5

Water Treatment

NOTESCornell Cooperative Extension, College of Human Ecology

Chlorination of Drinking Water

LINDA WAGENET, ANNELIES HEIDEKAMP, AND ANN LEMLEY
Fact Sheet 5, September 1988 (Updated October 2005)

Understanding Drinking Water Standards Disinfection requirements

mg = milligram = one-thousandth of a gram Disinfection reduces pathogenic microorganisms in
water to levels designated safe by public health stan-
mg/L = milligram per liter = part per million (ppm) = dards. This prevents the transmission of disease.
$1 in $ 1,000,000 An effective disinfection system kills or neutralizes
µg = microgram = one-millionth of a gram all pathogens in the water. It is automatic, simply
µg/L = microgram per liter = part per billion (ppb) = maintained, safe, and inexpensive. An ideal system
treats all the water and provides residual (long term)
$1 in $ 1,000,000,000
disinfection. Chemicals should be easily stored and
Water used for drinking and cooking should be free not make the water foul-tasting.
of pathogenic (disease causing) microorganisms that State and federal governments require public water
cause such illnesses as typhoid fever, dysentery, chol- supplies to be biologically safe. The U.S. Environ-
era, and gastroenteritis. Whether a person contracts mental Protection Agency (EPA) has set regulations
these diseases from water depends on the type of to increase the protection provided by public water
pathogen, the number of organisms in the water systems, and they are enforced by the designated state
(density), the strength of the organism (virulence), the agencies. Water supply operators will be directed to
volume of water ingested, and the susceptibility of the disinfect and, if necessary, filter the water to prevent
individual. Purification of drinking water containing contamination from Giardia lamblia, Cryptosporid-
pathogenic microorganisms requires specific treat- ium, coliform bacteria, viruses, heterotrophic bacteria,
ment called disinfection. turbidity, and Legionella.
Although several methods eliminate disease- Private systems, while not federally regulated, also
causing microorganisms in water, chlorination is the are vulnerable to biological contamination from sew-
most commonly used. Chlorination is effective age, improper well construction, and poor-quality
against many pathogenic bacteria, but at normal dos- water sources. Since more than 30 million people in
age rates it does not kill all viruses, cysts, or worms. the United States rely on private wells for drinking
When combined with filtration, chlorination is an ex- water, maintaining biologically safe water is a major
cellent way to disinfect drinking water supplies. concern.
This fact sheet discusses the requirements of a dis-
infection system, how to test the biological quality of Testing water for biological quality
drinking water, how to calculate the amount of chlo- The biological quality of drinking water is determined
rine needed in a particular situation, chlorination by tests for total coliform (which includes E. coli and
equipment, by-products of disinfection, and alterna- fecal coliforms). These organisms are found in the
tive disinfection methods. intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals and in soil.
Fecal coliforms and E. coli only come from human
and animal fecal waste. The presence of coliform in
water indicates pathogenic contamination, but they
are not considered to be pathogens. Most certified Contact time with microorganisms
laboratories run all tests routinely, though some first The contact (retention) time (Table 1) in chlorina-
run a total coliform test, and when positive, test sepa- tion is that period between introduction of the disin-
rately for E.coli presence. The drinking water stan- fectant and when the water is used. A long interaction
dard for coliform bacteria in water is zero. between chlorine and the microorganisms results in
Public water systems are required to test regularly an effective disinfection process. Contact time varies
for coliform bacteria. Private system testing is done at with chlorine concentration, the type of pathogens
the owner's discretion. Drinking water from a private present, pH, and temperature of the water. The calcu-
system should be tested for biological quality at least lation procedure is given below.
once each year, usually in the spring. Testing is also Contact time must increase under conditions of low
recommended following flooding, repair or improve- water temperature or high pH (alkalinity). Complete
ments in the well. mixing of chlorine and water is necessary, and often a
Coliform presence in a water sample does not nec- holding tank is needed to achieve appropriate contact
essarily mean that the water is hazardous to drink. A time. In a private well system, the minimum-size
high positive test result, however, indicates substan- holding tank is determined by multiplying the capac-
tial contamination requiring prompt action. Such wa- ity of the pump by 10. For example, a 5-gallons-per-
ter should not be consumed until the source of con- minute (gpm) pump requires a 50-gallon holding
tamination is determined and the water purified. tank. Pressure tanks are not recommended for this
A certified testing laboratory provides specific purpose since they usually have a combined inlet/
sampling instructions and containers. Names and ad- outlet and all the water does not pass through the
dresses can be obtained from the health department or tank.
county Cooperative Extension office. Also lists of An alternative to the holding tank is a long length of
certified laboratories for your state can be found coiled pipe to increase contact between water and
through the website of the EPA at http:// chlorine. Scaling and sediment build-up inside the
www.epa.gov/safewater/labs/index.html. pipe make this method inferior to the holding tank.
If no guidelines are available, use the given below.
• Use sterile sample container and handle only the Table 1. Calculating Contact time
outside of container and cap. To calculate contact time, one should use the high-
• Run water for a few minutes to clear the lines. est pH and lowest water temperature expected. For
• Upon collecting sample, immediately cap bottle example, if the highest pH anticipated is 7.5 and the
and place in chilled container if delivery to lab lowest water temperature is 42 °F, the "K" value
exceeds 1 hour (never exceed 30 hours). Many (from the table below) to use in the formula is 15.
laboratories do not accept samples on Friday due Therefore, a chlorine residual of 0.5 mg/l necessitates
to time limits. 30 minutes contact time. A residual of 0.3 mg/l re-
quires 50 minutes contact time for adequate disinfec-
Chlorine treatment tion.
Chlorine readily combines with chemicals dissolved K K
Minutes required =
in water, microorganisms, small animals, plant mate- chlorine residual (mg/L)
rial, tastes, odors, and colors. These components "use
up" chlorine and comprise the chlorine demand of K values to determine chlorine contact time
the treatment system. It is important to add sufficient
chlorine to the water to meet the chlorine demand and Highest Lowest Water Temperature (degrees F)
provide residual disinfection. pH >50 45 <40
The chlorine that does not combine with other com-
6.5 4 5 6
ponents in the water is free (residual) chlorine, and
the breakpoint is the point at which free chlorine is 7.0 8 10 12
available for continuous disinfection. An ideal system
supplies free chlorine at a concentration of 0.3-0.5 7.5 12 15 18
mg/l. Simple test kits, most commonly the DPD col- 8.0 16 20 24
orimetric test kit (so called because diethyl phenylene
8.5 20 25 30
diamine produces the color reaction), are available for
testing breakpoint and chlorine residual in private 9.0 24 30 36
systems. The kit must test free chlorine, not total
2
chlorine.
Chlorination levels Shock chlorination, outlined below, is recom-
If a system does not allow adequate contact time with mended whenever a well is new, repaired, or found to
normal dosages of chlorine, superchlorination fol- be contaminated. This treatment introduces high lev-
lowed by dechlorination (chlorine removal) may be els of chlorine to the water. Unlike superchlorination,
necessary. shock chlorination is a "one time only" occurrence,
Superchlorination provides a chlorine residual of and chlorine is depleted as water flows through the
3.0-5.0 mg/l, 10 times the recommended minimum system; activated carbon treatment is not required. If
breakpoint chlorine concentration. Retention time for bacteriological problems persist following shock
superchlorination is approximately 5 minutes. Acti- chlorination, the well should be carefully inspected
vated carbon filtration removes the high chlorine re- for avenues of contamination. If a source of contami-
sidual (see: Fact Sheet 3: "Activated Carbon Treat- nation can not be isolated, a continuous chlorination
ment of Drinking Water").

