Industrial Waste Water Treatment

INDUSTRIAL WASTE WATER
TREATMENT
Civil B.Tech. IV-Year II-Sem (Professional Elective-VI)
JNTU - Hyderabad
CONTENTS
Introduction to the Subject
Syllabus as per R16 Curriculum

MID - I & II (Objective Type & Essay Questions with Key) M.1 - M.14
Model Question Papers with Solutions (As per the New External Exam Pattern)
Model Paper-I MP.1
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MP.2
Model Paper-II MP.3

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MP.4
Model Paper-III MP.5
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MP.6
UNIT-WISE SHORT & ESSAY QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS

Unit No. Unit Name
Question Nos. Page Nos.
Topic No. Topic Name
UNIT - I INTRODUCTION TO WASTEWATER

CHARACTERISTICS Q1 - Q25 1.1 - 1.16
Part-A SHORT QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS Q1 - Q11 1.1 - 1.3
Part-B ESSAY QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS Q12 - Q25 1.4 - 1.16
1.1 Introduction : Wastewater Characteristics – Standards of

Disposal – Treatment Objectives and Strategies Q12 - Q19 1.4
1.2 Layouts of Primary, Secondary and Advanced

Treatment Units Q20 - Q25 1.13
UNIT - II DESIGN OF PRELIMINARY AND PRIMARY
TREATMENT OPERATIONS Q1 - Q30 2.1 - 2.22
2.1 Design of Preliminary and Primary Treatment Operations :

Screens, Grit Chambers, Skimming Tanks Q13 - Q20 2.4
2.2 Primary and Secondary Sedimentation Tanks Q21 - Q30 2.12
UNIT - III BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT PROCESSES AND

ATTACHED GROWTH PROCESSES Q1 - Q32 3.1 - 3.22
3.1 Biological Treatment Process : Types, Kinetics of Plug

Flow and Completely Mixed Systems Q15 - Q19 3.5
3.2 Attached Growth Processes : Trickling Filters (Standard

Rate, Highrate), Biofilters, Practices, Features and Design,
Operational Difficulties and Remedial Measures –
Rotating Biological Contactors Q20 - Q32 3.12
UNIT - IV SUSPENDED GROWTH PROCESSES Q1 - Q27 4.1 - 4.22
4.1 Suspended Growth Processes : Activated Sludge Process –

Modifications and Design Equations Q14 - Q24 4.5
4.2 Process Design Criteria, Oxygen and Nutrient Requirements -

Classification and Design of Oxidation Ponds, Lagoons Q25 - Q27 4.19
UNIT - V SLUDGE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL Q1 - Q30 5.1 - 5.18
5.1 Sludge Treatment and Disposal : Sludge Thickening,

Aerobic and Anaerobic Sludge Digestion Processes Q16 - Q22 5.4
5.2 Design of Digester Tank, Sludge Dewatering, Ultimate

Disposal, Sludge Drying Beds, Other Methods of
Sludge Treatment Q23 - Q30 5.12
UNIT-1 Introduction to Wastewater Characteristics 1.1
INTRODUCTION
Marketed by :
UNIT TO WASTEWATER
1 CHARACTERISTICS SIA GROUP
PART-A
SHORT QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS
Q1. Enumerate the physical characteristics of water.
Answer : Model Paper-I, Q1(a)
The major physical characteristics of water are,

(i) Total solids (total dissolved solids, settleable solids, suspended solids, volatile solids)
(ii) Turbidity
(iii) Colour
(iv) Taste and odour
(v) Temperature
(vi) pH
(vii) Alkalinity
(viii) Hardness.
Q2. Enumerate the chemical characteristics of water.
Answer : Model Paper-II, Q1(a)
The major chemical characteristics of water are,

(i) Cations - (Calcium, Magnesium, Sodium, Potassium, Aluminium, Boron, Iron, Manganese, Phosphorus)
(ii) Anions - (Chlorides, Sulphates, Carbonates, Bicarbonates, Fluoride, Nitrate)
(iii) pH
(iv) Radionucleids
(v) Organic compounds (alcohols, acids, starch, fats, proteins, esters and aldehydes)
(vi) Dissolved gases (Oxygen, Carbondioxide, Hydrogen Sulphide, Ammonia and Volatile organic compounds in water).
Q3. Discuss the biological characteristics of wastewater.
Answer : Model Paper-III, Q1(a)
The main biological characteristics of waste water include,

1. Protists, such as protozoa, algae, fungi (molds and yeasts), blue-green algae and bacteria.
2. Plants, such as rooted aquatic plants, seed plants, ferns, mosses, etc.
3. Animals, such as crustaceans, worms and rotifers.
The common indicator organisms in water are the water-borne pathogens, such as Escherichia coli, Serratia sps, Klebsiella
sps, Rabnella sps, Enterobacter sps, Buttiauxella sps, Citrobacter sps, Enterococcus sps, Streptococcus sps, Vibrio cholerae.
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1.2 INDUSTRIAL WASTE WATER TREATMENT [JNTU-HYDERABAD]
Q4. What are the different stages of a water treatment plant?
Answer :
There are three different stages of a water treatment plant. They are,
(a) Primary treatment of water that removes solids present in suspended or dissolved form. Usually, large size particles like
sand, stones and grit and heavy objects are removed.
(b) Chemical (Secondary and Tertiary) treatment includes removal of dissolved or suspended chemical impurities by adding
chemicals to water.
(c) Tertiary or biological treatment ensures removal of micro-organisms and bacteria in water using simple techniques.
Water Water
influent Primary Secondary Tertiary efluent
Q5. Define turbidity.

Answer :
The term turbidity is defined as the amount of particulate matter in parts per million/ppm or mg/L.
Q6. What are the protists in water?
Answer :
The protists in water are the protozoa, algae, fungi (molds and yeast), blue-green algae, and bacteria.
Q7. What are the physical impurities in water?
Answer :
The physical impurities in water are the suspended and colloidal impurities eg., sand, clay, lime, silt, waste products,
complex proteins, etc.
Q8. What are the total solids in water?
Answer :
The total solids in water are in the form of inorganic salts of carbonate, bicarbonate, chloride, sulphate, nitrate, potassium,
sodium, magnesium, calcium, clay and other constituents.
Q9. List any four objectives of testing water.
Answer : Model Paper-I, Q1(b)
Laboratory tests are necessary for testing water to establish the quality of water. Standard methods and procedures are
framed by regulatory authorities to analyze water samples using various analytical techniques.
(a) Water is tested in lab for physical, chemical and biological impurities. The test approves that water is safe for consump-
tion and use by humans.
(b) Lab tests determine quality of water suitable for industrial purpose.
(c) Bacteriological tests help determine disease causing agents. This helps in controlling spread of diseases.
(d) Water quality test helps to determine suitability for various industrial purposes.
Q10. List the parameters to be considered in the location and layout of treatment plant.
Answer : Model Paper-II, Q1(b)
A treatment plant for water is designed and laid out according to the nature of the water sample. The water can be
domestic wastewater, industrial wastewater or drinking water. Several parameters are considered for efficient layout of a water
treatment plant. Essential parameters are,
(a) Area size
(b) Land topography, characteristics and shoreline
(c) Type of water and flow rates
(d) Estimated volume of influent
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(e) Effluent volume and characteristics
(f) Height of Treatment units
(g) Storage Area
(h) Transportation and infrastructure
(i) Technical and maintenance unit
(j) A lternatives in case of accidents.
Q11. List the factors to be considered for layout of water treatment plant.
Answer : Model Paper-III, Q1(b)
(a) In order to treat wastewater from industries, treatment plants are laid in the vicinity of recycling units. Before final
discharge onto land, a separate control unit for assessing wastewater quality is considered.
(b) The water flow rates are optimised by use of proper length of pipes connecting the units.
(c) The units can be controlled manually or automatically depending on the size of the treatment plant.
(d) If the final effluent discharge is suitable for agricultural use, then the layout is preferred closer to agricultural land.
(e) Sufficient back up of power resources should be made available to control automated units.
(f) Storage space for additional volume of unexpected water flow is necessary.

PART-B
ESSAY QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS
1.1 INTRODUCTION : WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS – STANDARDS OF DISPOSAL –
TREATMENT OBJECTIVES AND STRATEGIES
Q12. Discuss the physical characteristics of wastewater.
The main physical characteristics of wastewater are as mentioned below,

1. Turbidity: The turbidity in water is caused by the suspended and colloid material, growth of microorganisms, clay, silt,
finely divided organic and inorganic matter, plankton, microscopic organisms, soluble colored organic compounds, paper
pieces, cigarette stubbs, matchsticks, fruit peels, vegetable debris and leftovers.
2. Colour: The colour in sewage is imparted by foreign materials such as organic matter from soils, vegetation, minerals,
aquatic organisms. Fresh sewage is generally light in colour (yellowish/light brown/grey), while stale sewage is usually
dark coloured (black/brown).
3. Taste and Odour: The objectionable taste and odour in water are caused by different types of substances, such as minerals,
metals, salts, decaying organic matter.
The fresh sewage is odourless, but with the passage of time, the oxygen content in the sewage gets used up, releasing the
offensive rotten egg smell of hydrogen sulphide gas, algae and other microorganisms, and various constituents in wastewater.
The terms used to describe the taste and odour of water are grassy, musty, sweet, swampy, fishy, septic, phenolic, etc.
4. Temperature: The temperature of sewage is generally, on an average, 20°C. Sometimes, the temperature of sewage is
greater than 20°C due to the addition of heat to the sewage during various processes in utilization of water. With increase
in the temperature of water, the dissolved gases in water reduce.
The temperature of sewage water affects its other characteristics, such as thermal capacity, density, specific weight,
viscosity, surface tension, specific conductivity, salinity, solubility of dissolved gases.
Q13 Discuss the chemical characteristics of waste water.
The chemical characteristics of wastewater include the following,

1. Total Solids
The total solids in wastewater are about 0.05 to 0.1 percent in 99.9 percent water. The solids in sewage water are of the
following types,
(i) Suspended Solids
This type of solids remain suspended (floating) in sewage.
(ii) Dissolved solids
This type of solids are dissolved in sewage similar to salt in water.
(iii) Colloidal Solids
This type of solids are finely divided solids that either remain dissolved/suspended in water.
(iv) Settleable Solids
This type of solids settle to the bottom of the substratum when the sewage is left undisturbed for some time.
2. Inorganic Substances in Water
The energy of the flowing water, wind, freezing and thawing of the top soil, impact of the falling raindrops and other
physical/mechanical processes cause erosion and weathering of geological structures and its flow into the surface water
bodies. The inorganic substances may undergo further dissociation to form anions and cations.

The list of cations that may be present in natural water are,
(i) Calcium (Ca2+)
(ii) Magnesium (Mg2+)
(iii) Sodium (Na+)
(iv) Potassium (K+)
(v) Aluminium (Al3+)
(vi) Boron (B)
(vii) Iron (Fe)
(viii) Manganese (Mn2+)
(ix) Phosphorus.
The list of anions in natural water are,
(i) Chlorides
(ii) Sulphates
(iii) Carbonates
(iv) Bicarbonates
(v) Fluoride
(vi) Nitrate.
All these anions in water are formed as a result of dissolution and dissociation of common salt deposits in geologic
formations.
3. Organic Compounds in Water
The natural organic materials in water are derived from the plant and animal degradation products, consisting of alcohols,
acids, starch, fats, proteins, esters and aldehydes.
The synthetic / man-made organic compounds are the aliphatic and aromatic compounds, mainly derived from the industrial
sources. Essentially, the organic compounds in water are made up of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur,
phosphorus, fluorine, chlorine, Bromine and Iodine.
The dissolved gases in water include oxygen, carbondioxide, hydrogen sulphide, ammonia and volatile organic compounds
in water.
4. pH
pH is defined as the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration expressed in moles per liter (mol/L).
pH = – log 6H +@
= log 1+
6H @
A neutral solution has a pH of 7. With increase in the hydrogen ion concentration, the pH value decreases. And with
increase in the OH ion concentration, the value of pH increases.
The fresh sewage has pH value greater than 7.0, ie alkaline in nature, but with the passage of time the pH value decreases,
due to the acidic nature of sewage caused by the release of acids by the action of bacteria and nitrification processes.
5. Chloride Content
The chloride content in sewage is due to the domestic discharges, the human excretory waste, industrial effluents, all of
which raise the chloride content in wastewater. Infiltration of sea water into the groundwater is also a potential source of
chlorides.
6. Surfactants
Surfactants are surface active agents which decrease the surface tension in water when used in low concentrations. The
main source of such substances is detergents generally discharged from washroom wastes, kitchen wastes and washing
machines.
Some common examples of surfactants are Alkyl - Benzene - Sulfonate (ABS) and Linear - Alkyl - Sulfonates (LAS).

Q14. State the six load characteristics of industrial wastewater along with their effects.
Characteristics of Industrial Waste Water

The characteristics of industrial waste water varies from one industry to another industry.
(i) For the same industry also its processes also vary based on its characteristics.
(ii) Wide range of waste water pollutants can be generated by industrial processes.
(iii) These waste water pollutants can have high proportion of
(a) Suspended solids
(b) Dissolved organic solids
(c) Dissolved inorganic solids
(d) BOD
(e) Alkalinity and
(f) Acidity
(g) Toxic substances and various constituents that is not in proportion
(iv) The pollutants such as,
(a) Raw materials
(b) Process chemicals
(c) Final products
(d) Process intermediate
(e) Process by products and
(f) Impurities in raw materials are present in the industrial waste water management.
(v) To treat such industrial waste water special treatment must be designed in sequence order.
Pollutants in Industrial Waste Water and their Effects
The different types of pollutants in industrial waste ware are as follows,
(i) Organic Substances
Organic substances reduce the dissolved organic solids in different streams and has a great impact on secondary treatment
units.
(ii) Inorganic Substances
Inorganic substances such as carbonates, chlorides, nitrogen, phosphorous etc., are unsuitable to receive water body from
the micro-plants.
v The water body is not used for further.
(iii) Acids and Alkalies
Acids and alkalies can create and cause several problems in the operation of treatment units.
v Acids and alkalies affects the life of aquatic animals.
(iv) Toxic Substances
Due to the presence of flora and fauna, the purified water is greatly affected and various toxic substances such as cyanides,
sulphides, acetylene, alcohol etc., are present in it. Toxic substances can effect on the life of workmanship and also in the
operation of treatment units. Following table shows the toxic substances produced from various industries are as shown.

Industry Total Pollutant/Toxic Substances

1. Fertilizers 1. Ammonia, Arsenic
2. Petrochemicals 2. Heavy metals, Cyanides, Phenol
3. Electroplating 3. Cadmium, Copper, Zinc, Hexa-valent Chromium
4. Synthetic wool 4. Acrylonitrite, Acetonitrite
5. Metallurgicals 5. Produce heavy metals such as Copper, Zinc, Cadmium
6. Coke ovens 6. Phenols, Ammonia, Cyanide, Thiocyanide.
(v) Colour-Producing Substances
At the time of receiving water bodies, the colour producing substances are rejected due to objectionable colours in it.
(vi) Oils
Oils can create problems in the operation of treatment units.
v Oils are very difficult in self purification process if they are present in the streams.
Q15. Write down the standards of disposal for various parameters?
Following are the standards of disposal of wastewater for various parameters as per “The environment (protection) Rule’s,
1986.
Standards
S.No. Parameter Public
Inland Surface Land for Marine Coastal Areas
Sewers
Water Irrigation
1. Colour and odour Colourless and -- Colourless & odourless

odourless
2. Suspended solids (mg/l), 100 600 200 (a) 100 for process waste water
Max (b) 10% above total suspended matter
of influent for cooling wastewater
effluent
3. Particulate size of suspend- Must pass of 850 - - (a) Floatable solids ≤ 3
ed solids micron (b) Settleable solids, ≤ 850 microns
4. pH Value 5.5 to 9.0 5.5 to 9.0 5.5 to 9.0 5.5 to 9.0
5. Temperature > 5°C of influent - - > 5°C of influent water temperature
water temperature
6. Oil and grease (mg/l Max). 10 20 10 20
7. Total residual chlorine 1.0 - - 1.0
(mg/l) Max.
8. Ammonical nitrogen (as 50 50 - 50
NH3), (mg/l) Max.
9. Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (as 100 - - 100
NH3) mg/l, Max.
10. Free ammonia (as NH3) 5.0 - - 5.0
(mg/l), Max.
11. Biochemical Oxygen 30 350 100 100
demand [3 days at 27°C]
(mg/l) max.
12. Chemical Oxygen Demand, 250 - - 250
(mg/l), max.
13. Arsenic (as As), (mg/l), 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
max.

14. Mercury (as Hg), (mg/l), 0.01 0.01 - 0.01

Max.
15. Lead (as Pb) mg/l, Max. 0.1 1.0 - 2.0
16. Cadmium (as Cd) (mg/l), 2.0 1.0 - 2.0
Max.
17. Hexavalent Chromium (as 0.1 2.0 - 1.0
Cr+6), (mg/l) Max.
18. Total chromium (as Cr.) 2.0 2.0 - 2.0
(mg/l), Max.
19. Copper (as Cu) (mg/l), 3.0 3.0 - 3.0
Max.
20. Zinc (As Zn.) (mg/l), Max. 5.0 15 - 15
21. Selenium (as Se.) (mg/l), 0.05 0.05 - 15
Max.
22. Nickel (as Ni) (mg/l), Max. 3.0 3.0 - 5.0
23. Cyanide (as CN) (mg/l) 0.2 2.0 0.2 0.2
Max.
24. Fluoride (as F) (mg/l) Max. 2.0 15 - 15
25. Dissolved Phosphates (as 5.0 - - -
P), (mg/l) Max.
26. Sulphide (as S) (mg/l) 2.0 - - 5.0
Max.
27. Phenoile compounds (as 1.0 5.0 - 5.0
C6H5OH) (mg/l), Max.
28. Radioactive t
materials :
(a) Alpha emitter micro 10-7 10-7 10-8 10-7
curie/ml.
(b) Beta emitter micro 10-6 10-6 10-7 10-6
curie/ml.
29. Manganese (as Mn) 2 mg/l 2 mg/l - 2 mg/l
30. Iron (as Fe) 3 mg/l 3 mg/l - 3 mg/l
31. Vanadium (as V) 0.2 mg/l 0.2 mg/l - 0.2 mg/l
32. Nitrate Nitrogen 10 mg/l - - 20 mg/l
Q16. Write down the objectives of wastewater treatment.

