aq) + KOHaq) KNO3(aq) + H2O(l) ∆H = - 13.87 kcal
From these equations written above it is observed that heat of neutralisation of a

strong acid and strong base is – 13.7 kcal. This can be explained with the help of theory
of ionisation. If HA and BOH represent any strong acid and strong base respectively
and equivalent amount of these in dilute solution be mixed, we have
H+ (aq) + A(aq) + B(aq) +OH(aq) A(aq) + B(aq) + H2O(l) ∆H = -13.7 Kcal
Hence H+(aq) + OH(aq) H2O (l) ∆H= -13.7 kcal
Thus the heat of neutralisation of an acid and a base is merely heat of formation
of water from hydrogen and hydroxyl ions.
If, however, the acid or alkali is weak, the enthalpy of neutralisation is different
because the reaction now involves dissociation of weak acid or weak alkali as well the
neutralisation of acetic acid with sodium hydroxide, for example, involves the
dissociation of the acid as well as the usual neutralisation of H+ and OH- ions as
represented below.
(i) CH3COOH CH3COO- + H+

(ii) H+ (aq) + OH (aq) H2O (l)
As H+ ions are neutralised by OH- ions furnished by the completely dissociated

sodium hydroxide, more H+ ions are formed by the dissociation of acetic acid to re-
establish the equilibrium. Thus, both the reactions proceed side by side till acetic acid is
completely neutralised.
The enthalpy of neutralisation of acetic acid by sodium hydroxide has been

found to be -13.2 kcal. Since the average value for the combination of H+ and OH- ions

is taken as -13.7 kcal, the enthalpy of dissociation of acetic acid may be taken as 0.5
kcal.
The heat of dissociation of a weak acid or weak base may be defined as the
change in enthalpy of the system when one mole of it is dissociation into ions.
12.13 SOME OTHER DEFINITIONS
12.13.1 Heat of fusion
Heat of fusion is defined as the heat change (or enthalpy change) when one
mole of solid substance is converted into liquid state at its melting point.
H2O(s) H2O (l) H=+1.43 Kcal
Ice water
Here ice melt at 273K and change into liquid water by absorbing 1.43 kcal heat.
It is found that greater the heat of fusion of a substance higher the magnitude of
intermolecular forces.
12.13.2 Heat of vaporisation
The heat of vaporisation is defined as:
Change in enthalpy when one mole of liquid is converted into vapour or

gaseous state at its boiling point.
For example one mole of water is converted into steam at 1000C or 373K, the
heat absorbed is 9.71 kcal which is heat of vaporisation of water.
H2O (l) H2O(g): H=9.71 Kcal
Water steam
12.13.3 Heat of sublimation
In sublimation process a solid change directly into gaseous state without

changing into liquid state. Sublimation occurs at a temperature below the melting point
of solid.
Heat of sublimation is defined as the enthalpy change when one mole of solid is
directly converted into gaseous state at a temperature below its melting point.
For example, the heat of sublimation of iodine is 14.92 kcal per mole. It can be
represented as:

I2(s) I2(g) H=14.92 kcal
12.13.4 Heat of transition
The change in enthalpy when one mole of an element changes from one
allotropic form to another is known as heat of transition.
For example transition of diamond into amorphous carbon be represented as:
Cdiamond Camorphous H=3.3 kcal
Similarly
Pwhite Pred H=-1.028 kcal
12.14 HESS’S LAW OF CONSTANT HEAT SUMMATION

The energy changes accompanying chemical processes are governed by
a general principle known as Hess’s law. This law states that the amount of heat
involved or absorbed in a process is the same whether the process takes place in two or
more different ways in one step or in several steps.
Let us suppose that a substance A can be changed to Z directly.
A Z+Q1 : H1= -Q1
Where Q1 is the heat involved in the direct change.
When the same change is brought about in stages:
A B+q1 H2= -q1
B C+q2 H 2 = - q2
C Z+q3 H 3 = - q3
The total evolution of heat q1+q2+q3 = Q2
According to Hess’s law Q1=Q2. If it is not so, let Q2>Q1. Then by transforming
A to Z through stages and Transforming directly back to A, there would be a gain of
heat energy= Q2-Q1. By repeating the process again and again unlimited heat energy
will be developed in an isolated system. This goes against the first law of
thermodynamics. Hence Q1 must be equal to Q2