Procedure for Shock Chlorination of Wells

(Adapted from NYSDOH, Don’t be Left in the Dark and Georgia’s Cooperative extension Disinfecting Your
Well Water Shock Chlorination)

1. Run water until clear, using an outdoor faucet closest to the well or pressure tank
2. Mix 3 pints of 5% chlorine, per 100 gallons water volume in your well (see table for calculation), with 10
gallons of water in a bucket or pail in the area of the well casing. Add 3 extra pints of bleach to treat household
plumbing.
3. Turn electrical power off to the well pump. Carefully remove the well cap and well seal if necessary. Set
aside.
4. Place hose connected to outdoor faucet inside well casing. Turn electrical power back on to the well pump
and turn water on to run to pump.
5. Carefully pour the water and bleach mixture from the bucket or pail down the open well casing. At the same
time, continue to run the water from the hose placed inside the well casing.
6. At each indoor and outdoor faucet, run the water until a chlorine odor is present, and then shut each faucet
off.
7. Continue running water through the hose inside the well casing to recirculate the chlorine treated water. Use
the hose also to wash down the inside of the well casing.
8. After one hour of recirculating the water, shut all faucets off to stop the pump. Disconnect power supply to
pump. Remove circulator hose from well.
9. Disinfect the well cap and seal by rinsing with a chlorine solution. Replace well seal and cap. Allow the well
to stand idle for at least 8 hours and preferably 12 to 24 hours. Avoid using the water during that time.
After the well has idled for the recommended period of time, turn the pump on and run the water using an out-
door faucet and garden hose in an area away from grass and shrubbery until the odor of chlorine disappears.