(i) The main objectives of treating the wastewater is to reduces the harmful parameters to required standards before the ultimate
disposal.
(ii) The treated wastewater can be reused for other domestic and industrial purpose only if the parameters are satisfying the
required standards.
(iii) To prevent harm for land, water and aquatic animals after disposal.
The wastewater treatment is divided into two processes
(i) Preliminary Treatment
The main objective of preliminary treatment is to remove the solid particles which are larger is size to prevent the damage
of pumps and other in-build equipment.
(ii) Secondary Treatment
The main objective of secondary treatment is to remove the floating particles as well the suspended particles before the
water proceeds for further process.

Q17. Mention the miscellaneous treatment methods used for wastewater treatment and explain any four of
them.
The following are some of the miscellaneous treatment methods.

(a) Removal of Iron and Manganese
(b) Removal of colou, odour and taste
(c) Flouridation
(d) Deflouridation
(e) Activated carbon treatment
(f) Use of copper sulphate
(g) Desalination
(a) Removal of Iron and Manganese
The removal of iron and maganese from waste water by chemical precipitation treatment is called deferrization and de-
manganization respectively. The process is accomplished in the following ways,
1. Addition of lime or other chemicals to waste water to adjust the pH value in the range of 10 to 11. Some of the
precipitate formed in the process settles to the bottom while the remaining precipitate can be removed by using sand
filters. The pH of the filtrate is then lowered to 8.0 to 8.5 human consumption.
2. Oxidation of Waste Water
Waste water is oxidized in the following ways,
(a) By Using Air
Water containing iron and manganese are aerated, resulting in oxidation of the minerals. The oxidized minerals
are removed through filtration.
(b) By Passing Chlorine
Prechlorination of waste water leads to the formation of total trihalomethanes (TTHM’s). The pH of the waste
water must be in the range of 6.5 to 7.0.
(c) Use of Potassium Permanganate
Use of controlled amount of potassium permanganate in waste water treatment is an effective method for removal
of iron and manganese.
(b) Removal of colour, odour and taste
The decolorization of industrial wastewater can be accomplished in the following ways:
Chemical and Physical methods: The chemical and physical methods involved in colour removal are:
(i) Coagulation: The spent wash is decolorized by using chemicals like iron sulphate, iron chloride, aluminium sulphate
and polyhalides
(ii) Reverse osmosis
(iii) Ultrafiltration
(iv) Adsorption: Adsorption with different adsorbents such as activated carbon, clay, kaolin, bentonite, flyash, agricul-
tural waste such as coir pith, pine tree bark, meranti wood, Moringa olifera bark, M.olifera leaves powder, Candida
albicans biomass, tea factory waste, dehydrated wheat bran carbon, dehydrated peanut hull.
(v) Use of microorganisms: The microorganisms that can remove the colour include Phanerochaete chrysosporium,
Trametes versicolor, Coriolus hirsultus, Bacillus cereus, Bacillus subtilis, Acetobacter acetii, Bacillus smithii, Bacil-
lus thuringiensis, Lactobacillus hilgardi, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, P.fluorescens, P.putida, Xanthomonas fragariae.
(vi) Advanced oxidation process: This is an emerging technology which involves the use of O3, O3/ H2O2 , O3/UV, UV/
H2O2, O3/UV/H2O2

Methods for Odour Control
The odourous emissions from waste water consist of Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S), mercaptans, disulfides, skatoles, indoles,
inorganic acids, aldehydes, ketones, organic compounds containing nitrogen and sulphur atoms.
Pre-aeration of waste water involves the following processes,
(a) Injection of large air bubbles for 20 to 30 minutes following the screening of waste water.
(b) Mechanical agitation of waste water to enable more absorption of air.
Such aeration methods help in flocculation of lighter suspended solids to form heavier masses.
(c) Chlorination of Waste Waster
Chlorination of waste water is yet another method to ward off the offensive odours. Chlorine dioxide, Potassium
permanganate and ozone have the oxidative power on odorous substances.
(d) Carbon Adsorption
Carbon adsorption method of deodorizing waste water is accomplished by the use of activated carbon. Activated
carbon is a widely used adsorbent in waste water treatment systems. It is prepared by thermal decomposition under
controlled atmosphere and heat.
(e) Biofilters
Biofilters consist of a media bed of naturally occurring micro organisms. The different types of micro organisms in
the matrix include Bacillus sps, Streptomyces sps, Pseudomonas, Nitrosomonas, Thiobacillus, Hyphomicrobium,
Doratomyces, Fusarium sps etc. The odourous air is collected by using ventilation fans and channelized to booster
fans. The booster fans pass the foul air to the matrix of biofilters. The foul air is passed into the matrix via a system of
distribution pipes. As the odourous air move upwards, the micro organisms in the media trap the odourous compounds
before being discharged to air.
(c) Water Fluoridation
Water fluoridation is the deliberate addition of trace amounts of fluorides to water as per the guidelines laid down by the
medical and research community in the interest of public health, to reduce and control tooth decay. The fluorides in water
prevent tooth decay by inhibiting the growth of bacteria that produces acid in the mouth.
Some of the chemicals commonly used for water fluoridation are,
(i) Sodium fluoride - Na F.
(ii) Sodium fluorosilicate - Na Sif6.
(iii) Hydrofluorosilicic acid / Fluorosilicic acid (H2Si F6)
(iv) Ammonium silicofluoride (NH4) SiF6
(v) Magnesium silicofluoride MgSiF6
(
vi) Potassium fluoride - KF
(vii) Calcium fluoride - (fluorspar) CaF2
(viii) Hydrofluoric acid - H2F2
(ix) Ammonium bifluoride
(x) Sodium bifluoride
Water fluoridation is accomplished by the following methods,
1. Fluoride saturator
2. Dry chemical feeder
3. Chemical solution feeder
(d) Defluoridation of Water
The term defluoridation of water refers to the removal of fluorides or reduce the concentration of fluorides in water to make
it safe for human consumption.
The presence of fluorides in water in optimal concentration helps to prevent the formation of dental cavities. High
concentration of fluorides in water is harmful as it leads to fluorosis of the bones and teeth.

Process
The process of defluoridation involves passing of feed water or influent through granular – activated alumina (a semi-
crystalline inorganic adsorbent. The fluoride gets adsorbed to the activated alumina. This technique is generally preferred for
defluoridation of community water.
Regeneration of Activated Alumina Bed
The continuous use of activated alumina bed for defluoridation of water affects the fluoride removal capacity. Therefore,
the exhausted activated alumina has to be regenerated.
A concentrated solution of sodium hydroxide is passed through the bed, so that the bed has alkaline pH in the range of
12.5 to 13.0, followed by back washing with raw water, upflow with 1% NaOH solution.
Maximum removal of fluorides occur when the pH of the bed is 5.0. The regenerated bed is treated with feed water acidified
with sulphuric acid to lower the pH of the bed.
Properties of Alumina
Some of the important properties of alumina are,
1. Chemical composition : Al2O3 – Aluminium oxide.
2. Highly porous material, with large surface area per unit weight.
3. Alumina is a mixture of amorphous and crystalline phases of aluminium oxide.
4. Activated alumina is prepared by heating aluminium hydroxide to remove waters of hydration, followed by activation with
steam or acid to increase the surface area and adsorptive properties.
The other defluoridation methods are the use of bone char or magnesium compound.
Advantages of Defluoridation by Activated Alumina Method
The advantages of defluoridation by activated alumina method are,
1. Less amount of waste water, goes as waste.
2. Less expenditure incurred in equipment installation.
3. The operation cost of the equipment is less.
4. The consumption of energy for the entire process is low.

(e) Chemisorption/Chemical Adsorption/Activated Adsorption
In this process, the functional group of the solute interacts with the carbon to form a stable chemical bond.
Activated carbon is a widely used adsorbent to remove pollutants in water and waste water treatment systems. It is made from
carbon-rich raw material (eg. wood, coal, peat, coconut shells, nutshells, bones and fruit stones) by controlled combustion
under controlled atmosphere and heat to develop adsorptive characteristics. The main features of activated carbon are,
(i) Large Surface Area: The activated carbon has large surface area as it has numerous pores within the carbon particles.
(ii) High Surface Reactivity: The activated carbon has high surface reactivity as it has numerous active sites on the
surface of the pores.
(iii) High Adsorption Capacity: High adsorption capacity of activated carbon is due to its large surface area.
Forms of Activated Carbon: Two forms of activated carbon are generally used in wastewater treatment plants.
(i) Granular Activated Carbon (GAC) : In GAC, the size of the activated carbon particle is more than 0.8 mm, with large
internal surface area, and smaller internal pores.
(ii) Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC): The size of the particle is less than 0.8 mm, with small internal surface area and
larger pores.
Limitations of Activated Carbons
The use of activated carbon in treating waste water has some limitations,
1. This process of waste water treatment is limited to very low concentration of organic and inorganic pollutants and high
molecular weight pollutants.
2. High cost incurred in operating the process.

Q18. What do you mean by ‘3R’ priniciple in waste management? Explain them in brief.
Answer :
The ‘3R’ principles of waste management are aimed at the following objectives:
(i) Reduction in waste
(ii) Effective management of waste with least impact on environment and economically sustainable.
The components of the ‘3Rs’ starting with the most preferable and ending with the least preferable activity are mentioned below:
1. Reduce Waste: Waste reduction/minimization is an important strategy for conservation of resources. A reduction in the
quantity of waste generation can be achieved by proper control of the materials used in the manufacturing process by
reducing the amount of raw material used in the process.
2. Reuse: Reuse of materials is considered a prudent method for resource conservation. It can be in the form of reusing or
donating items, bulk purchase of items, light weight packing of items, etc. Some of the advantages of reusing items are:
less utilization of raw materials, less impact on the environment resulting from waste treatment and disposal, cleaner and
healthier surrounding environment.
3. Recycle: Recycling of material is a measure undertaken to utilize the material that is no longer useful and transform it into
a new, reusable product instead of letting it go to waste in a landfill. The act of recycling ensures that the generation of
waste is reduced, the amount of energy used in its production is reduced and prevent contamination of soil and/or water
with harmful chemicals. Thus, effective waste management and conserving natural resources lead to strong economies
because efficient conservation saves capital which can be spent on other uses.
Q19. Mention various stages and discuss their objectives in waste water management.
Answer :
Raw sewage consists of residential, commercial and industrial liquid water discharges.
Such waste waters are processed in waste water treatment plants to produce an effluent of higher quality and then discharged
back to the environment.
The conventional sequence of waste water treatment is the preliminary treatment, primary treatment, secondary treatment
and tertiary treatment followed by the disposal of sludge.
1. Preliminary Treatment: The main objective of the preliminary treatment of waste water is to remove the non-biodegradable,
coarse and floating solids to prevent their interference in the subsequent treatment processes. The preliminary treatment of
sewage/effluent involves the use of screens, grit chambers, communicators, grinders, pre-aeration for odour control, and
grease removal.
2. Primary Treatment: The primary treatment of sewage/effluents involves the following processes,
(i) Equalization
(ii) Neutralization
(iii) Sedimentation
(iv) Flocculation
(v) Chlorination.
3. Secondary Treatment: The secondary treatment of sewage/effluents is the biological treatment of waste water mainly by
aerobic and/or anaerobic treatment methods.
4. Teritiary Treatment: The tertiary treatment of sewage (also called as auxiliary treatment or secondary clarification) is
the final stage of the treatment process with the main objective to improve the waste water quality before it is reused or
discharged into the environment. It involves the removal of contaminants, toxic materials and nutrients in waste water by
the use of sand filters, activated carbon filters, microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, reverse osmosis, ion exchange,
evaporation, UV filtration, and retention ponds.

1.2 LAYOUTS OF PRIMARY, SECONDARY AND ADVANCED TREATMENT UNITS

Q20. Sketch the overall layout of a water treatment plant indicating the different stages.
The layout of water treatment plant varies according to the nature and volume of water sample flowing into the treatment
plant. A typical water treatment plant is a combination of physical, chemical and biological methods.
Different Stage of Waste Water Treatment
Chemical Biological
Chemical meth
methods
Physical Methods (Secondary) TT iary)
TT Methods
(Tert
(Tertiary)
methods
Granular Media
Screening Neutralization Suspended Attached
Filtration
Mixing Coagulation growth Growth
growth
Ultra filtration
Flocculation Precipitation process Process
process
Micro strainers
Sedimentation Oxidation
Biological
Flotation Disinfection
Nitrification and
Elutriation
Elutr
t iation
Denitrification
Filtration
Ion exchange Activated Trickling filter
Heat transfer Air stripping Sludge Rotating
Dry
r ing
Drying
Reverse osmosis Aerated Biological contractor
Contractor
Electro-dialysis
Electro- Lagoon Bio-towers
Adsorption Oxidation pond Up-flow filters
Precipitation Aerobic and
anaerobic
Digesters
Q21. List any three objectives of primary treatment in a clarifier.

Primary treatment of raw sewage or effluent involves,

(i) Use of Screens: Screens are used to remove large suspended matter.
(ii) Comminutors are used to reduce the particle size of suspended solid matter.
(iii) Constant velocity channels are used in effluent treatment plants to remove grit from suspended matter to prevent damage
to sewage treatment plants.
(iv) Sedimentation tanks are used to remove fine suspended matter. The sewage is passed into large sedimentation tanks, where
the sludge settles to the bottom of the tank. The floating materials (or scum) like oil and grease are skimmed off while the
sludge settled at the bottom of the tank is continuously removed.
Q22. Sketch the layout of primary treatment in wastewater treatment plant.
Primary treatment is for removal of large floating particles and inorganic substances that may cause maintenance or op-
erational problems. It includes:
(i) Sumps and pumps for collection, holding and pumping to higher levels
(ii) Approach channel for conveying and dampening the flow of wastewater
(iii) Screen chamber to remove large size floating materials.
(iv) Grit chamber to remove 0.2 mm size suspended settelable solids of specific gravity 2.60
(v) Skimming tank to remove oil and grease
(vi) Primary Sedimentation tank or primary clarifier reduces about 60-70% of fine settelable solids which contain nearly
30-32% of organic suspended solids.
PRELIMINARY TREATMENT OF WASTEWATER
Primary Sludge Treatment or

Disposal
To Remove Oil and

Grease
Waste Grit Chamber Skimming Tank Effluent

Screening
Water Discharge
Secondary Treatment
Figure
Q23. Sketch the layout of secondary treatment in wastewater treatment plant.
Secondary treatment involves removal of colloidal and soluble organic matter. The units are depicted in the figure. Sec-
ondary settling tank or secondary clarifier includes biological units like:
(i) Waste stabilization ponds or oxidation ponds
(ii) Oxidation lagoons or aerated lagoons
(iii) Oxidation ditches or extended aeration system
(iv) Rotating Biological Contactor
(v) Up flow Anaerobic filter (UAF)
(vi) Up flow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB)
SECONDARY TREATMENT OF WASTEWATER
To Remove fine
Suspended
Inorganic
Primary Secondary Sludge or

Influent Aeration Reactor Activated Sludge
Settling Tank
and settleable
organic Solids &
floating scum
Effluent Discharge
Secondary Sludge or
Primary
Influent Trickling Filter Activated Sludge
Settling Tank
Effluent Discharge
Figure

Q24. Sketch the layout of teritiary treatment in wastewater treatment plant.
Tertiary treatment unit consists of reducing or removing concentration of residual impurities. It includes controlling ef-
fluent discharge standards before final disposal. It is considered fro efficient recycling of water. It controls nitrogen and
phosphorous levels.
Techniques involved are,
(i) Granular Media Filtration, ultra-filtration and micro-strainers for removal of residual suspended solids.
(ii) Biological nitrification/de-nitrification, ion exchange and air stripping for removal of nitrogen, phosphorous, chlorine and
dissolved gases
(iii) Biological and chemical process for removal of residual nitrogen and phosphorous.
(iv) Ion exchange, reverse osmosis, electro-dialysis, chemical precipitation and adsorption for removal of residual inorganic
solids, refractory organics, toxic and complex organic compounds.
TERTIARY TREATMENT OF WASTEWATER
Granular Media Filtration or Ultra-filtration or Micro-

strainers
Removal of
Suspended Solids
Removal of
Residual Nitrogen
and Phosphorous
Biological Nitrification/ De- Effluent from Secondary Biological or Chemical

nitrification or Ion Exchange or Air Treatment Process
Stripping
Removal of
Nitrogen,
Removal of Dissolved
Phosphorous,
Inorganic Solids, Refractory
Chlorine and
Organics, Toxic and
Dissolved Gases
Complex Organic
Compounds
Ion Exchange or Reverse Osmosis or Electro-dialysis or