Fig 12.2 Illustration of Hess’s law
Examples of Hess’s:
Burning of carbon to carbon dioxide:
Carbon can be burnt to carbon dioxide directly or it may first changed to carbon
monoxide which may then be oxidised to carbon dioxide.
Ist way Cs + O2(g) CO2(g) H= -94.05 kcal
2nd way C(s) + ½ O2(g) CO2(g) H= -26.42 kcal
CO(g) + ½ O2(g) CO2(g) H= -67.71 kcal
Overall change C(s)+O2(g) CO2(g) H= -94.1 k cal
It is shown in fig 12.2
12.14.1 Application of Hess’s law
(i) Calculation of enthalpy of reaction:
With the help of Hess’s law it is possible to calculate enthalpies of many

reactions which cannot be determined experimentally. For example, it is extremely
difficult to measure the heat evolved when carbon burns in oxygen to form carbon
monoxide.
C(s)+ ½ O2(g) CO(g): H=?
From the Hess’s law it is known that the heat evolved in the combustion of one mole
carbon dioxide is same, viz whether the reaction takes place in single step as
C(S)+ O2(g) CO2(g) H = -94.05

or in two steps as
C(S)+1/2 O2(g) CO(g) H= x kcal (say)
CO(g)+1/2 O2(g) CO2(g) H= y kcal (say)
Although x, the heat change involved in the combustion of carbon monoxide cannot be
determined easily, y, the heat change involved in the combustion of carbon monoxide
to give carbon dioxide can be measured and has been found to be -67.71 kcal.
According to Hess’s law
x+y = -94.05 kcal
or x= -94.05-67.71 = -26.34 kcal
Thus, H heat of combustion of carbon to give carbon monoxide is – 26.34 kcal.
(ii) Determination of enthalpy changes of slow reactions:
Hess’s law is extremely useful in determining enthalpy changes of those

reactions which takes place extremely slowly for example, the transformation of
rhombic sulphur into monoclinic sulphur is so slow that direct measurement of enthalpy
change is not possible. But the enthalpy of combustion of rhombic sulphur are known
to be respectively, i.e.,
(i) S(rhombic) +O2(g) SO2(g) ; H =- 297.5 kJ
(ii) S(monoclinic) + O2(g) SO2(g) ; H = - 300.0 kJ
Substracting (i) from (ii) and rearranging, we get
S(monoclinic) S(rhombic); H= - 2.5 kJ
or S(rhombic) S(monoclinic) H= 2.5 kJ
Thus transformation of one mole of rhombic sulphur into monoclinic sulphur is

accompanied by absorption of kcal of heat.
(iii) Calculation of enthalpy of formation:
The enthalpy of formation of compounds can be calculated by the application of

Hess’s law when it is not possible to determine these experimentally.
For example it is impossible to determine experimentally the enthalpy of

formation of benzene from its elements: carbon and hydrogen. However, it can
calculate from the enthalpy of combustion of benzene and the enthalpy of formation of
water and carbon dioxide. The solution is carried out in two steps

Step I
(i) C6H6(l) + 15/2 O2(g) 6CO2+ 3H2O (l) H= -781.74 kcal
(ii) C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g) H=-94.14 kcal
(iii) H2O (g) + ½ O2(g) H2O (l) H=+ 68.40 kcal
Step-II
(iv) 6 C(s) + 6O2 (g) 6CO2(g) ; H=-564.84 kcal

(v) 3H2(g) + 3/2 O2(g) 3H2O(l) H=-205.20 kcal
Adding (iv) and (v) and subtracting (1) we get
6C(s) + 3H2(g) C6H6 (l) ; H=11.70 kcal
Thus enthalpy of formation of benzene is 11.72 Kcal.
12.15 BOND ENERGIES

Bond energy for any particular type of bond in a compound may be defined as
the average amount of energy required to dissociate (i.e., break) one mole, Avogadro
number of bonds of that type present in the compound. This is also called the enthalpy
of formation of the bond.
Thus the bond energy of H-H bond is the energy required to break all the bonds
in one mole of the gas. It is expressed in kcal per mole or kJ per mole. For example,
bond energy of H-H bond is 433 kJ per mole or 103.58 kcal per mole.
Bond energies of some common bonds are given below.
(i) H2(g) 2Hg(g) ; H=433.1 kJ

(ii) O2(g) 2O(g) ; H=489.5 kJ
(iii)N2(g) 2N(g) ; H=937.4 kJ
(iv) C(s) C (g) ; H=719.6 kJ
Suppose we have to determine the enthalpy of formation of C-H bond in methane. We

should know the enthalpy of formation of methane. This had been calculated from the
enthalpy of combustion of methane to be – 74.9 kJ. Thus
(v) C(s) + 2H2(g) CH4(g) ; H= - 74.9 kJ
Multiplying equation (i) by 2 we have
(vi) 2H2(g) 4H(g) ; H= 866.2 kJ

Adding equation (iv) and (vi) and subtracting from equation (v) we have
C(g) + 2H2(g) CH4(g) ; H= -1660.7 kJ
It follows from above that -1660.7 kJ of energy is required to break four moles of C-H
bonds in methane. Therefore the average bond energy per mole of C-H bond is -
1660.7/4 = 415.2 kJ. This is also the enthalpy of formation of the C-H bond.
12.16 SUMMARY
In this unit we have studied different definitions associated with
thermochemistry. As we know thermochemistry is the study of energy changes
involved in chemical reactions. This study is very useful in determining enthalpy
changes in various reactions. Kirchoff’s equation is very useful in calculating change of
enthalpy with temperature. Hess’s law and bond energy calculations are utilised for
various transformations.