NB. To determine the amount of chlorine to mix with your well water, you need to know the amount of standing
water in your well. You need to know the distance, in feet between the water level in your well, and the bottom
of the well. This is multiplied by the storage per foot of water (see table). Per 100 gallons of water you need to
use 3 pints of bleach.
If your drilled well is 6” and has 200 feet of standing water, it has 204 x 1.47 = 300 gallons of water. So 9 pints
of bleach need to be added plus 3 pints for the plumbing. That is 12 pints or 1.5 gallons of bleach.
If your well has an unlisted diameter, please contact your local extension office or well driller.
Drilled Well/Pipe Bored Well
Storage per foot of water Storage per foot of water
Diameter (inches) Diameter (inches)
(gal/ft) (gal/ft)
4” 0.653 24” 23.5
6” 1.47 36” 52.9
8” 2.61
3
 Chlorination Guidelines Chlorine pump (see Fig. 1):
• Chlorine solutions lose strength while standing or • commonly used, positive displacement or chemi-
when exposed to air or sunlight. Make fresh solu- cal-feed device,
tions frequently to maintain necessary residual. • adds small amount, of chlorine to the water,
• Maintain a free chlorine residual of 0.3-0.5 mg/l • dose either fixed or varies with water flow rates
after a 10 minute contact time. Measure the resid- • recommended for low and fluctuating water pres-
ual frequently. sure,
• Once the chlorine dosage is increased to meet • chlorine drawn into device then pumped to water
greater demand, do not decrease it. delivery line
• Locate and eliminate the source of contamination
to avoid continuous chlorination. If a water Suction device:
source is available that does not require disinfec- • line from chlorine supply to suction side of water
tion, use it. pump,
• Keep records of pertinent information concerning • chlorine drawn into water held in well pump,
the chlorination system.
• dosage uniformity not assured with this system,
Types of chlorine used in disinfection
Public water systems use chlorine in the gaseous
form, which is considered too dangerous and expen- SUCTION STROKE DELIVERY STROKE
sive for home use. Private systems use liquid chlorine
(sodium hypochlorite) or dry chlorine (calcium hy-
pochlorite). To avoid hardness deposits on equipment,
manufacturers recommend using soft, distilled, or
demineralized water when making up chlorine solu-
tions.
Liquid Chlorine Dry Chlorine

• household bleach • powder dissolved in water

most common form • available chlorine: 4%
• available chlorine • produces heavy sediment Figure 1. Pump type (positive displacement) chlorinator
range: 5.25% (domestic that clogs equipment; filtra-
laundry bleach) 18% tion required
(commercial laundry • dry powder stable when
bleach) stored properly
• slightly more stable • dry powder fire hazard
than solutions from dry near flammable materials
chlorine
• solution maintains
• protect from sun, strength for 1 week
air, and heat
• protect from sun and heat

Equipment for continuous chlorination

Continuous chlorination of a private water supply can
be done by various methods. The injection device Figure 2. Injector (aspirator) chlorinator
should operate only when water is being pumped, and
the water pump should shut off if the chlorinator fails
or if the chlorine supply is depleted. A brief descrip-
tion of common chlorination devices follows.

4
Aspirator (see Fig. 2): OTHER DISINFECTION METHODS
• simple, inexpensive mechanism, Ultraviolet radiation (UV)
• requires no electricity, • uses light to kill microorganisms
• vacuum created by water flowing through a tube • lamp has 9-month to 1-year lifetime
draws chlorine into a tank where it mixes with • needs UV sensor to determine germicidal dose
untreated water,
• effective for bacterial contaminants (viruses more
• treated solution fed into water system,
difficult, cysts and worms unaffected)
• chlorine doses not consistently accurate
• advantage in no chemicals added to water
Solid feed unit: • disadvantage in no residual disinfection; cloudy
or turbid water decreases effectiveness
• waste treatment and swimming pool disinfection,
• requires no electricity,
Ozonation
• controlled by flow meter,
device slowly dissolves chlorine tablets to provide • ozone more powerful disinfectant than chlorine
continuous supply of chlorine solution • disadvantage is ozone cannot be purchased, must
be generated on-site
Batch disinfection: • machinery to generate ozone complicated and
• used for fluctuating chlorine demand, difficult to maintain
• three tanks, each holding 2 to 3 days' water sup- • effects of ozonation byproducts not fully under-
ply, alternately filled, treated, and used stood