Chemical Precipitation or Adsorption
Figure
Q25. Sketch the layout of Nitrification and Denitrification processes of wastewater treatment.
1. Nitrification
JKOrganic NO
KK O
KK Nitrogen OOO
Bacterial
Decomposition
NH3 (ammonia)
KCompoundsO
L P
3 _b
NH 4 + 2 O 2 NO 2– + 2H + + H 2 O bbb Aerobic
`b
1
NO3– bbb Nitrification
Nitrobacter
NO 2– + 2 O 2
a
2. Denitrification
Aeration Tank
Biological Settling
Effluent Effluent
Nitrification Tank
Return sludge
Sludge for
treatment
and disposal
Figure: Flow Scheme for the Nitrification of Sewage

Biological Nitrification and Denitrification
The biological nitrification process is carried out in two steps,
(a) Combined Carbon Oxidation Nitrification Process or Single Stage Nitrification Process
The flowsheet of combined nitrification system is as depicted below,
Aeration tank
Primary Oxidation of C
Secondary
Influent sedimenta- + Effluent
clarifier
tion tank Nitrification
Return sludge
Primary sludge Waste sludge
Figure
(b) Separate Stage Nitrification/Two Stage Nitrification Process
The flowsheet of separate stage nitrification system is as depicted below:
Aeration tank
Primary Organic Aeration tank
Influent sedimenta- carbon S Nitrification S Effluent
tion tank conversion
Return sludge Return sludge
Primary sludge Waste sludge Waste sludge
Figure

UNIT-2 Design of Preliminary and Primary Treatment Operations 2.1
UNIT
Marketed by :
DESIGN OF PRELIMINARY
AND PRIMARY TREATMENT
2 OPERATIONS SIA GROUP
PART-A
Q1. Write short note on preliminary treatment of wastewater.
Answer :
Preliminary Treatment
The main objective of the preliminary treatment of waste water is to remove the non-biodegradable, coarse and floating
solids to prevent their interference in the subsequent treatment processes. The preliminary treatment of sewage/effluent involves
the use of screens, grit chambers, comminutors, grinders, pre-aeration for odour control and grease removal.
Q2. What are the various operations involved in primary treatment of waste water?
Answer : Model Paper-I, Q1(c)
Primary Treatment
The primary treatment of sewage/effluents involves the following processes,
(i) Equalization
(ii) Neutralization
(iii) Sedimentation
(iv) Flocculation
(v) Chlorination.
Q3. List any three objectives of primary treatment in a clarifier.
Answer : Model Paper-II, Q1(c)
Primary treatment of raw sewage or effluent involves,

(i) Use of Screens: Screens are used to remove large suspended matter.
(ii) Comminutors are used to reduce the particle size of suspended solid matter.
(iii) Constant velocity channels are used in effluent treatment plants to remove grit from suspended matter to prevent damage
to sewage treatment plants.
(iv) Sedimentation tanks are used to remove fine suspended matter. The sewage is passed into large sedimentation tanks, where
the sludge settles to the bottom of the tank. The floating materials (or scum) like oil and grease are skimmed off while the
sludge settled at the bottom of the tank is continuously removed.
Q4. Define neutralization of sewage.
Answer :
Neutralization is a primary treatment. It is the process of adjusting the level of pH in the concentration by the addition of
either acid (or) base for obtaining the required results. In sewage if it is found to be harmful for environment because of any
properties, neutralization is mostly adopted.

Q5. Why are screens provided in the treatment of Q10. What is the main function of sedimentation
sewage? tanks?
Answer :
Answer :
The screens are provided during the treatment of
sewage so that they, The main function of the sedimentation tanks is to
(i) Prevent the formation of scums. remove heavy solids from the sewage by means of settling and
separation of suspended particles from the liquid phase by plain
(ii) Avoid clogging of the nozzles
sedimentation.
(iii) Avoid damages to various pumping parts.
Q6. List any three objectives of screens. Q11. Design a Primary sedimentation tank for
discharge of 10 MLD in an activated sludge
Answer : process. Assume relevant data.
Objectives of Screens
Answer : Model Paper-II, Q1(d)
(i) The main objective of screens in the sewage treatment
plant is to remove the solid wastes in floating material. Sewage to be treated = 10 × 106 litres/day
(ii) These are also used to remove the coarse solid matter = 107 litres / day = 10000 m3
present in the waste water.
2
(iii) These are mainly provided to prevent the damage of Assume detention period, t = 2 hours = 24 day
pumps and other equipments from the floating matter Overflow rate, r = 30 m2/d/m2
of the sewage.
Q7. List any three types of grit chambers based on Length of the tank, L = 4B
types of cleaning. B – Width of the tank.
Answer :
1 # 107 #
Based on type of cleaning. Capacity of water required =
24 2
(i) Horizontal flow grit chamber = 833333.333 litres

(ii) Aerated grit chamber (or) aerated detritus tank = 833.33 m3
(iii) Vortex type grit - removal system (or) accelerated
1 # 103 1 # 103
gravity separation device. r Surface area required =
= 30
Q8. List any three functions of grit chambers. = 33.333
Answer : Model Paper-III, Q1(c)
Capacity
Effective depth, d = Surface area
`
The main purpose of using grit chambers in waste water
treatment is, 833.333
= 33.333 = 25 m
(i) To avoid abnormal abrasive wear and tear of the
mechanical equipment and sludge pumps. Area, A = B × L
(ii) To prevent obstruction of pipes by deposition of = B × 4B
grit.
= 4B2
(iii) To prevent accumulation of grit in the sludge hold-
ing tanks and digesters. = 33.333
(iv) To prevent interference with the subsequent bio- ` B 2 = 8.333
logical treatment.
B = 2.886 m ≈ 2.9 m
Q9. What are the factors that affect the sedimentation
process in sedimentation tanks? Length l = 4 × 2.9 = 11.6 m
Answer : Model Paper-I, Q1(d)
Providing an extra length for inlet and outlet = 4 m
The factors affecting the sedimentation process in
sedimentation tanks include: Total length, L = 11.6 + 4 = 15.6 m
1. Characteristics of solid particles, such as size and specific Providing a depth of 1 m for deposition of sludge and
gravity. a free board of 0.5 m.
2. Characteristics of liquid in the waste water such as Total depth, D = d + 1 + 0.5
temperature, velocity, etc.
3. Characteristics of the artificial tanks such as shape, = 25 + 1 + 0.5 = 26.5
velocity of flow of liquid, etc. ` Provide tank of dimension 15.6 m × 2.9 m × 26.5 m

Q12. Design a grit Chamber to treat 10 MLD of sewage. Providing an extra length for inlet and outlet = 4 m
Assume surface loading rate of 1200 m3/day/m2
and detention period of 60 seconds. Mention \ Total length, L = 6 m + 4 m = 10 m
velocity control devices.
Providing a depth of 1 m for deposition of sludge and a
Answer : Model Paper-III, Q1(d) free board of 0.5 m
Given that, Total depth, = d + 1 + 0.5
Sewage to be treated = 10 MLD = 10 × 103 m3/day = 0.83 + 1 + 0.5
Detention period = 60 seconds = 1 minute = 2.33 m
1 \ Provide tank dimensions 10 m × 1.5 m × 2.33 m.

= days
24×60
The following devices are used to control the velocity
Surface loading rate = 1200 m3/day/m2
of flow through grit channels:
Let,
(i) Proportional flow weirs
Length of tank, L = 4B
(ii) Sutro weirs
B – Width of tank
(iii) Palmer bowlus flumes
Now,
(iv) Parshall flumes.
10×10 6
Capacity of water required = ×1
24×60
= 6944.44 litres
= 6.94 m3
10×10 3
Surface area required =
1200
= 8.33 m2
\ Effective depth,
Capacity
d =
Surface area
6.94
=
8.33
= 0.83 m
Area,
A = B × L
= B × 4B [Q L = 4B]
\ 4B2 = 8.33
B2 = 2.08
\ B = 1.44 ≈ 1.5 m
B = 1.5 m
Length, L = 4 × B
= 4 × 1.5
L = 6 m

PART-B
2.1 DESIGN OF PRELIMINARY AND PRIMARY TREATMENT OPERATIONS : SCREENS, GRIT
CHAMBERS, SKIMMING TANKS
Q13. Provide a generalized schematic process of preliminary and primary treatment of sewage.
Disposal of
screenings by Dewatering Grit
burial/incineration Disposal
Water
Grit
Influent Screening Comminution
Removal
Disposal of oil and grease

Skimming
(anaerobic digestion, burial,
Tank
incineration, biological treatment)
Further Primary
Treatment Sedimentation
Sludge handling
Figure : Schematic Process of Preliminary and Primary Treatment of Waste Water

Q14. Write short notes on screening as a preliminary treatment of wastewater.
The treatment of waste water is carried out in a sequential manner with increasing effectiveness and complexity. The
conventional sequence of waste water treatment is the preliminary treatment, primary treatment, secondary treatment and tertiary
treatment followed by the disposal of sludge.
Preliminary Treatment: The main objective of the preliminary treatment of waste water is to remove the non-biodegradable,
coarse and floating solids to prevent their interference in the subsequent treatment processes. The preliminary treatment of effluents
involves the following processes.
1. Screening: Screening is the first step in an effluent treatment plant. It involves the removal of non-biodegradable, coarse
and floating solids such as rags, paper, plastics, metals, containers, branches, wood etc., before the waste water flows into
downstream processes.
Types of Screens: The different types of screens used in waste water treatment are,
(a) Bar Screens (Coarse Bar Screens): It consists of a set of parallel metal bars or heavy wires spaced at 3 inches (75 mm).
generally inclined at an angle of 30° to 60° to the base, to facilitate easy cleaning of the screen by manual or mechanical
raking.
(b) Medium Screens: The openings in the medium screens vary in the range of 20 mm - 50 mm.
(c) Fine Screens: The size of the openings vary from 3 mm to 10 mm. The fine bar screens are generally placed down stream
of coarse screens.
Based on the cleaning mechanism, the screens are categorized as,
(i) Mechanically cleaned screens
(ii) Manually cleaned screens.
The screening method (mechanical or manual) used in the treatment of waste water depends on the design of the waste
water treatment plant. The accumulated debris from the screen is removed by brush, by water spray, or by both methods.

The other types of screens used in waste water treatment are,
(i) Drum Screen: The drum screen consists of a cylindrical surface of 2 m to 5 m in diameter, made up of specially woven
stainless steel wire cloth/nylon cloth, with pore size of 20 to 60 µ. It is considered as a cost effective way to treatment chal-
lenges for industrial applications or municipal waste water. The waste water enters the drum screen axially, the screenings
are trapped inside the drum, then the water leaves radially. A jet of water may be introduced into the drum to dislodge the
screenings into a trough.
(ii) Cutting Screen: As the name indicates these are modified bar screens but with cutting mechanism that help in cutting the
screening into small pieces and allows them to pass through the openings in the screen.
(iii) Bond Screen: These are perforated screen curtains (panels) placed vertically on a constantly rotating conveyor belt. As
the waste water enters the screen curtain, the solids are held back or retained, which is then subsequently moved out by
the rotating conveyor belt from the screening zone to the panel cleaning area.
Q15. What is a Grit Chamber? With the help of neat sketches describe the types of grit chambers.
Grit Chamber: Grit chambers are basins/large tanks intended to remove the coarse impurities (called as grit) in waste water, such
as sand, gravel, heavy solid materials, egg shells, bone chips, seeds, wood pieces, vegetable cuttings, rags etc.
Types of Grit Chambers: The grit chambers are of the following types,
(i) Horizontal Flow Grit Chambers: The waste water flows through the chamber in the horizontal direction. These chambers
have the ability to remove grit in the size range of 0.15 mm to 0.21 mm diameter. The velocity of the water flow is maintained
constant with the help of proportional weir or parshall flume, to enable removal of the impurities. The grit settle to the
bottom of the tank, while the lighter particles remain suspended in the water. The settled material is removed with the help
of a conveyor with scrapers, buckets or plows.
(ii) Aerated Grit Chambers (Also known as Aerated Detritus Tank): A blower injects air through a tube placed above the
floor of the tank. The circular or spiral toroidal flow of air bubbles through the chamber causes the heavy inorganic solids
to settle at the bottom of the tank while the lighter organic matter remains in suspension.
The settled grit is removed by using a recessed-impeller grit pump or an air-lift pump.
(iii) Vortex-type (Paddle/Jet Induced Vortex) Grit-Removal System (Also called as Accelerated Gravity Separation
Device): The device has a cylindrical tank for removal of grit with vortex flow pattern with the following parts,
(i) Circulator or rotating turbine
(ii) Variable speed drive unit.
The raw waste water containing grit is made to flow tangentially at the top from the outside edge of the tank. The circula-
tor or the rotating turbine creates a toroidal flow path to lift the lighter organic materials. The settleable solids move in a
circular motion towards the centre and settle at the bottom. The grit settles to the bottom of the tank due to the gravitational
forces. The settled grit particles are removed by a belt conveyor or grit pump or airlift pump. The degritted effluent flows
out from the top of the tank.
Figure (a) Horizontal Flow Grit Chamber

Figure (b) Aerated Grit Chamber
Grit
Figure (c) Vortex-type Grit Removal System

Q16. Explain the working of gravity settling chamber with a neat sketch.
Answer:
This is a simple equipment used to collect solid particulates. It has a chamber in which the velocity of carrier gas is
minimized and allows the particulates to settle out of moving stream.
The common type is long box like structure set on the ground horizontally with inlet and outlet on two sides. It is constructed
by concrete and brick. At low velocity the carrier gas is passed. The density of solid particulates which is higher than the surrounding
gas settle on the base of chamber under the influence of gravity.
L
v
h
Gas vs
Clean Gas
Hopper
Figure
The velocity of gas must be low to prevent re-entrainment of the settled particles. For good results, the velocity must be
less than 0.5 m/s. Rods, curtains, wire mesh screens are suspended in the chamber to minimize turbulence and provide uniform
velocity. Usually, the pressure drop through the settling chamber is small and mostly has entrance and exit losses. Due to simple
structure, the cost of installation is low.
The gravity settling chamber analysis assumes that the movement of solids is along the chamber with the gas velocity and
settle with stokes velocity.
The minimum size of particle which can be removed using a settling chamber is obtained from the following expression,
18 .V .hµ
D = ... (1)
L.g (ρ p − ρ)

Where,
D – Diameter of particle
V – Horizontal velocity of gas
h – Height through which the particulates travel before they settle down in hopper.
µ – Viscosity of gas
L – Length of chamber
g – Acceleration due to gravity
ρp – Density of particle
ρ – Density of gas.
The efficiency of the equipment is increased if the height travelled by the particles is reduced. This can be achieved by
inserting horizontal trays in the chamber at height intervals of 10 mm to 30 mm. As the number of trays inserted into the chamber
increases, the efficiency of the equipment also increases. However, this process may cause difficulty in cleaning operation and
also the trays may warp due to high temperatures.
Q17. Explain briefly the following (i) Bar Screens (ii) Skimming Tank.
(i) Bar Screens
Bypass
Bar Screen
Perforated Metal
Platform
(i) Plan
(ii) L-section
Figure: Hand-cleaned Bar Screen with Bypass Overflow

Bar Screens
Bar screens are of coarse screen type. These are mainly used for the protection of the device (or) equipment from the fast
flow of sewage matter. It also acts as a shield that arrests all the floating solid wastes such as plastics, lesser size particles etc.,
remained on the screen.
Working
(i) A Bar Screen consists of vertical or inclined bars of same length and equal spacing that are placed across the channel
covering from the top end to bottom end.
(ii) Hand cleaning racks are usually inclined at an angle 45° to the horizontal to increase the effective cleaning surface and
also for the improvement of racking operations.