Q.1 Which of the following relations holds good for the reaction?
CO (g) + ½ O2(g) CO2(g)
(a) H= E (b) H= E+RT
(c) H= E+ RT (d) H= E- RT
Ans (d)
Q.2 The change in internal energy with temperature at constant volume is given by
the relation.
(a) E = Cv(T1-T2) (b) E = CP(T2-T1)
(c) E = Cv(T2-T1) (d) E = CP(T1-T2)
Ans(c)
Q.3 Which of the following always has a negative value?
(a) Heat of reaction (b) Heat of formation
(c) Heat of combustion (d) Heat of solution

Ans (c)
Q.4 The change in enthalpy that takes place when one mole of compound is formed
from its elements is called:
(a) Heat of combustion (b) heat of formation of compound
(c) Heat of synthesis (d) standard heat of formation
Ans (b)
Q.5 The heat of neutralisation of strong acid and strong base is always:
(a) Zero (b) constant (c) positive (d) changing
Ans (b)
Q.6 Derive the relation between H and E
Q.7 What is meant by heat of formation
Q.8 Define heat of neutralisation
Q.9 Derive the relation between enthalpy of reaction at constant volume and at
constant pressure.
Q.10 State Hess’s law of constant heat summation. Calculate the heat of formation of
acetylene from the following data:
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g) ; n = -94.052 kcal
H2(g) + ½ O2(g) H2 O ; H = -68.317 kcal
C2H2(g) + 5/2 O2(g) 2CO2(g) + H2O(l); H= -310.615 kcal
Q.11 (a) Explain what is meant by the term bond energy
(b) Define heat of neutralisation. Why heat of neutralisation of a strong acid and
strong base is 13.69 kcal?
Q.12 Define the following terms:
(a) Thermochemistry
(b) Heat of reaction

(c) Heat of formation
(d) Thermochemical equation
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BSCCH-

Phone No. 05946-261122, 261123

Prof. Govind Singh Prof. B. S. Saraswat

Dr. Charu C. Pant Dr. Shalini Singh

Unit Written By: Unit No.

BLOCK 1: MATHEMATICAL AND COMPUTERS FUNDAMENTALS

Unit-1 Unites and Dimensions 01-11

BLOCK 2: STATES OF MATTER

Unit-2 Gases State I 12-28

Unit-3 Gases State II 29-40

Unit-4 Liquid state 41-64

Unit -5 Solid state 65-82

BLOCK 3: DYNAMICS AND MACROMOLECULES

Unit -7 Chemical kinetics-II 97-111

Unit -8 Colloids and Macromolecules 112-137

Unit -9 Catalysis 138-157

Unit-10 Basic Concepts of thermodynamics 158-172

Unit-11 First low thermodynamics 173-195

Unit-12 Thermochemistry 196-216

UNIT 1: UNITES AND DIMENSIONS

• Use the SI system.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 1

1.3 BASIC UNITS, DERIVED UNIT AND SI PREFIXES

A unit is a particular way of attaching a number to the quantitative dimension.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 2

Pressure P ML-1T-2 Newton per square meter Kg m-

1.3.1. System of Units

(b) F.P.S. (Foot-Pound-Second) system

(c) M.K.S. (Meter-Kilogram--Second) system.

(d) M.K.S.A. (Meter-Kilogram-Second-Ampere) unit

1.3.2. The seven base units of the SI

4. Electric current- ampere, A: The ampere is that constant currentwhich, if

5. Thermodynamic temperature - Kelvin, K: the Kelvin, unit of thermodynamic

6. Amount of substance- Mole, mol: The mole is the amount of substance of a

Table-2 The seven independent SI base units

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 3

Quantity Unit name Unit symbol

Electric current Ampere A

Amount of substance Mole Mol

Luminous intensity Candela Cd

The International System of Units

Prefixes for SI units

Factor Prefix Symbol Factor Prefix Symbol

1024 yotta- Y 10−24 yocto -y

1021 zeta- Z 10−21 zepto -z

1018 exa- E 10−18 atto -a

1015 peta- P 10−15 femto- -f

1012 tera- T 10−12 pico -p

109 giga- G 10−9 nano -n

106 mega -M 10−6 micro -µ

103 kilo -k 10−3 milli -m

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 4

102 hecta -h 10−2 centi -c

101 deca -da 10−1 deci -d

Common metric prefixes:

Multiplication Factor Prefix Name Prefix Symbol

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 5

1.4 GRAMMATICAL RULES FOR REPRESENTING THE

The SI units consist of