Boiling
Disinfection by-products
• two minutes vigorous boiling assures biological
Trihalomethanes (THMS) are chemicals that are
formed, primarily in surface water, when naturally safety
occurring organic materials (humic and fulvic acids • kills all organisms in water (chlorination reduces
from degradation of plant material) combine with free them to safe levels)
chlorine. Some of the THMs present in drinking wa- • practical only as emergency measure
ter are chloroform, bromoform, and bromodichloro- • once boiled, cooled water must be protected from
methane. Since groundwater rarely has high levels of recontamination
humic and fulvic acids, chlorinated private wells con-
tain much lower levels of these chemicals. Pasteurization
THMs are linked to increases in some cancers, but
• uses heat to disinfect but does not boil water
the potential for human exposure to THMs from
drinking water varies with season, contact time, water • flash pasteurization uses high temperature for
temperature, pH, water chemistry and disinfection short time (160 °F, 15 seconds)
method. Although there is a risk from consuming • low-temperature pasteurization uses lower tem-
THMs in chlorinated drinking water, the health haz- perature for longer time (140 °F, 10 minutes)
ards of not disinfecting water are much greater. The
primary standard (maximum contaminant level) for Summary
total THMs in drinking water is 0.080 mg/l or 80 ppb, Chlorination is the most common disinfection method
and activated carbon filtration removes THMs from for public and private drinking water systems. This
water. treatment has limitations and is not suitable for heav-
ily-contaminated wells or springs, or sources where
Other disinfection methods hazardous materials are present. With adequate resid-
Although chlorination is the method of choice for ual chlorine and contact time between the disinfectant
most municipal and private water treatment systems, and the microorganisms, chlorination effectively kills
alternatives do exist. Information about these other many disease-causing bacteria. Additionally, chlorine
disinfection methods is on the right. is inexpensive, easy to control, generally safe to use,
and adapts to municipal or private systems.

5
REFERENCES
Beauman, W.H. "Disinfection Techniques" In: Qual- Manual of individual Water Supply Systems. USEPA
ity of Water for Home and Farm. Proceedings of 3rd Bulletin No. EPA-570/9-82-004. Washington: Oct.
Domestic Water Quality Symposium. ASAE. Feb. 1982.
27-Mar. 1, 1979. St.Louis, MO.
Planning for an Individual Water System. AAVIM
Cantor, K.P., Chlorinated water and cancer: Is there a Bulletin. 4th edition, 1982.
link? Health and Environ. Digest. Vol. 1, No. 6, Jul.
1987. p. I- 3. Private Water Systems Handbook. MWPS. Ames,
Iowa. 1981.
Chlorination of private water supplies. Bruner Bulle-
tin 5687- lR4. Milwaukee. p. 1-4. Rural Water Supply. NYSDOH. 1966.

Disinfection of Private Water Supplies (fact sheet) Ryan, D. Water treatment to combat illness. EPA
Cooperative Extension Service, Kansas State Univer- Journal. Dec. 1987. p. 6-8.
sity, Manhattan, Kansas.
Treating Farmstead and Rural Home Water Systems.
Drinking Water Detoxification. M.T.Gillies, ed. Park USDA/ARS Bulletin No. 2248 Washington: U.S.
Ridge, NJ.: Noyes Data Corp. 1978. Government Printing Office. 1977.

Lee, LK. and E.G.Neilsen, The extent and costs of Don’t Be Left in the Dark, New York State Depart-
groundwater contamination by agriculture. j Soil Wa- ment of Health November 2003
ter Conservation, Jul.-Aug. 1987. p. 243-248. http://www.health.state.ny.us/nysdoh/power_outage/
power_outage.pdf
Atiles, J.H and P.F. Vendrell, Disinfecting Your Well
Water: Shock Chlorination, House hold water Quality
Series 4, The University of Georgia’s Cooperative
Extension service, January 2003,
http://aesl.ces.uga.edu/publications/watercirc/
ShockChlorination.pdf
Annelies Heidekamp is an Extension Associate,
Linda Wagenet is a former Extension Associate and
Ann Lemley is Professor and Chair in the Depart-
ment of Textiles and Apparel, College of Human
FACT SHEET 5 Ecology, Cornell University, Ithaca NY 14853.
SEPTEMBER, 1988 (updated October 2005)

This publication is issued to further Cooperative Extension

work mandated by acts of Congress of May 8 and June 30,
1914. It was produced with the cooperation of the U.S.
Department of Agriculture; Cornell Cooperative Exten-
sion; and the College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, the
College of Human Ecology, and the College of Veterinary
Medicine at Cornell University. Cornell Cooperative Ex-
tension provides equal program and employment opportu-
nities. Helene R. Dillard, Director
36/40 9/88 9M CP 88060200

© Cornell Cooperative extension