(iii) On to the immersed screen, the waste water flow brings the sewage and other solid material.
(iv) When the size of the material is larger than the spacing between bars, then the waste remains on the front part of the screen.
(v) After the collection of enough waste material on the screen placed at the top of the channel using racks the waste solid
material is gathered at the top screen and thrown into a container.
(vi) The bottom of the channel is perforated to carry out material squeezing.
(vii) In this way, the waste material is collected, gathered and discharged into communal container.
(ii) Skimming Tank
A skimming tank is a large tank used to remove the oil, grease, fats, waxes, soap, free fatty acids present in wastewater.
All these substances flow into the sewers from kitchens, restaurants, hotels, motels, motor garages, oil refineries, soap and
candle factories, and many more. It is essential to remove the oil and grease from wastewater to prevent their interference during
subsequent treatment and disposal of waste.
The skimming tank is generally rectangular or circular in shape. The tank is divided into two or three compartments using
vertical baffles. The baffles extend to a short distance below the water surface. The influent flows into the tank through a sub-
merged inlet pipe. The base of the tank is provided with air diffusers which give out compressed air for the aeration of sewage.
The air bubbles aid in the process of sticking together of the greasy and oily material. The oil and grease float on the surface of
the wastewater, and moves into the stilling chamber. The effluent flows out through a bottom outlet.
The advantages of aeration of sewage are:
(i) The aeration of wastewater causes gentle agitation of the sewage, causing the oil and grease to skim to the surface of water
for easy removal.
(ii) The aerators provide oxygen to the organic matter for aerobic degradation and prevent the setting of suspended mass.
(iii) The foul gases like hydrogen sulphide are sent out.
(iv) The lighter suspended solids flocculate to form heavier masses.
Vertical baffle
Stilling Chamber
Inlet for influent
Outlet for effluent

Air
Air diffuser
(i) Longitudinal Section
Baffle
Air
Air diffuser
(ii) Cross-section
Figure: Diagrammatic Representation of a Skimming Tank

Q18. Describe in brief various unit operations for chemical clarification along with the design recommendations.
The various unit operations for chemical clarification are as follows,

(i) Coagulation
(ii) Flocculation
(iii) Sedimentation.
(i) Coagulation
Coagulation is the method of mixing chemicals to waste water inorder to decrease the forces which tend to preserve
suspended particles apart. In this method mixing is achieved in rapid or flash mixing unit developed to generate velocity
gradients of 300 s or more with detention period of 15 to 50 sec. The paddles of mixing unit are prepared on vertical shaft
and operate by a constant speed motor through reduction gear.
The size and speed of the paddle is so chosen that the capacity of paddle is twice the maximum flow of the tank. The speed
of shaft should be in between 100 – 200 r.p.m and power of about 0.1 kw/mid is required.
(ii) Flocculation
Flocculation process is carried out after mixing the coagulants with waste water. In this method floc is developed through
slow stirring mechanisms. Flocculation comprises of paddles which rotates on vertical (on horizontal shaft with a low speed
about 2–3 r.p.m (run per minute). For complete formation of floc flocculators allow number of gentle contacts between the
flocculating particles.
In mechanical focculators number of compartments are fixed along with rotating paddles and water flows through the inlet
and removed from the outlet. In flocculation the detention period should be in between 30–60 minutes to obtain best floc.
Table shows the design criteria for floculator,
S.No Design criteria Range
1. Tank depth 3 -4.5 m
2. Flow velocity 0.2 - 0.8 m/s
3. Time for detention 10-40 min
4. Complete area of paddles 10-25% of c/s area of tank
5. Gradient velocity 10-75 s–1
6. Consumption of power 10-36 kN/mld
7. Velocity of outlet flow 0.15-0.25 m/s
8. Blades peripheral velocity 0.2 - 0.6 m/s
9. Gtd factor 104 -105
Table
(iii) Sedimentation
The process in which the suspended particles are removed with the help of gravitational settling is termed as sedimentation.
In sedimentation tank, solids of flocculated sewage are settled. Normally 2 hours of detention time and an overflow rates
for average flows of 50m3/d/m2 is assumed in sedimentation tank design.
Rate of Loading m3/m2/d
Suspension
Range Peak Flow
(a) Iron floc 25 to 50 50
(b) Alum floc 25 to 50 50
(c) Lime floc 30 to 60 60
(d) Untreated waste 25 to 50 50
water
Table: Surface Loading Rates Recommended for Different Chemical Suspensions
Q19. How is floating and suspended matter in wastewater removed? What are the preliminary processes
involved?
Answer :
The floating material and suspended matter present in the wastewater such as domestic wastewater etc., are removed
with the help of screenings. Screens are the rectangular or circular shaped elements which consists of parallel bars, wire mesh or
perforated plates. They may be of large, medium or small size depending upon the required treatment and nature of sewage.
The other non-solid suspended materials such as oil and grease are removed by using skimming tanks, floatation units,
flow measuring units etc., while heavy materials like sand and grits are removed with the help of grit chambers or detritus tank.
The various preliminary processes involved in the removal of floating and suspended materials are as follows,
1. Screening for removing the light particles like papers, rags, metallic or plastic containers etc.
2. Removal of sand and grit particles by using grit chambers or detritus tanks.
3. Chopping or cutting of suspended matter of bigger size.
4. Removal of oil and grease which floats over the surface using skimming tanks and floatation units.
The other preliminary processes such as pumping and pre-aeration are also used for the removal of heavy suspended
particles. The process of flocculation is also applied for better removal of floating or suspended matter (if required).
This process is applied generally on high strength municipal wastes to reduce the amount of waste to be treated by secondary
processes.
Q20. Discuss the methods used in the treatment of wastewater contaminated with oil and grease?
Answer: Model Paper-III, Q4(b)
Oil/Grease Separation
The excessive amount of grease and fats in waste water are removed by using oil/grease separators to prevent their inter-
ference during subsequent treatment and disposal of waste.
The methods used for the treatment of waste water contaminated with oil and grease are,
(i) Gravity separators
(ii) Ultrafiltration
(iii) Coalescing
(iv) Chemical treatment
(v) Floatation technology.
(i) Vertical Gravity Separator
Vertical gravity separator is used to remove oil, grease and suspended solids in waste water.
The device has a longitudinal column, tapered at the lower end. The interior of the column has a spiral pack made up of
Oleophilic material. The oleophilic spiral pack is suspended from the lid.
The waste water containing oil and grease is allowed to flow into the device via an inlet pipe and discharged into the bot-
tom of the main body. The low density fluid (oil) and suspended solids move up the main body. Heavy solids and sludge
move down and settle to the base which can be removed from the system via a sludge valve. The cleaned water devoid of
contaminants pass out through the outlet pipe.
(ii) Removal of Oil and Grease by Coalescing
The waste water containing oil and grease droplets are placed in coalescing medium. The coalescing media are the tilted
plates made of Polypropylene, Ceramic and Glass. The oil and grease droplets adhere to one another and rise to the surface
of the solution.
(iii) Chemical Treatment of Waste Water
The chemicals used in treating waste water for removal of oil and grease are,
(a) Ferric Chloride
Ferric chloride (FeCl3) is used as a purifying agent in waste water treatment for the following reasons,

v Highly efficient in removing impurities.
v Effective clarification of water.
v Used in sludge dewatering.
v Rapid hydrolysis in water.
Hydrolysis of ferric chloride in water produce ferric hydroxide which absorb suspended materials in water such as
colloids, bacteria etc. Thus, ferric chloride can be chosen as an ideal flocculating and precipitating agent.
(b) Aluminium Chloride
Aluminium chloride is used in waste water treatment facilities. It is very effective but expensive chemical than fer-
ric chloride. Other chemicals used in chemical treatment of waste water are ferric sulphate Fe2(SO4)3, Aluminium
sulphate (Al(SO4)3), Ferrous sulphate (FeSO4), Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2), Polyaluminium chloride (PACL), lime
and alum.
(iv) Removal of Oil and Grease by Dissolved Air Floatation (DAF) Technology
Dissolved air floatation is a physical process that is most widely used to remove suspended or colloidal particles from
liquid by bringing them to the surface of the liquid. The attachment of air bubbles to the suspended or colloidal particle
reduce the density of the particle, resulting in increased buoyancy and thus cause floatation on the surface.
The skimmers provided at the top of the flotation tank remove the floating material. Some chemicals may be added to the
waste water to promote flotation of solid particles. These chemical conditioner include aluminium and iron salts activated
silica and organic polymers.
The main components of the DAF technology are,
v Air supply
v Pressurizing pump
v Saturator/retention tank
v Flotation chamber.
The DAF process is of the following types,
(a) Full Flow Dissolved Air Flotation
In this method, air is dissolved in waste water under high pressure in a closed tank called as saturation/retention tank
and then sent to the flotation tank. The clarified effluent is then drawn out from the bottom of the flotation tank.
Figure: Diagrammatic Representation of Full Flow DAF Mechanism

(b) Partial Flow Dissolved Air Flotation Without Recycle
In this method, a small part of the influent waste water from a closed tank called as retention tank is pressurized with
air and sent to the flotation tank. The remaining part of the waste water is sent to the flotation tank either by gravity
or low pressure pump.
Figure: Diagrammatic Representation of Recycle Flow DAF Mechanism

(c) Recycle Flow Dissolved Air Flotation
In this method a small portion of the clarified effluent is pressurized and sent to the flotation tank.
Figure: Recycle Flow Dissolved Air Floatation

Pretreatment of waste water for oil and grease removal is essential to prevent the fouling of the materials in the
subsequent treatment processes.
(v) Biodemulsifiers (Also known as Microbial Demulsifying Agents)
Biodemulsifiers such as Nacardia amaraebacteria, Corynebacterium petrophilum, Rhodococcus aurantiacus are reported
to be very effective in demulsification of water-in-oil emulsions. Cactus extracts and oxalkylated, alkylpolyglycosides is
used in some industries. The other demulsifiers used in oil industries include Mycobacterium sps, Bacillus subtilis, Toru-
lopsis bombicola, Acinetabacter calcaoceticus, Arthrobacter sps, Micrococcus sps, Alteromonas sps, Aeromonas sps and
mixed aerobic bacterial culture. Reports indicate that the biosurfactants produced by the microbes contain hydrophobic
and hydrophilic components that help to displace the emulsifiers present at water/air, oil/air, or the oil/water interfaces.
The advantages of using microbial demulsifiers are,
v Excellent surface properties
v Low toxicity
v Easy biodegradability
v Low cost
v High specificity at extreme temperatures
v Environmental compatibility
v Effective at low concentrations
v The process can be carried out at non-extreme conditions.
2.2 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SEDIMENTATION TANKS

Q21. Write a note on removal of suspended soilds and BOD by plain sedimentation in primary settling tank.
The suspended impurities in water vary in the composition, charge, size, shape and density. The different types of physical
forces that enable the particles to be held in suspension in water include:
(i) The turbulence or currents maintained in the water.
(ii) Repulsion forces: The suspended solids in water are generally negatively charged. When the particles come closer,
they repel each other. However, when the turbulence reduces, the larger particles settle to the bottom of the tank/
water body under the influence of gravity.
The process of sedimentation is widely used in wastewater treatment systems for separation of suspended particles that
are heavier than water.

The sedimentation tanks (also known as wastewater clarifier, primary tanks, primary clarifiers, primary settling tanks and
primary treatment devices) are meant to remove heavy solids from the sewage by means of settling and separation of suspended
particles from the liquid phase by plain sedimentation. In this method, water is allowed to remain still or move very slowly through
the artificial basins so that the suspended impurities settle to the bottom and relatively clear water flows from the top portion. The
floating material (or scum) like oil and grease are skimmed off while the sludge settled at the bottom of the tank is continuously
removed for further processing.
The factors affecting the sedimentation process in sedimentation tanks include,
(i) Characteristics of solid particles, such as size and specific gravity.
(ii) Characteristics of liquid in the waste water, such as temperature, visocity, etc.
(iii) Characteristics of the artificial tanks, such as shape, velocity of flow of liquid, etc.
When the insolution particles suspended in water are too small, they often do not settle quickly enough at the bottom
of the tank. Then, the process of coagulation is used, wherein, the fine particles are gathered to form a cluster/clot, usually, by
the addition of chemicals known as coagulants. Some of the examples of coagulants are aluminium sulphate (alum, Al2(SO4)3),
Polyaluminium chloride, ferric chloride, ferric sulphate, sodium aluminate, silicate chloride, silicon derivatives.
The addition of coagulants to wastewater leads to the formation of a precipitate, which collects the impurities in water to
form an aggregate of solid mass, that settles to the bottom of the tank.
Figure
The clear water on the settled mass can be drained off for further treatment.
Removal of suspended solids is about 60-70% and removal of BOD is about 20-30%, in a conventional primary sedimentation tank.
Q22. What do you understand of sedimentation of wastewater? Describe in brief various types of settlings.
Sedimentation tanks (also known as waste water clarifiers) are meant to remove heavy solids from the sewage by means
of settling and separation of suspended particles from the liquid phase by plain sedimentation. In this method, the sewage is
allowed to remain still or move very slowly through the artificial basins so that the suspended impurities settle to the bottom and
the relatively clear water flows from the top portion.
The sedimentation tanks are broadly categorized into two types based on the operation methods.
1. Fill and Draw Type Settling Tank: (Also known as quiescent type/intermittent type settling tank). The features of the fill
and draw type settling tanks are as follows,
(a) The water is filled initially in the settling tank and it is left undisturbed for some time.
(b) While the water is being allowed to rest, all the suspended particles present in it sink to the bottom due to the force
of gravity.
(c) The water in the tank is then drawn out by opening the outlet valve. The water thus obtained is free from the suspended
particles.
(d) The particles that settle down are then cleaned off and the tank is filled again with water. The cleaning process
generally takes 6 to 12 hours. Hence, 30 - 36 hours are needed for the completion of one cycle of operation.

(e) At least, three such tanks are needed for continuous and constant supply of water in these types of tanks.
Inlet with
valve 8
Outlet
8
with valve
Silt
Figure: Fill and Draw types Settling Tank
2. Continuous Flow Type Settling Tank: In the continuous flow type settling tank, the water in the tank is not kept untouched.
Instead, it is made to flow through the outlet with a low and uniform velocity. The suspended particles sink to the bottom
before reaching the outlet.
Inlet
Outlet
baffle
Sludge
Figure: Continuous Flow Type Settling Tank (Rectangular Tank with Longitudinal Flow)
Based on the direction of flow of sewage, the tanks are classified into two types,
(a) Horizontal Flow Settling Tanks: In this type of sedimentation tank, the sewage water flows in horizontal direction. The
horizontal flow settling tank is further categorized into
(i) Rectangular Tanks with Longitudinal Flow: In this type of tank, the influent enters the tank through an inlet pipe
at one end of the tank, flows in horizontal direction in the tank and flows out through the outlet pipe placed at the
opposite end of the tank. The tank is provided with baffles that decrease the velocity of the flowing water and allows
the sewage to spread out. The floor of the tank is sloped towards the inlet end. The floating material rises to the
surface as scum, which can be removed with the help of booms. The base of the tank is provided with a sludge hopper
and sludge withdrawal pipe. The sludge settled at the bottom of the tank is removed by hand cleaning, mechanical
cleaning, or hydraulic cleaning. Some tanks are provided with a sludge and scum collection device consisting of an
overhead bridge scraper or a continuous belt scraper.
(ii) Circular Tank with Radial Flow: This type of tank is of two types,
(a) Circular Tank with Central Feed for Sewage: The influent gains entry through a pipe into the centre of the circular
tank and flows out to the peripheral region of the tank. The clarified water passes through the outlet pipe as effluent.
Effluent
Influent
Sludge
Figure: Circular Tank with Central Feed

(b) Circular Tank with Peripheral or Rim Feed for Sewage: In this type of tank, a circular baffle is placed at a
short distance from the wall of the tank. The influent is allowed to flow in a tangential direction. The sludge gets
deposited on the floor of the tank and the clarified sewage flows through the centrally located effluent pipe.
Influent
Effluent
Sludge
Figure: Circular Tank with Peripheral/Rim Feed

(b) Hopper Bottom Tanks/Vertical Flow Settling Tank: In this type of tank, the influent is allowed to flow from the top of
the tank into the deflector box . As the sewage flows down, the suspended particles with a specific gravity greater than 1
settle to the bottom, and the relatively clear water moves upwards and flows out through the outlet pipe. The sludge settled
at the bottom of the tank is removed through the sludge outlet pipe.
Inlet
channel Deflector
Box Outlet
channel
Sludge
pipe
Sludge
Figure: Hopper Bottom Tank

Q23. Explain the aspects which influence the design and performance of sedimentation tanks.
The aspects which influence the design and performance of sedimentation tank are as follows:
1. Velocity of flow
2. Detention period
3. Overflow rate
4. Arrangement of inlet and outlet
5. Shapes of tank
6. Sludge capacity
7. Free board
8. Sludge removal
9. Construction of tanks.
1. Velocity of Flow: In sedimentation tank, the velocity of flow of water must be adequate to produce hydraulic subsidence of
suspended impurities. The velocity of water should not be greater than 15 cm/min to 30 cm/min and should act uniformly
throughout the tank.
2. Detention Period: Detention period is the ratio of capacity of tank and rate of flow per hour. It is the time taken up by the
settling tank to settle the impurities.
The value of detention period rely on the quality of suspended impurities present in water. When plain sedimentation tank
is considered, the detention period is taken in between 4 to 8 hours and when coagulants are provided detention period
varies from 3 to 4 hours.
3. Overflow Rate: Overflow rate is the ratio of rate of flow per hour and surface area of the tank. Therefore settiling of
particle at the bottom of tank depends upon the surface area of the tank.
For plain rectangular sedimentation tank, the value of overflow rate ranges from 500 to 750 litres/hour/m2 and when
coagulants are taken into consideration, then overflow rate should be in between 1000 to 1250 litres/hour/m2 of plan area.
4. Arrangement of Inlet and Outlet: The inlet pipe is arranged in such a manner that the flow of water is uniform throughout
the width of the tank, and without disturbing the settling particles, water is entered into the settling zone.
The outlet pipe is arranged in such a manner that without disturbing the settling zone water is removed from the tank.
5. Shapes of Tank: Shapes of tank are rectangular, circular and hopper bottom. In rectangular tanks more number of baffle
walls are provided which decrease the velocity of flowing water to increase the length of the particles and prevents the
short circuiting of the tank.
The circular tanks are not employed for plain sedimentation, it is generally used for sedimentation with coagulants. In
hopper bottom tank water flows upward and downward due to its vertical shape. In this tank, water enters from top and
flow in upward direction. The tank is generally employed for sedimentation with coagulation process.
6. Sludge Capacity:A depth of 50 cm to 60 cm is provided below the tank to collect the sludge.
7. Free Board: Free board is the vertical distance between top of wall and water level in the tank. In tank a depth of 30 cm
to 60 cm is maintained as free board.
8. Sludge Removal: The amount of sludge removed rely upon the quantity of suspended impurities left on the settling tank
through water, mostly settling tanks are washed at an interval of 1 to 3 months. For removing of sludge, working of tank
is shut down and water from tank is drained out by pumping the compressed air.
9. Construction of Tank: Tank should be provided with roofs and kept water tight to avoid leakage of water.
Q24. What are the design criteria assumed in the design of rectangular and circular primary sedimentation
tanks?
Design criteria assumed in the design of rectangular primary sedimentation tank are,
Parameter Range of Values Typical Value

Length (L) 15 - 100 m 30 m
Width (B) 3 m - 30 m 10 m
Depth (D) 2.5 m - 5 m 3.6 m
L:B 4:1 –
L:D 15 ; 1 –
Bottom slope 6.3-17 cm/m –
Design criteria assumed in the design of circular primary sedimentation tank are,

Diameter of central well in order to 15-20% of diameter of the tank _
serve the purpose of central feeding
Depth of the tank 3m-5m 4m
Bottom slope of the tank 0.0625 - 0.16 0.08
Diameter of the tank 3 m - 60 m 30 m

Technical considerations assumed in the design of primary sedimentation tanks are,
Velocity of settling 0.27 mm/sec - 0.70 mm/sec 0.40 mm/sec
Peak hourly flow 2-5 4.2
Detention time 1 hr - 4 hr 2 hr
Flow, Q 0.6 m/min - 3.6 m/min 0.9 m/min
Weir loading rate 125 m3/m/d - 500 m3/m/d 250 m3 / m/day
Surface loading
1.2 - 2.5, at Qavg and 3.33 - 5 m3/hr at Qpeak 1.6 m3/m2/hr at Qavg.
rate
Q25. Explain in detail about functioning of secondary sedimentation tank.
Secondary sedimentation tank is also known as secondary settling tank (or) secondary clarifier. It works on the principle
of gravity setting. The main function of secondary clarifier is to reduce the concentration of BOD and suspended solids present
in the effluent, before it reaches the further process.
The following diagram represents the treatment of suspended solid in the secondary setting tank with the implementation
of activated sludge process (ASP) and trickling filter.
Primary Secondary
Influent Aeration Reactor Effluent
Clarifier Clarifier
for either
disposal
Secondary
Retreating of sludge (or) Reuse
Clarifier
Sludge
Primary Clarifier Sludge
Total sludge to treatment plant
Figure:(i) Secondary setting tank system with ASP
Primary Secondary Effluent

Influent Trickling filter for either
Clarifier Clarifier
disposal
Secondary (or) Reuse
sludge (or)
Humus
Primary Sludge
Sludge to treatment plant
Figure : (ii) Secondary setting tank system with trickling filter.

Process
After undergoing treatment in aeration tank, the wastewater is allowed to move towards the secondary sedimentation tank.
The wastewater mostly consists of biomass (on organic load) and are flocculent in nature.
In secondary clarifier, following two operations are carried out.
(i) Separation of suspended solids from wastewater
(ii) Thickening of sludge and its handling.
After the treatment of wastewater, effluent is either disposed (or) re-used for other purpose and the by-product developed
during treatment, sludge settles at the bottom of the tank.
Sludge Removal
Settled sludge is either removed mechanically by scraping (or) plowing (or) applying suctioning through orifices.
Mostly adopted types of settling tank for Activated Sludge plant are,
(i) Rectangular
(ii) Circular

Q26. Explain the design criteria for Secondary Sedimentation tank.
Answer :
Following are the parameters to be considered during the design of secondary sedimentation tank,
(i) Sufficient extra depth at the bottom of the tank must be provided for thickening (or) storing the settling sludge.
(ii) Surface area must be provided adequately since insufficient surface area results in loss of biomass present in the effluent
during peak flow condition i.e., surface overflow rates are irregular.
(iii) Size of inlet provided at the tank must be adequate so that the effluent passes through the tank uniformly resulting in
uniforms distribution of floc formation.
Following are the assumptions made during the design of secondary sedimentation tank,
(1) Surface outflow rate,
(i) at Qavg = 16 - 32 m3/m2-d
(ii) at Qpeak = 40 - 64 m3/m2-d
(2) Solid loading rate,
(i) at Qavg = 90 - 148kg/m2-d
(ii) at Qpeak = ≤ 244 kg/m2-d
Solid loading rate is calculated by the formulae,
Total solids applied

= Surfae area of SST
a Qo + Qr k X
= As
Where,
Qo – Average incoming flow rate (m3/d)
Qr – Flow rate of return sludge (m3/d)
X – Suspended Solids Concentration (mg/L)
As – Surface area of Secondary Sedimentation tank, (m2)
(3) Weir loading rate: 250 - 375 m3/m–d at max flow.
(4) Water depth of SST side-ways, SWD : 3.5 – 6.0 m
Q27. Design a horizontal flow type grit chamber for a proposed sewage treatment plant expected to treat
60,000 m3/day respectively. The flow through velocity is to be controlled by a proportional weir.
Given that,
Average flow, favg = 60000 m3/day
Assume,
Number of channels, n = 2
Peak Factor, P.F = 2.5
Detention time, T = 1 minute
Grit Chamber
Maximum flow, fmax = P.F × favg
= 2.5 × 60000
fmax = 150000 m3/day
f max = 150 MLD


Maximum flow of each channel, Surface Loading Rate (SLR) at average flow,
Qmax favg
= SLR =
2 2As
150 60000
= = 75 × 103 m3/day
2 = 2 × 36
fmax = 75 MLD
SLR = 833.33 m3/m2-d
Volume per channel (i.e., at peak flow),
∴ The area, length and width are acceptable.
V = fmax × T
Calculation of Actual Dimensions: Adding 10% for each inlet
= 75 × 103 × 1 min and outlet zones for finding the actual length of channel.
1 L = [18 × (2 × 0.1) ]+ 18
= 75 × 103 ×
24 × 60
= 21.6 22 m
V = 52.08m 3
Provide 0.2 m thick partition and side walls.
Assume, the flow through velocity, ν = 0.3 m/s Width of channel,
Length per channel, L = ν × T
B = 0.2 + 0.2 + 0.2 + 2 + 2
= 0.3 × 60
B = 4.6 m
L = 18 m
Providing width of channel = 4.5 m
Area of cross-section,
Provide a required additional depth to accumulate grit
A = V/L in the chamber.
52.08
= Assume,
18
Grit accumulated of flow = 60 m3/106(m3/d) and
A = 2.89 m2
the grit is removed at an interval of 2 days.
Let the width of channel, B = 2 m
60m 3 × 60000 × 2m 3/ d
Area Volume of grit, Vg =
∴ Depth of channel, D = 10 6 (m 3 /d )
Width
Vg = 7.2 m3
2.89
=
2 Volume of grit
Depth of grit storage, d =
D = 1.45 m Area of surface
∴ Size of each channel = 18 m × 2 m × 1.45 m 7.2

=
36
Check for Surface Loading Rate
d = 0.2 m
Area of Surface, As = L × B
Provide depth of grit storage underneath the actual crest
= 18 × 2
of the weir.
As = 36 m2
Assume freeboard of 0.3 m
Surface Loading Rate (SLR) at peak flow,
∴ Total depth, dtotal = Net depth (SWD) + Depth of grit
f max storage + Freeboard
SLR =
As
= 1.45 + 0.2 + 0.3
75 × 10 3
= dtotal = 1.95 m
36
SLR = 2083.33 m/day Provide grit chamber of size 22 m × 4.5 m × 1.95 m

Q28. Design a circular sedimentation tank to treat (i) Volume of Basin
1 MLD of domestic waste water treatment Capacity
V =
plant. Make suitable assumptions. Detention time
12 × 106
Answer : =
24/3
Given that, = 1.5 × 106 lt
Sewage to be treated = 1 × 106 litres/day = 103 m3/day = 1.5 × 103 m3

(ii) Area of Tank
2
Assume, detention period, t = 2 hours = days Capacity
24 A=

Overflow rate
Overflow rate, r = 30 m3/d/m2 12 × 106
=
Let ‘d ’ be the effective diameter of the tank and ‘h’ be 30000
the depth of the tank. = 400 m2
2 Let L,B be the length and breadth of tank.

Capacity of water required = 1 × 106 × = 8333.333
24 Assuming, L = 2B
= 83333.333 litres A = L × B
= 83.333 m3 400 = (2B) B

\ B = 14.5 m
Sewage 10 3
Surface area required = Overflow Rate = Þ L = 29 m
30
(iii) Depth of tank (D)
= 33.333 m2
Volume
\ D =
Ccapacity 83.333 Area
∴ Effective depth, h = = = 2.5 m
Surface area 33.333 15 × 103
=
4A 400
πd 2
Area of the tank, A = =d= π = 3.75 m
4
(iv) Check
4 × 33.333
d = = 6.515 m = 6.6 m The weir loading should be less than 1,50,000 l/m2/day
π
capacity
Provide a depth of 1m for deposition of sludge and a free \ Weir loading =
2 (L + B)
board of 0.5m
12 × 106
Total depth, H = h + 1 + 0.5 = 2.5 + 1 + 0.5 = 4 m =
2 (44.75 + 89.50)
∴ Provide a tank of diameter 6.6 m and a depth of 4 m
= 44692.74 l/m2/day < 150 000 l/m2/day
Q29. Design a primary sedimentation tank for a
Hence the design is safe.
proposed sewage treatment plant of 120 MLD
capacity. \ The PST dimensions are 29 × 14.5 × 3.75 m
Answer : Q30. If a rectangular sedimentation tank is treating

2.5×106 litres/day. The size of the tank is 17.5
Given data, × 5.5 × 3.5 . If 80 p.p.m (parts per million)
suspended solids are present in the water,
Capacity of primary sedimentation tank = 12 MLD
assuming the 75% removal in the basin and
For PST, Detention time varies from 2 to 3 hours. the average specific gravity as 2.0 determine
the following,
\ DT = 3 hours (a) Average flow of water through tank
Considering only primary sedimentation (i.e., settling), (b) Detention time
overflow rate ranges from 25,000 to 50,000 lt/m2/day (c) Deposition of the solids in the tank
\ Overflow rate = 30,000 lt/m /day
2
(d) Over flow rate.

Answer :
Given that,
Quantity of water = 2.5×106 litres/day
Size of the tank, length, l = 17.5 m
Breath, b = 5.5 m
Overall depth, D = 3.5 m
Adopting a free board of 50 cm i.e., 0.5 m, therefore
Depth, d = 3.5 – free board
= 3.5 –0.5
= 3.0 m
Concentration of suspended solids = 80 p.p.m
75% of removal in the basin, and
Average specific gravity = 2.0
Calculating the capacity of tank
Capacity of tank = length ×breath ×depth = l × b × d
C = 17.5×5.5×3.0
C = 288.75 m3
Determining the discharge per m3 per hour
Quantity of water
Discharge = Q =
hours
2.5 × 106
Q= litres / hour
24
Q = 0.104×106 litres/hour
⇒ 104.167×103 litre/hour
Q = 104.167 m3/hour
(a) Average Flow of Water through Tank

Discharge
Average flow of water through tank =
Cross-sectional area
Q
Q =
b×d
104.167
=
5.5 × 3.0
= 6.313 m/hour
100
= 6.313 × cm/min
60
∴ Average flow of water = 10.5 cm/min

(b) Determining the detention time
Capacity of tank C
Detention time = =
discharge Q
288.75m3 / hour
=
104.167 m3
= 2.771 hour
∴ Detention time = 2.771 hour
Quantity of water passing through sedimentation tank with 80 p.p.m concentrated suspended solids
80
∴ Quantity of water = 2.5×106 litres/day × litres
106
= 200 litres
= 0.2×103 litres
= 0.2 m3
For 2.0 average specific gravity, the density is taken as 2000 kg/m3
∴ Weight of the suspended solids deposited in the tank with 75% of removal = Quantity of water ×%of removal×density
(c) Deposition of Solids
75
Deposition of Solids in the tank = 0.2× ×2000 = 300 kg
100
(d) Determining the over flow rate

Over flow rate = Discharge per unit plan area
Q
=
L×b
104.167 × 103 litres/ hour
=
17.5 × 5.5m 2
Over flow rate = 1082.25 litres/hour/m2

∴ Over flow rate = 1082.25 litres/hour/m2

UNIT-3 Biological Treatment Processes and Attached Growth Processes 3.1
BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT
UNIT
Marketed by :
PROCESSES AND
ATTACHED GROWTH
3 PROCESSES SIA GROUP
PART-A
Q1. What do you mean by the secondary treatment?
Answer :
The secondary treatment of sewage is the biological treatment of waste water mainly by anaerobic and/or aerobic treatment
methods.
Q2. What do you understand by secondary treatment (or biological treatment) of wastewater? Enumerate
various treatment techniques used for biological treatment.
Answer : Model Paper-I,Q1(e)
Secondary Treatment (or) Biological Treatment of Waste Water
The living systems which depend on combined biological cultures for removing the organic matter from the solution by
breaking the waste organics is known as secondary treatment or biological treatment. The coagulation and removal of the colloidal
solids that are non-settled and stabilizing the organic matter are the main objectives of biological treatment. The design of biological
treatment system is such that it maintains the huge active mass of bacteria in the confined system. For the complete biological
process, a controlled system is provided by a treatment unit. Biological food, inoculum and growth nutrients are supplied by the
domestic waste water or sewage. The various treatment techniques used for biological treatment are as follows,
(i) Suspended growth processes
(ii) Attached growth (or) fixed film processes
(iii) Combined processes.
Q3. Enumerate the principle of Biological treatment indicating end products.
Answer : Model Paper-II, Q1(e)
The biological treatment of wastewater is the secondary treatment of sewage with the help of aerobic and/or anaerobic
treatment methods.
Aerobic process is a biological treatment process that occurs in the presence of oxygen along with aerobic microorganisms.
The aerobic bacteria/oxygen loving bacteria and the anaerobic bacteria multiply and digest the sewage and convert it into sludge.
Examples of aerobic processes are activated sludge system, aerated lagoons, aeration ponds, trickling filter system, rotating
biological contactors, fluidized bed system, biological aerated filters, membrane bioreactors. The examples of aerobic processes
are anaerobic digesters, imhoff tanks, anaerobic filters, Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blankets (UASB).
Q4. Enumerate the methods involved in the aerobic processes of effluent treatment.
Answer :
The methods involved in the aerobic processes of effluent treatment are,
(a) Activated sludge systems
(b) Aerated lagoons
(c) Aeration processes
(d) Trickling filter system
(e) Rotating biological contractors
(f) Fluidized bed systems
(g) Biologically aerated filters
(h) Membrane bioreactors.
Q5. Enumerate the methods involved in the anaerobic processes of effluent treatment.
Answer :
Following the methods involved in the anaerobic processes of effluent treatment.
(a) Anaerobic digesters
(b) Imhoff tanks
(c) Anaerobic filters
(d) Upflow anaerobic sludge blankets (USAB).
Q6. What do you mean by reactor?
Answer :
Reactors are a series of units which are preferred to treat the wastewater with the help of physical chemical or biological
processes.
Q7. State the different types of reactors?
Answer : Model Paper-III, Q1(e)
Following are the different types of reactors classified based on the parameters such as type of flow of influent, operating
conditions and mixing methodology of wastewater.
(i) Plug-Flow Reactor (PFR)
(ii) Completely Mixed reactor/Batch Reactor (CMR)
(iii) Continuous Flow Stirred Tank Reactors (CFSTR)
(iv) Arbitrary Flow Reactor (PBR)
(v) Packed Bed Reactor (PBR)
(vi) Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR)
(vii) Fluidized Bed Reactor (FBR).
Q8. Define COD.
Answer :
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Chemical oxygen demand is defined as the amount of oxygen needed to oxidize the organic matter present in sewage
chemically. This process is carried out by using a strong chemical oxidant. The purpose of carrying out both the BOD and COD
tests is same but the test for BOD has certain limitation which are covered through COD test. The main limitation of BOD test is
that it cannot clearly differentiate the organic material, which can be biologically oxidized and the material, which is biologically inert.
Q9. Define BOD.
Answer :
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) refers to the amount of oxygen needed by aerobic microorganisms to breakdown
the organic matter in water sample for utilization as food in a period of five days at 20°C. It is usually expressed in mg of oxygen/
litre of sewage.
The biodegradable organic matter in water is in the form of proteins, carbohydrates and lipids.
Dissolved Organic
oxygen + matter Carbodioxide + Bio log ical growth
BOD value is an indicator of strength of wastewater. It also indicates the amount of biodegradable carbonaceous matter
in water sample.

Q10. Differentiate between attached growth processes and suspended growth processes.
Answer : Model Paper-II, Q1(f)
Difference between Attached Growth Process and Suspended Growth Process
Attached Growth Process Suspended Growth Process

1. In attached growth process, the microorganism grow 1. In suspended growth process, biological flocs are formed
and retain with a help of medium. and are settled. That is, the waste flow through the micro
organisms, where they gather and form biological flocs.
3. Thus, in this method, the micro organisms are 2. In this method, micro organisms are suspended in liquid
responsible for conversion of organic matter and are by appropriate mixing methods.
attached on inert packing material.
3. Attached growth process is also called as fixed film 3. Suspended growth process includes,
processes and it includes,
(a) Activated sludge process
(a) Intermittent sand filters
(b) Aerated lagoons
(b) Trickling filters
(c) Sludge digestion system
(c) Anaerobic lagoons
(d) Suspended growth nitrification and suspended growth
(d) Fixed film denitrification.
denitrification.
Q11. What is meant by equalization?
Answer :
Equalization: Equalization refers to the collection of different types of wastes discharged by an industrial set up, in an equaliza-
tion basin to stabilize the pH and Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) of the wastes. The stable effluents formed in the basin
are treated by industrial and/or municipal treatment plants.
Some examples of equalization such as mixing of cool and hot wastes, acids and alkalis, strong waste and dilute waste,
result in neutralization and precipitation of pollutants.
The main aim of equalization is,
(i) Stabilization of pH
(ii) Stabilization of biochemical oxygen demand
(iii) Settling of solids and heavy metals in the equalization basin.
Q12. What is meant by proportioning?
Answer :
Proportioning refers to mixing of sewage and industrial waste water to reduce the strength of the total waste so that
minimal treatment is required before its disposal. The mixture of sewage and industrial waste is treated in a combined treatment
unit and then disposed.
Q13. How are the biofilters used in the deodorization of waste water?
Answer : Model Paper-I, Q1(f)
Biofilters consists of a media bed of naturally occurring microorganisms. The different types of microorganisms in the matrix
include Bacillus sps, Streptomyces sps, Pseudomonas, Nitrosomonas, Thiobacillus, Hypomicrobium, Doratomyces, Fusarium
sps, etc. The odourous air is collected by using ventilation fans and channelized to booster fans. The booster fans pass the foul
air to the matrix of biofilters. The foul air is passed in to the matrix via a system of distribution pipes. As the odourous air move
upwards, the microorganisms in the media trap the odourous compounds before being discharged to air.
Q14. Write a note on biofilters?
Answer : Model Paper-III, Q1(f)
Biofilters
Biofilters consist of a media bed of naturally occurring micro organisms.
The different types of micro organisms in the matrix include Bacillus sps, Streptomyces sps, Pseudomonas, Nitrosomonas,
Thiobacillus, Hyphomicrobium, Doratomyces, Fusarium sps etc. The odourous air is collected by using ventilation fans
and channelized to booster fans. The booster fans pass the foul air to the matrix of biofilters. The foul air is passed into the
matrix via a system of distribution pipes. As the odourous air move upwards, the micro organisms in the media trap the
odourous compounds before being discharged to air.
Biofilter

PART-B
3.1 BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT PROCESS : TYPES, KINETICS OF PLUG FLOW AND
COMPLETELY MIXED SYSTEMS
Q15. Explain briefly biological waste water treatment.
Answer : Model Paper-I, Q6(a) | Model Paper-III, Q6(b)
Biological Wastewater Treatment

The dissolved organic compounds in wastewater are removed by biological treatment i.e., by using microorganisms. The
biological treatment of wastewater can be broadly categorized into two classes,
(a) Suspended Growth Processes
In this method, the microbial population is thoroughly mixed with the influent wastewater. The microorganisms utilize the
organic constituents in the wastewater as food for their growth.
The suspended growth processes for treatment of the refinery wastewater are of the following types,
(i) Activated Sludge Process
Activated sludge process is a biological method of treating the refinery wastewater, accomplished by a plethora of
microorganisms in an aerobic aquatic environment. The carbonaceous organic matter in the refinery wastewater
provides energy to the mixed population of microorganisms. The microorganisms used in the process are heterotrophic
and autotrophic bacteria, fungi, protozoa, rotifers, and nematode worms.
The main aim of the activated sludge process is to remove all those substances that have a demand for oxygen from
the system.
The effluents from the oil refineries are directed to a primary sedimentation tank for the removal of coarse solids. The
effluents from the sedimentation tank are then sent to an aeration tank provided with bubble diffusers/paddles/stirrers/
surface aerators for feeding compressed air or pure oxygen into the tank with vigorous agitation for appropriate mixing.
The effluents are then sent to secondary clarifiers, where the activated sludge solids separate out from the wastewater
by the process of flocculation (formation of large aggregates of microorganisms) and gravity sedimentation in which
the large aggregates of microorganisms settle to the bottom of the tank along with the formation of a secondary effluent
in the upper portion of the tank. The sludge settled at the bottom of the tank is collected from the secondary clarifiers,
sent to the sludge collection tank and pumped back to the aeration tank to replenish the biological community needed
to metabolize organic and inorganic matter in wastewater.
(ii) Activated Sludge Process with Powdered Activated Carbon/Powdered Activated Carbon System (PACS)
In this method, the two processes namely, biological oxidation and carbon absorption occur simultaneously. The
powdered activated carbon is made up of organic materials such as wood, lignite and coal. The contaminants in the
refinery wastewater are adsorbed by the powdered activated carbon and reduce its content to below acceptable limits.
Sequencing Batch Reactor
Sequencing batch reactor system works in a batch process rather than a continuous one. It is also referred as the fill and
draw process wherein, a single tank operates in four phases:
(i) Filling Phase
A specific volume of wastewater called as a batch is allowed to flow into the tank (reactor).
(ii) Aeration/Reaction Phase
Air is pumped into the tank so that sufficient oxygen is supplied for the aerobic biochemical processes to occur. The
microorganisms utilize the dissolved organic matter.
(iii) Settling Phase
The wastewater in the tank is allowed to settle wherein, the sludge settles to the bottom of the tank.
(iv) Decantation Phase
The treated effluent is discharged and the solids are recycled to start another cycle.
Figure: Schematic Representation of Sequencing Batch Reactor System

Membrane Bioreactor Technology
Membrane bioreactors consist of microfiltration or ultrafiltration membranes immersed in an aeration tank. The system
effectively removes both soluble and biodegradable materials from untreated effluents without the need for clarification in
sedimentation tanks.
Aerated Lagoons
The aerated lagoons are the surface-aerated basins dug out in the earth to carryout biological oxidation processes for treating
industrial wastewater. The solids accumulate at the bottom of the aeration basins which need to be removed periodically to avoid
build up of a permanent deposit.
(b) Attached Growth Processes
In attached growth processes, the microbial population (or the biomass) is attached to the support media made up of coke,
limestone chips, gravel, plastic material and different types of synthetic material. The wastewater (influent) is distributed
across the biomass film. The organic matter is absorbed and degraded by the biomass while the liquid is collected in drains
at the base. With the growth of the organic matter, the biomass layer thickens, and ultimately sloughed off when it reaches
a certain thickness.
The attached growth processes for treatment of the refinery wastewater are of the following types,
(i) Trickling Filter System
The trickling filter system consists of a cylindrical concrete tank (diameter = 10 – 15 mts, depth ~ 3 mts) with a drain
pipe underlaid at the bottom of the tank.
(ii) Rotating Biological Contactors
Rotating Biological Contactors (RBCs) consist of disks made up of corrugated, light plastic material (polystyrene,
PVC). The biomass is attached to disks (2.5 - 3.5 m in diameter with 2 cm spacing between disks) which rotates on
a central drive shaft at 10 to 15 rpm through the effluent. Upto 40% of the disks are immersed in wastewater . Upon
exposure to air, the biofilm on the disks absorbs air and when submerged in wastewater , the microbes absorb the
organic matter. The biofilm of 4 mm thickness grows on the surface of the disks and the excess is teared off the disks
by the shear forces produced as the disks rotate through the liquid.
A sedimentation tank collects the effluents from the RBC, where the biomass in suspension settles as a sludge. The
sludge is withdrawn from the sedimentation tank for further treatment or disposal.
Figure

Q16. Explain the cycles of aerobic and anaerobic decomposition.
Aerobic Decomposition
Decomposition of organic materials in the presence of free oxygen is called as aerobic decomposition. Oxidation
of compounds takes place in aerobic decomposition. Equation of complex organic compounds representing aerobic
decomposition is,
HCOH + O 2 " CO 2 + H 2 O + Energy
Under aerobic conditions, glucose decomposes and releases H2O, CO2 and also energy required for metabolism.
C6 H12 O6 + 6H 2 O + 6O 2 " 6CO 2 + 12H 2 O + Energy
The end products of aerobic decomposition will be always CO2 and H2O which are of lower energy, stable products and
can be utilized by plants during the photosynthesis process.
The breakdown and release of phosphorus, sulphur and nitrogen compounds in the process of decomposition of organic
matter may lead to problems regarding the quality of water. In the process of aerobic decomposition, oxidation of compounds
of sulphur to sulphate ion (SO4–2), compounds of phosphorus to phosphate ions (PO43–) takes place. Oxidation of nitrogen takes
place in a sequence of steps i.e.
Organic Nitrogen
Ammonia (NH3)
Nitrite (NO2–)
Nitrate (NO3–)
Trickling filters, oxidation ponds, contact beds, aeration tanks are different units of treatment that are based on aerobic
decomposition.
Dead organisms (Organic
nitrogen, Organic carbon,
Organic sulphur, Organic
phosphorus)
Wastes Decomposition
Animals Initial products. (Organic acids,

(Proteins, Fats) Carbondioxide, Hydrogen
sulphide, Phosphates)
Plants
(Proteins, Fats, Intermediate products
Carbohydrates) (Nitrite, Carbon dioxide,
Sulphate, Phosphate)
Final products
(Nitrates, CO2,
Sulphates, Insoluble
phosphates)
Figure : Cycle of Aerobic Decomposition

Anaerobic Decomposition
In this method, decomposition of anaerobic and facultative bacteria takes place anaerobically (i.e. in the absence of
oxygen). It is also called as putrefaction. Nitrogen, Methane, Ammonia, Hydrogen, black residue etc. are usually the end products
of anaerobic decomposition which are unstable products. During anaerobic decomposition, reduction of compounds takes place.
The survival of anaerobic bacteria is by extraction and consuming of bounded molecular oxygen which is present in sulphates
and Nitrates. The general equation representing anaerobic decomposition is
2HCOH " CH 4 + CO 2 + Energy
Septic tanks, sludge digestion tanks and imhoff tanks are different units of treatment that work on anaerobic decomposition.
Ammonia and Methane which are the end products of anaerobic decomposition, can be oxidized and utilized by plants and
aerobic bacteria as food, nutrients. Sulphides can be utilized by aerobic bacteria as a source of energy. Hence these end products
of anaerobic decomposition are biologically unstable.
Dead organisms
(Organic
Nitrogen, Organic
carbon, Organic
sulphur, Organic
phosphorus)
Decomposition
Wastes
Initial products. (Organic

Animals (Proteins, acids, Carbondioxide,
Fats) Hydrogen sulphide,
Phosphate)
Plants
(Proteins, Fats, Intermediate products
Carbohydrates) (Ammonia, Carbon dioxide,
Sulphides, phosphate)
Final products (Ammonia,
Carbondioxide), Methane,
sulphides
Figure: Cycle of Anaerobic Decomposition
Q17. Discuss the principle of aerobic and anaerobic biological treatment process along with merits and
demerits.
The biological treatment process of sewage/effluents is accomplished by a plethora of microorganisms by anaerobic and/
or aerobic treatment methods.
The main principle of biological treatment is to:
(i) Coagulate and remove the non-settleable colloidal solids.
(ii) Stabilize the organic matter.
(iii) Reduce the organic matter.
(iv) Remove the nutrients.

The microorganisms convert the biodegradable organic matter contained in wastewater into simple substances and
additional biomass.
Aerobic Process Anaerobic Process

1. A biological treatment process that occurs in 1. A biological treatment process for sewage, that occurs in the
the presence of oxygen along with aerobic absence of oxygen.
microorganisms.
2. The rate of conversion of sewage under normal 2. The rate of conversion of sewage under normal conditions is
conditions is rapid. slow.
3. The process does not produce foul smell. 3. The process produces foul smell due to liberation of gases.
4. End products are energy, carbondioxide and 4. End products are methane, carbondioxide, more anaerobic
metabolized solids, more aerobic microbes. microbes.
5. Examples : Activated sludge system, aerated 5. Examples : Anaerobic digesters, Imhoff tanks, Anaerobic
lagoons, aeration ponds, trickling filter system, filters, Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blankets (UASB).
rotating biological contractors, fluidized bed
system, biological aerated filters, membrane
bioreactors.
Merits of Aerobic Biological Treatment
1. The process is quick and efficient. It can remove nearly 98% of the organic contaminants.
2. The end product formed is a cleaner water when compared with the anaerobic process.
3. The process can handle large volumes of waste water.
Demerits of Aerobic Biological Treatment
1. Air has to be pumped into the reaction mixture, which consumes electrical energy. The electrical energy is produced by
burning fossil fuels which contributes to the greenhouse gases.
2. The large amount of sludge produced in the process needs proper disposal.
3. The discharge of nutrient rich sludge into the waterbodies can cause eutrophication which affects the aquatic flora and
fauna.
4. The organic contaminants are efficiently removed, but some chemicals (such as pharmaceuticals, detergents, cosmetics
and industrial chemicals) still persist post biological wastewater treatment.
Merits of Anaerobic Biological Treatment
1. The anaerobic wastewater treatment is more eco-friendly as it produces less biomass.
2. The process needs less energy.
3. The end product is a biogas (methane) which can be reused.
4. The process produces less amount of sludge when compared with the aerobic biological treatment.
Demerits of Anaerobic Biological Treatment
1. The anaerobic biological treatment is a slow process.
2. The process is less efficient than aerobic biological treatment as it can remove nearly 70 to 95 percent of the organic
contaminants.
Q18. Explain in detail about kinetics of plug flow reactor.
The reactor works on the principle of first-in-first-out i.e, the waste water entering from one end passes through the other
end without changing the position of particles. During this movement wastewater undergoes various chemical reactions. Plug
flow reactor is also known as piston flow reactor (or) continuous tabular reactor.

Qo Qo
Co v Ce
Sketch of PFR
Where,
Qo – Rate of flow
Co – Initial concentration
Ce – Final concentration
In PFR, the concentration of reactant depends upon time and length of the reactor. As the time and length changes the
concentration of reactant also changes.
The mass balance of reactants in a plug flow reactor under steady state conditions can be expressed as,
In a reactor, change in concentration of reactant (dC) due to reaction of reactant in time (dt) is equal to the change in
concentration of reactant due to the change in position of fluid in time (dt) i.e.,
dC dx
=
dt v
dC dx
Þ = v (–ve indicates decrease in concentration of reactant).
dt
Where,
v – Velocity of flow
dx – Differential change in position of fluid

- dC dx
Integrating with Co to Ce and v with lengths zero to L i.e.,
dt
Ce L
- dC dx
# dt
= # v ... (1)
Co o
As we know that,
For a first order reaction

- dC
= KC
dt
Rearranging the above equation, we get,
- dC
= Kdt
C
Integrating the above equation, we get,
dC
Þ # C
= K # dt
Þ – ln C = – Kt
1
t =- ln C
K
dC −1
\ # C
= t = K ln C

ce
ce
-1
= <- ln CF <# ln CF
dC 1 dC
L.H.S - # dt k dt
=t=
k
co c o
-1
= ln _Ce - Co i
K
1
= ln _Co - Ce i
K
L L
dx 1
R.H.S # V
=
V
# dx
o o
1
= [x] oL
V
1
= #L
V
L
=
V
ce L
dC dx
From equation, - # dt
= v #
co o
1 L
Þ ln _Co - Ce i =
K V
1 Co L
Þ ln f p =
K Ce V
L V
Substituting the value of as in the above equation, we get,
V Q
1 Co V
Þ ln f p =
K Ce Q
Q Co
Þ V = ln f p
K Ce
Where, the value of K for first order is d–1
Similarly,
We know that,
For a second order reaction,
Integrating the above equation we get,
1 1 - 1
tPFR = = G
K Ce Co
Q 1
= - G
1
V =
K Ce Co
The value of constant K for second order reaction is [(mg × L) × d–1]
Q19. Explain in detail about the completely mixed system.

Completely mixed system is also known as batch reactors. In batch reactor, initially the reactants are mixed thoroughly
with the wastewater and later no addition or reduction of flow is allowed during the detention period. After the completion of
process the effulents are removed from the reactor. During the whole process, the reactants are assumed to be uniform.
In a reactor, the rate of change in reactant mass with respect to time is equal to the reaction rate of the reactant.
\ Mathematically it can be expressed as,
dC dC
V # d n = V #d n = v(KC) [First order reaction kinetics]
dt net dt reaction
dC
Þ = KC
dt
On integrating the above equation, we get,
Co
>ln H
1
Þ tCMBR =
K Ce
Q Ce
>ln H e a t =
V
Þ V = o
K Co Q
Where,
K – Rate of constant of first order reaction
Co – Concentration of initial reactant
Ce – Concentration of final reactant
tCMBR – Time required for the completely mixed batch reactor
3.2 ATTACHED GROWTH PROCESSES : TRICKLING FILTERS (STANDARD RATE, HIGHRATE),

BIOFILTERS, PRACTICES, FEATURES AND DESIGN, OPERATIONAL DIFFICULTIES AND
REMEDIAL MEASURES – ROTATING BIOLOGICAL CONTACTORS
Q20. Give the detailed classification of Trickling filters and based on various characteristics give the
differences between them.
Answer :
Many different types of trickling filters for biological treatment of waste water in use are:
(i) Low-rate trickling filter (Standard-rate filter)
The salient features of this type of trickling filter are,
 Simple technique
 Low hydraulic loading rate
 No recycling of wastewaters.
(ii) High-rate trickling filter is characterized by
 High hydraulic loading rates
 Recycling of waste water effluent.
(iii) Roughing Filter (also known as super-rate filter). This is yet another type of biological method of wastewater treatment.
It consists of plastic packing to remove the BOD of high strength wastewaters. Less energy is required to carryout the
process.
(iv) Two stage trickling filters.
In this type method, two trickling filters are placed in series to treat high strength wastewater.

Q21. Explain the trickling filter process with a flow diagram along with removal of BOD.
The trickling filter process is a biological method of waste water treatment performed by a mixed variety of microorganisms,
attached to an inert packing material, in an aerobic environment.
A trickling filter is known by various names chyphen trickle filter, trickling biofilter, biological filter, percolating filter,
sprinkling filter, or biological trickling filter.
A trickling filter generally consists of a cylindrical, concrete tank with the following dimensions: diameter of 8 to 16 m
and depth of 2 to 3 m, fitted with a network of pipes with nozzles. The three main components of the trickling filter are,
(a) Distribution System
The circular tanks are fitted with rotary distributors consisting of four arms, and attached to a central support and driven
by an electric motor. These are provided with orifices on one side of the pipe for the distribution of waste water evenly
across the packing media.
(b) Packing Media
The packing matrix in the tank is highly permeable. It consists of a bed of rocks, gravel, slag, peat, moss, sand, waste
coal gravel, plastic media or other synthetic material (corrugated plastic sheets or hollow plastic cylinders) of about 2 to
3 inches in size.
(c) Underdrain System
The underdrain system located at the bottom of the trickling filter bed is meant for collection of treated waste water and
solids discharged from the filter bed and direct them to the sedimentation tank.
The waste water that needs treatment undergoes primary treatment to remove the solids, which otherwise may block the
filters. The micro organisms (aerobic and anaerobic bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa and nematodes) responsible for treatment are
attached to the surface of the packing material in the form of a jelly-like biofilm.
The microorganisms absorb oxygen from the layer of air and the organic matter from the effluents for biochemical oxidation.
The growth and reproduction of microorganisms occur in the packing matrix.
As the film/slimy layer thickens, it falls off the supporting layer and a new layer forms in its place. The falling off of the
slimy layer is called sloughing. This process is important as it tends to clog the packing material and develop anaerobic conditions.
The complex organic matter is sewage is broken down and utilized. The nitrogenous matter and ammonia undergo oxidation to
form nitrates. Sulphides and other compounds too undergo oxidation. The end products formed are carbondioxide, water and
other products of oxidation.
The effluents formed in the process are directed to secondary sedimentation tank or humus tank to remove suspended mater
(particularly the sloughed off biofilm).
The flow diagram of a trickling filter process is depicted as shown below.

Raw waste water
Trickling Settling Treated
from primary sedi-
Filter Tank effluent
mentation tank
Figure: Flow Diagram of a Trickling Filter Process

Rotary Distributor
Orifice
Filter media
Outlet for Common Inlet for

Effluent Influent
Figure: Diagrammatic Representation of a Trickling Filter

Q22. Explain the working principle of standard rate trickling filter with neat sketch.
Standard Rate Trickling Filter

Central support
Siphonic dosing Wires 4 No’s distribution

tank arms
Wall
Inlet
pipe Filtering
media
Effluent pipe
Figure: Circular Trickling Filter

 The shape of the trickling filters may be circular or rectangular.
 The filter media consists of a crushed rock or clinker material.
 The size of the filter media should be uniform and shape should be cubical and free from dirt particles.
 Clogging must be avoided because large suspended particles are removed through preliminary sedimentation.
 The main function of trickling filter is instead of removal of suspended solids totally from sewage, it changes the
nature of suspended solids.
 The depth of trickling filters is between 1.8 m to 2.4 m.
 The underdrainage system is used to collect the sewage after it has been passed through filter media.
 Underdrains are provided as they support the filter media and takes away all the effluents to main channel.
 Ventilation should be provided for successful working operation of trickling filter.
 The ends of underdrain are connected to chimney for air circulation.
Forced ventilations
Ventilations are of two types
Natural draft ventilations

 The functions of distributor arms is to spread the effluent evenly on filtering media and these arms may be fixed or
movable and rotates around central supports.
 The sewage is not applied continuously on filter surface. It is applied for 3 to 5 minutes and then stopped for a period
of 3 to 10 minutes or more.
 So, for this purpose, the automatic siphonic dosing tanks are provided as per requirements of filter.
 The main stage of treatment process is filtration.
 The sewage treatment is carried out in 3 stages,
1. Primary sedimentation
2. Filtration and
3. Post-filtration treatment.
 The operation of trickling filters requires less electrical power to run the equipment.
 They are very flexible in operation and they can withstand varieties of sewage having different compositions and
concentrations.
 The working of trickling filters is simple and it does not require skilled persons.
Q23. State merits and demerits of a conventional trickling filter.
Merits of Trickling Filters

The merits of using trickling filters for waste water treatment are,
1. Low operating cost.
2. Minimum maintenance is required.
3. Small quantity of secondary sludge is produced in trickling filter.
4. Less technical control is required as it is easy to operate the system.
Demerits of Trickling Filters
The demerits of using trickling filters for waste water treatment are;
1. The initial cost of setting up the system is high.
2. Pumping of sewage is necessary as the filters require a high head.
3. Large area of land is required in trickling filter process, to achieve a good quality treated wastewater.
4. There is considerable fly and odour nuisance.
Q24. Draw process flow diagram of high rate two stage trickling filter and discuss its function. Explain the
importance of recirculation.
Process Flow Diagram of High Rate Two Stage Trickling Filter

Recirculation Recirculation
Primary Secondary
Trickling Trickling
Sedimentation Sedimentation Effluent
filter filter
Tank Tank
Functions
In case of two stage high rate trickling filters the settled sewage is applied at much higher rate than low rate filters. It has
a provision of recirculation of sewage through the filter, by pumping a part of the trickling filter effluent, to the primary settling
tank and later repassing it through filter.

Importance of Re-Circulation
→ It increases the efficiency of filter by reducing the BOD load.
→ It provides longer contact of the applied sewage with the bacterial film on the contact media and accelerate the biological
oxidation process.
→ It maintains a uniform rate of organic and hydraulic loading.
→ It dilutes the influent with better quality water and making it fresh and this reduces odour.
Q25. Give various flow diagrams used for single stage and two stage trickling filters. How do you determine
the efficiency of these, using Rankin’s equation?
Answer :
(i) Various Flow Diagrams for Single Stage Trickling Filter

Treated sludge returning
Influent Primary Final Effluent

Trickling filter clarifier
clarifier
Recirculated sewage flow
Flow diagram : Pattern ‘A’

clarifier

and
Flow diagram : Pattern ‘B’

clarifier
Recirculated sewage flow Treated sludge

Returning
Flow diagram : Pattern ‘C’


clarifier
Flow diagram : Pattern ‘D’

(ii) Various Flow Diagrams for Two-stage Trickling Filter
Intermediate clarifier
Primary 1 Trickling
st
2nd Trickling Final
Influent clarifier Effluent
clarifier Filter Filter
1st Recirculated flow 2nd Recirculated flow
Flow diagram : Pattern ‘E’

Intermediate filter
Primary 1 Trickling
st
2nd Trickling Final
Influent clarifier Effluent
clarifier Filter Filter
1st Recirculated flow 2nd Recirculated flow
Flow diagram : Pattern ‘F’

Primary 1st Trickling 2nd Trickling Final

Influent clarifier clarifier
Filter Filter Effluent
1st Recirculated flow

2nd Recirculated flow
Flow diagram : Pattern ‘G’

Primary 1st Trickling 2nd Trickling Final

Influent clarifier clarifier
Filter Filter Effluent
1st Recirculated flow

2nd Recirculated flow
Flow diagram : Pattern ‘H’

Determination of Efficiency
The efficiency parameter for the first stage trickling filter given by Rankin’s equation is
1+ R
Efficiency, E = × 100
1.57 + R
Where,
R – Recirculation ratio for 1st stage trickling filter.
Similarly, the efficiency parameter for the two stage trickling filter given by Rankin’s equation is
1 + R'
Efficiency, E’ =
2 + R'
Where,
R’ – Recirculation ratio for 2nd stage trickling filter.

Q26. Explain the construction and working intermittent sand filters. What are its advantages and disadvantages?
Answer :
Intermittent Sand Filters
This process is also known as land filtration.
Construction
The intermittent sand filters are rectangular in shape and has length to width ratio of 3 to 4.
(i) The sand filter consists of a clear, sharp sand layer.
(ii) The effective size and uniformity co-efficient of sand layer are around 0.2 mm-0.5 mm and 2-5 respectivelty.
(iii) The sand filter is placed on a underdrain surrounded by gravel where the effluent process takes place. The depth of underdrain
is around 75-105 cm.
Working
The sewage effluent obtained by various means is collected and is applied on the specially prepared beds by means of
a dozing tank and syphon. This effluent flows into troughs which are laid on filter beds. These troughs are provided with side
openings which allows the effluent to flow on the sand. After the period of one day, the sewage effluent is shifted to the second
bed and the first bed are kept in rest position. During this the dried sludge accumulating on the surface of sand is removed. This
sewage effluent is purified by means of aerobic bacteria and thus there is a requirement of applying the sewage at regular intervals.
Solid waste from
settling tank
BED-1 Outlets
BED-2
BED-3
Dozing tank
syphon
Figure: Plan View
Discharge Trough
line Sand Filter
Vent
Figure: X-X Sectional View

Advantages
(i) The resultant product obtained from intermittent sand filter is very clean and stable i.e., good quality.
(ii) Does not require any skilled supervision for operating.
(iii) The resultant product can be disposed without dilution treatment.
(iv) Less chances to develop anaerobic conditions.
Disadvantages
(i) The process of treating the sewage effluent is very slow.
(ii) For construction of these filters, large area lands are required.
(iii) In cold climate conditions, these type of filters cannot be used as when subjected the surface of sand gets frozen.

Q27. Enumerate the comparative differences between standard and high rate trickling filters.
Answer :
Standard Rate Trickling Filter High Rate Trickling Filter
1. The hydraulic loading rate ranges between 1. The hydraulic loading rate ranges between
22 mlhd to 44 mlhd. 110 ml hd to 220 mlhd.
2. The organic loading ranges between 925 – 220 kg 2. The organic loading ranges between 7400 – 18,500 kg
of 5 day BOD per ha.m of 5 day BOD per ha.m
3. The recirculation ratio is 0. 3. The recirculation ratio ranges between 1 to 2.
4. The depth of contact material ranges between 4. The depth of contact material ranges between
1.8 to 2.4 m. 1.2 to 1.8 m.
5. The method of operation is less flexible and 5. The method of operation is more flexible and
require less skills. requires more skill in handling the plant.
6. The effluent is finely divided, very stable, being 6. The effluent is more finely divided but less stable,
high in nitrate contents. with low nitrates and is comparatively inferior.
7. The BOD reduction ranges between 56 – 98%. 7. The BOD reduction is 63 – 90%.
8. The BOD in effluent is less than 20%. 8. The results of single stage filter are not as good
as those of the standard rate filter.
9. The cost of operation is more. 9. The cost of operation is less.
Q28. Explain the operational problems of trickling filter and their remedies.
Answer :
Operational Problems of Trickling Filter and their Remedies
Following are the operational problems of trickling filter,
1. Filter ponding
2. Filter flies
3. Odors
4. Icing for surface of filter
5. Clogging of distribution-arm orifices.
1. Filter Ponding
The causes of filter ponding is due to:
(a) Small size of rock or other media.
(b) Medium size of rock, which breaks up due to extremes in temperature and fines are produced that clog the voids.
(c) Improper operation of primary treatment units, leads to an excessive suspended solids in the influent to the filter.
(d) Excessive sloughing occurs
(e) Excessive organic loading on the filter.
Remedies
(i) Separate the rocks on the surface of filter and make sure that no heavy equipment should be allowed on the filter.
(ii) The filter surface should be washed with a high pressure of stream water.
(iii) The distributor is stopped over the ponded area and the growths out of the filter is washed by allowing a continuous flow
of waste water.
(iv) Chlorine of 5mg/l is used in filter influent for periods of several hours at weekly intervals. This is effective to prevent
fungus growth.
(v) Now, the filter is taken out to dry for a period of one day or more.
(vi) The filter, which is overpoured should be allowed to stand for a period of 24 hours.
(vii) If all other methods fail, then replace the old medium of filter of new one as it may cost less.

2. Filter Flies 4. Icing for the Surface of Filter
The filter fly is a nuisance related with the operation of Cold weather not only decreases the efficiency of
filter. Most frequently, the growth of filter flies is in wet and trickling filters by reducing the activity of the microorganisms
dry environment. These flies have a natural flight range of few but also freezes the waste water on the medium surface. Increase
hundred feet. The life cycle of flies varies from 22 days to 7
of ice can make the filter ineffective and therefore the ice are
days at 15°C to 29°C respectively.
removed from the service.
Remedies
Remedies
(i) Chlorine should be used regularly in the filter.
(ii) Excessive biological growths should be removed by (i) The number of times the waste is recirculated should
using the methods, which are used to decrease ponding. be decreased, which is essential to remove recirculation
(iii) The filter should be flooded for a period of 24 hours at before weather moderates.
weekly or biweekly intervals, which should be enough to (ii) If two-stage filters are applied then filters should be
control the fly from accomplishing its life cycle between operated with little or no recirculation until weather
floodings.
moderates.
(iv) The inside walls of the filter should be washed vigorously
(iii) Orifices and splash plates should be adjusted to enhance
so that the files cannot survive.
uniformity of distribution on the filter. Ice ridges are
(v) The whole plant and the filter should be maintained so
produced by spraying and splashing, which are at the
as to neglect sanctuaries for flies.
margin between wet and dry zones.
(vi) The wastewater should be chlorinated so as to produce
a 0.5 to 1 mg/l chlorine residual at an interval, which (iv) A wind screen should be erected at the filter in the route
should be enough to control the fly from accomplishing of existing winds.
its life cycle.
(v) Ice should be frequently dispersed and removed.
(vii) An insescticide should be applied to the surface of filter
and walls at an intervals of 4 to 6 weeks. The adult flies 5. Clogging of Distribution-arm Orifices
will get killed by applying an insecticide. The efficiency of filter gets decreased due to non-uniform
3. Odors flow of wastewater, which causes plugging. The seal may be
No serious odor nuisance should occur in the filter as it is caused to blow when a large number of the distributor area
an aerobic process. The occurrence of rotten egg odor indicates orificies are jammed because of which excessive pressure can
that the condition is anaerobic.
be produced in the distributor.
Remedies
Remedies
(i) The aerobic conditions should be maintained in settling
(i) All orifices should be cleaned and the distributor piping
tanks and wastewater system.
should be washed occasionally.
(ii) Sludge collections and biological growths should be
reduced. (ii) Grease and suspended solid removal should be improved
(iii) Filter influent should be chlorinated for shorter periods. in the primary settling tank.
This is preferable when flow is low to the plant. (iii) A sufficient hydraulic load should be maintained on the
(iv) Filters should be recirculated. filter.
(v) Good housekeeping should be applied throughout the (iv) According to the instruction of manufacturer, the
plant. distributor should be lubricated.
(vi) Underdrain systems of all stoppages should be cleaned. Q29. Why trickling filters are mostly adopted in
(vii) All the openings of filter should be cleaned. attached growth processes?
(viii) Air should be forced into filter drain system to increase Answer :
ventilation. Following are some of the reasons for adopting trickling
(ix) Heavy organic loadings such as milk processing or filters in attached growth processes.
canning wastes should be reduced. So that no heavy (i) The process adopted in trickling filter is steady. Hence,
accumulations of solids should be produced in filter. it is easy to operate the system.
(x) Filter should be covered and purify the off gases. (ii) The operational cost is low.

(iii) Trickling filters uses less amount of energy when Q31. Design a high rate Trickling Filter to treat 30
compared to activated sludge process. MLD of sewage. Assume suitable design data.
(iv) In trickling filters, the removal of carbonaceous BOD, Answer :

denitrification and nitrification process takes place. Given that,
(v) Skilled labours are not required. Sewage flow, Q = 30 mld
(vi) Minimum maintenance is required. Assume, BOD of raw sewage = 230 mg/l
(vii) Less quantity of secondary sludge is produced in trickling BOD removal in primary clarifier = 30%
filter. Final effluent BOD desired = 25 mg/l
Q30. Explain the working of Rotating Biological Recirculation ratio, R = 1.5

Contactors (RBCs). Total BOD present = 30 × 106 × 230 × 10–3 × 10–3
Answer : Model Paper-III, Q7(b) = 6900 kg/day
Rotating Biological Contactors (RBCs) is yet another Removal of BOD in primary tank = 30%
type of aerobic attached growth system meant for wastewater BOD left in sewage entering the filter unit is,
treatment. W = 6900 × 0.7
The main components of the rotating biological = 4830 kg/day
contactors (RBCs) are, Desired BOD concentration in effluent = 25 mg/l
1. A cylindrical tank made up of steel or RCC or fibre glass. Total BOD left in effluent = 30 × 25
2. A row of discs, also called as biodiscs, and made up of = 750 kg/day
corrugated, light plastic material (polystyrene/polyvinyl \ BOD removed by filter = 4830 – 750
chloride - PVC). = 4080 kg/day
3. An electric driven motor. BOD removal

(i) Efficiency of filter = × 100
Total BOD
The biomass is attached to disks (2.5 to 3.5 m in diameter 4080
with 2 cm spacing between the disks) which rotates on a central = × 100
4830
drive shaft at 10 to 15 r.p.m through the effluent. Upto 40% of = 84.47%
the disks are immersed in wastewater. Upon exposure to air, the
(ii) Efficiency given by NRC equation is,
biofilm on the disks absorbs air and when submerged in waste
100
water, the microbes absorb the organic matter in the sewage. E =
W
1 + 0.44
The biofilm of 4 mm thickness grows on the surface of the VF
disks, and the excess is teared off the disks by the shear forces 100
84.47 =
produced as the disks rotate through the liquid. 4830
1 + 0.44
V×1.89
A sedimentation tank collects the effluents from the
>a F = = 1.89 H
1+R
RBC, where the biomass and other metabolic wastes in
(1 + 0.1R) 2
suspension settle as a sludge. The sludge is withdrawn from
the sedimentation tank for further treatment or disposal. 4830 100
0.44 × = –1
1.89V 84.47
The flow of sewage in this type of treatment system 4830 0.184
=
may consist of screening, grit removal, primary sedimentation, 1.89V 0.44
aerobic biological treatment in rotating biological contactors 4830
= 0.175
(RBCs), secondary sedimentation tank (or humus tank) to 1.89V
remove the suspended matter. V = 14603.17 m3

Assume that, depth of filter = 3.0 m 104 ( HR)
14603.17 Area of filter (A) =
Surface area of filter = 20
3 Sewage flow (1 + R)
= 4867.72 m2 Area =
Hydraulic loading rate
4867.72×4 Where,
\ Diameter of filter =
π R = Radius
= 78.73 m
A = 100 ( 1 + R)
Therefore, provide a single stage high rate trickling filter
of 78.73 m diameter and 3.0 m deep.
F =
Q32. Design a single-stage trickling filter to yield
an effluent BODs of 30 mg/l. The influent
BODs following primary clarification is 160 As VF = 12428.396
mg/l and the flow is 10 4 m 3/day. Maintain a Substituting the values of V & F in this equation,
hydraulic loading rate of 20 m/day and a
filter depth of 2 m. Volume (V) = Area × Depth
Answer : Model Paper-II, Q7(b) V = 100 ( 1+ R) × 2
Given that, V =200 ( 1 + R)
Effluent BOD5 = 30 mg/l 1+ R
200( 1 + R) × = 12428.396
Treated BOD5 of sewage = 160 mg/lit (1 + 0.1R) 2
Sewage flow = 104 = 10,000 m3/day
(1 + R) 2 12428.396
Assume, Recirculation constant = 4300 m /day 3 =
(1 + 0.1R) 2 200
Hydraulic loading rate, HR = 20 m/day
Filter depth = 2 m 1 + R2 + 2R = 62.14(1 + 0.01 R2 + 0.2 R)
From NRC equation, 1 + R2 + 2R = 62.14 + 0.6214 R2 + 12.428 R

Li − le 1 0.3786 R2 + 10.428 R – 61.14 = 0
e = =
Li W
1 + 0.44 On solving the above equation, we get,
VF
R = 32.51 m
160 – 30 1
⇒ = Area =100(1 + 32.51)
160 W
1 + 0.44
VF
= 3351 m2
1
0.8125 = Volume = Area × Depth
W
1 + 0.44
VF = 3351 × 2
W 1 = 6702 m3
= −1
VF 0.8125
0.44
W
= 0.3588
VF
W = Sewage flow × Treated waste
= 10,000 × 103 × 160 × 10–6
= 1600
1600
= 0.3588
VF
VF = 12428.39

UNIT-4 Suspended Growth Processes 4.1
UNIT
Marketed by :
SUSPENDED GROWTH
PROCESSES
4 SIA GROUP
PART-A
Q1. What is activated sludge process?
(i) Activated sludge process
(ii) Oxidation pond.
Answer : Model Paper-I, Q1(g)
(i) Activated Sludge Process

The activated sludge process is a biological method of treating the domestic and industrial wastewaters, accomplished
by a plethora of microorganisms (heterotrophic and autotrophic bacteria, fungi, protozoa, rotifers, metazoans, nematoda
worms) in an aerobic aquatic environment.
(ii) Oxidation Pond
Oxidation pond is an artificial pond of shallow depth, excavated in the ground for the purpose of storing and treating
settled sewage or other waste water. The oxidation pond is also referred as Wastewater Stabilization Ponds (WSP).
Q2. Enlist the main components of the activated sludge process.
Answer:
Main components of activated sludge process are,
1. Primary sedimentation tank
2. Aeration tank
3. Aeration source
4. Secondary clarifiers
5. Collection tanks
6. Pumps.
Q3. Draw a flow chart of activated slude process.
Answer: Model Paper-I, Q1(h)
Primary
sedimentation Aeration Secondary
tank tank clarifier
Domestic and
industrial Treated
effluents effluent
Return
sludge
~ Waste sludge
Pump
Sludge
Collection tank
Figure: Flow Diagram of an Activated Sludge Process

Q4. State three merits and three demerits of activated sludge process.
Answer : Model Paper-II, Q1(g)
Activated Sludge Process (ASP):

Merits
1. Effluent in activated sludge process is clear sparkling and odour free when compared to other processes.
2. Cost of construction is low when compared to trickling filter.
3. 90% of efficiency is achieved in removal of suspended solids, bacteria and BOD
4. Requires less area for construction than trickling filter.
Demerits
1. Operational cost of activated sludge process is very high.
2. Huge amount of sludge is produced in this process which causes difficulty while disposing.
3. Results are unpredictable in all conditions.
Q5. List out the bio-kinetic coefficients involved in the design equations of activated sludge process?
Answer :
Following are the bio-kinetic co-efficients involved in the design equations of ASP,
1. Specific growth rate (µ)
2. Yield coefficient (y)
3. Maximum substrate utilization rate (k)
4. Half velocity constant (ks)
5. Endogenous decay coefficient (kd).
Q6. Define specific growth rate.
Answer : Model Paper-III, Q1(g)
In wastewater, mixed culture of microorganism are observed. Growth rate of biomass/micro-organisms d dt n is directly
dX

proportional to concentration of reactor biomass (X)
dX
⇒ dt α X
dX =
⇒ dt µX
Where,
µ – Proportionality constant/factor
This proportionality factor is nothing but the specific growth rate constant.
dX
∴ Specific growth rate, µ = dt X
Units of specific growth rate : day–1 (i.e.,/day)
Q7. Define yield coefficient.
Answer :
Yield coefficient is defined as the ratio of amount of new cells generated to the amount of substrate used/removed by
micro-organisms.
Amount/Mass of new cells generated
∴ Yield co-efficient, y = Amount/Mass of substrate utilized
dX
=dS dt
dt
Xt − Xo
= −
So Se

Where,
Xt – Concentration of biomass at time(t) in mg/l
Xo – Concentration of biomass at time (to) in mg/l
So – Concentration of substrate influent at time (to) in mg/l
Se – Concentration of substrate in effluent after time (t) in mg/l
Q8. Define maximum substrate utilization rate constant.
Answer :
Maximum substrate utilization rate constant is the ratio of maximum specific growth rate of biomass to the yield coefficient.
It is denoted by the symbol ‘k’
Maximum specific growth rate
∴ k = Yield coefficient
µ max
=y
Units of maximum substrate utilization rate : Day–1 (i.e.,/day)
Q9. Define half velocity constant.
Answer : Model Paper-II, Q1(h)
Half velocity constant is the concentration of substrate at the middle (i.e., half) of the maximum specific growth rate of
biomass. It is denoted by the symbol ‘ks’. The value of half velocity constant is obtained from the graph between specific growth
rate of biomass (µ) and concentration of nutrient (S) and by using the following equation,
S
µ = µmax
ks + S
Where,
µ – Specific growth rate of biomass in day–1 (i.e.,/day)
µmax – Maximum specific growth rate of biomass in day–1 (i.e.,/day)
S – Concentration of nutrients in mg/l
KS – Half velocity constant.
Q10. Define endogenous decay co-efficient.
Answer :
In the wastewater, if the concentration of substrate is less, the micro-organisms present in the wastewater will digest the
protoplasm of their own. Due to this, few cells will die leading to the decrease in the biomass concentration of the system. This
condition is referred to as ‘endogenous decay of biomass’. In such cases, decay rate of biomass (Rd) will be proportional to the
left over concentration of biomass(X)
⇒ Rd α X
⇒ RD = – Kd X
This proportionality factor/co-efficient is called as endogenous decay coefficient(Kd)
− Rd
∴ Kd = X
Note : Negative sign implies that there is a decrease in the concentration of substrate.
Q11. Define food to Micro-organism ratio.
Answer : Model Paper-III, Q1(h)
Food to Micro-organism ratio (F/M) is the mass of substrate (i.e., food) that is available per unit weight of biomass (i.e.,
micro-organisms). The substrate is usually expressed in terms of soluble COD or BODs whereas the biomass is expressed in terms
of amount of MLSS (i.e., Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids) present in the aeration tank/reactor. F/M ratio is given by,
F So
M = Xθ
= a θ = Q G
So V
=
Xe Q o
V
So Q
= XV
Where,
So – Concentration of substrate of influent in mg/l
Q – Rate of flow in m3/day
V – Reactor volume in m3
X – Concentration of MLSS in mg/l
F – Substrate (i.e., Food) supplied to reactor in kg/day
M – Biomass (i.e. Microorganism present in the reactor in kg/day.
Q12. Tabulate the usual nutrient requirements of activated sludge process.
Answer :
Nutrient requirements of activated sludge process are usually as follows,
Requirement in grams/kg of
S.No. Nutrient
BOD removed
1. Nitrogen (N) 50
2. Phosphorus (P) 10
3. Calcium (Ca) 6.2
4. Potassium (k) 4.5
5. Magnesium (Mg) 2
6. Zinc (Zn) 0.16
7. Copper (cu) 0.15
8. Cobalt (co) 0.13
9. Sodium (Na) 0.05
Q13. List out the differences between Aerated Lagoons and Activated sludge.
Answer :
Aerated Lagoons Activated Sludge
1. Rate of degradation is less due to the presence of less 1. Rate of degradation is more due to higher concentrations
mixed liquor volatile suspended solids (MLVSS). of mixed liquor volatile suspended solids (MLVSS).
2. Efficiency is less. 2. Efficiency is more.

3. Sludge recirculation does not take place. 3. Sludge recirculation takes place in this process.
4. Suspended solids concentration in aerated lagoons is 4. Higher efficiency of activated sludge process when
20-30 times less than activated sludge process. compared to aerated lagoons is due to higher concentration
of suspended solids in the reactor of activated sludge
system.

PART-B
4.1 SUSPENDED GROWTH PROCESSES : ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS – MODIFICATIONS
AND DESIGN EQUATIONS
Q14. Explain the activated sludge process with a flow diagram.
The conventional activated sludge process is a biological method of treating the effluents, accomplished by a phethora of
microorganisms in an aerobic aquatic environment. This method is widely used in the biological treatment of wastewater.
The effluent from various sources are directed to a primary sedimentation tank with a detention period of 1 to 1.5 hours
for removal of coarse solids. The effluents from the sedimentation tank are then sent to an aeration tank provided with bubble
diffusers/paddles/stirrers/surface aerators for feeding compressed air or pure oxygen into the tank with vigorous agitation for
appropriate mixing. The contents of the aeration tank are agitated for 4 to 10 hours. A small amount of return sludge is also added
to the aeration tank.
The different types of reactions occurring in the aeration tank are as mentioned below,
1. Oxidation
The organic matter in the sewage undergoes oxidation to form carbon dioxide, water, energy and other end products.
2. Synthesis of New Cell Tissues
The end products formed in the oxidation process are used in the synthesis of new microbial cell tissue.
3. Endogenous Respiration
The new microbial cell tissue carry out the respiration process for cell maintenance.
The end result in the aeration tank is,
(a) Oxidation of organic matter in the sewage.
(b) Coagulation of the suspended and colloidal matter that can settle to the bottom of the tank.
The effluents are then sent to the secondary clarifiers, where the activated sludge solids separate out from the waste waters
by the process of flocculation (formation of large aggregates of micro organisms) and gravity sedimentation in which the large
aggregate of microorganisms settle to the bottom of the tank, along with the formation of a secondary effluent in the upper portion
of the tank. The sludge settled at the bottom of tank is collected from the secondary clarifier and sent to the sludge collection tank.
A small portion of the sewage is pumped back to the aeration tank to replenish the biological community needed to metabolized
the organic and inorganic matter in wastewater.
Waste water from primary Aeration

Tank Clarifier Clear water
sedimentation tank
Return sludge
Waste sludge for
treatment or disposal
Return Effluent
Primary
Aeration Settling Treated
Influent sedimentation
Tank Tank Effluent
Tank
Return sludge recirculated

to prepare mixed liquor
Sludge digestion
Tank
Digested sludge
for disposal
Figure: Activated Sludge Process Plant Layout
Q15. Discuss in detail three important modifications in Activated sludge process with neat sketches with
important design parameters.
Answer :
The variations in the activated sludge process (ASP) are mentioned below.
1. Tapered Aeration Process (also known as Controlled Aeration Process)
In this type, the aerators are closely placed near the inlet of the aeration tank, while they are placed far apart at the outlet of
the aeration tank. This is because the demand for oxygen is high at the inlet section, whereas the oxygen demand decreases
at the outlet end.
2. Step Aeration Process (also known as the Step Feed Process)
In this type, the influent sewage is fed at several points along the aeration tank. The return sludge is sent to the aeration
tank at the first point of entry, where it is not in contact with influent sewage.
Effluent
Primary
Influent
clarifier
Secondary
Aeration Tank clarifier
Return/Recycled sludge
Sludge
Disposal
3. High Rate Treatment or Modified Aeration Process
Raw sewage/influent sewage is mixed with 10% of return sludge and aerated for about two hours. The compressed air sent
to the aeration tank should be less.
The sludge produced by this method is very dense and thick, and therefore, it settles to the bottom of the tank at a faster
rate.
4. Two Stage Aeration Process
In this process, a pair of aeration tanks and sedimentation tanks are involved. The raw sewage flows into the first aeration
tank and sedimentation tank, and then into the second pair of aeration tank and sedimentation tank. The return sludge from
the first sedimentation tank and the second sedimentation tank may be directed for seeding purpose.
Returned Sludge Excessive sludge for
treatment or disposal
Primary First Aeration Secondary

Influent
Clarifier Tank Clarifier
Second Secondary
Aeration Effluent
Clarifier
Tank
Excessive sludge for
Returned sludge treatment/disposal
5. Activated Aeration Process
It consists of two tapered activated sludge plants arranged parallelly. The influent flows through the inlet pipe into the first
plant. The activated sludge of the first plant is used for seeding the second plant. The sludge formed in the second plant is
disposed off suitably.
6. Reaeration Process
Raw sewage flows into the aeration tank from the primary clarifier and sent to the secondary sedimentation tank. The
sludge formed in the process is recycled into the sludge reaeration tank.

Primary Aeration Secondary

Influent Effluent
Clarifier Tank Clarifier
Second
Reaeration Sludge for disposal
Tank
7. Contact Stabilization Process

In this type, the biologically active sludge is allowed to mix with raw sewage for about an hour. The suspended colloidal
and dissolved particles are absorbed and adsorbed by the activated sludge. The recycled sludge is reaerated in a separate
tank for four hours and introduced into the aeration tank to be mixed with primary effluent requiring treatment.
Influent Aeration Secondary Effluent

Tank Clarifier
Sludge
Reaeration Waste activated sludge
Tank
8. Complex Mix Process

In this type, the influent sewage and recycle sludge are mixed and introduced at several points in the aeration tank. The
tank is provided with effluent channels on both sides so that the aerated liquor can be directed to the secondary clarifier.
Influent Primary Secondary

Clarifier Clarifier
Returned/Recycled Sludge
Sludge Disposal
9. Extended Aeration Method (also known as Total Oxidation and Aerobic Digestion)
The influent is sent to the aeration tank directly. The aeration period of the sewage is extended by 24 hours or more. This
method eliminates the need for primary sedimentation and sludge digestion. The aeration tank is fed with return sludge at
high rate and thus ensures complete oxidation of the sludge.
Influent Aeration Secondary

Tank Clarifier
Returned Sludge
Waste Sludge
The extended aeration method is easy to install and operate, and it is generally odour-free.
Q16. Discuss the different types of aeration units in Activated Sludge Process (ASP).
The aeration units have a significant role in the activated sludge process.
(i) They help to supply oxygen to the microorganisms in the sewage.
(ii) It helps in proper mixing of the sewage with the return sludge.
(iii) It aids in the flocculation of the colloidal particles in the sewage.

The air diffusers of the aeration units produce different types of bubbles.
(a) Coarse bubbles (2.5 cm in diameter)
(b) Fine bubbles (0.25 cm in diameter)
The different types of aeration units used in the conventional activated sludge process are mentioned below,
1. Diffused Air Aeration
The compressed air is first passed through air filters (to remove the dust particles that may be present in it) and then sent
to the diffusers submerged in the sewage and placed at the base of the tanks containing the sewage. The device injects air
under pressure into the sewage near the bottom of the tank so that small air bubbles are formed in the liquid medium to
form a mixed liquor. The base of the tanks are provided with ridge and furrows.
A second type of arrangement of diffuser is such that it is placed along the side of the tank. When the compressed air is
applied, the sewage flows in a spiral direction.
Type of Air Diffusers
The air diffusers used to send the compressed air into the sewage are generally of the following types
(a) Jet Diffusers
In this type, the air flows in the form of jet stream against a metal bowl placed at the opposite side of the nozzle. The air
disperse as bubbles, aerate the sewage and mix it.
(b) Porous Diffusers
The porous diffusers are made up of ceramics, plastic or flexible perforated material such as rubber or cloth sheath cast in
the form of plate, tube or dome.
In all the methods mentioned above, nearly 95% of compressed air sent to the sewage tank is used for mixing of sewage,
and the remaining 5% is used for aeration.
2. Mechanical Aeration Units
The mechanical aeration units allow thorough mixing of the sewage as well as proper aeration. The different types of
mechanical aeration units are,
(a) Sheffield or Haworth Aeration System
It consists of narrow inter connected channels through which the sewage flows at the rate of 50 cm/sec. The mechanical
rotating of horizontally placed paddles carry out the agitation of sewage.
Paddles
Inlet
Outlet
Shaft
Driving unit
Figure (1): Diagrammatic Representation of Sheffield or Haworth Aeration Unit

(b) Hartly System (or) Birmingham Bioflocculation System
In this type, the sewage flows through the interconnected narrow channels of the aeration tank, and the sewage gets mixed
with the help of vertical propeller/paddles.

Influent
Baffles
Propeller
or
Paddles
Driving unit
Effluent
Figure (2): Diagrammatic Representation of Hartly System or Birmingham Bioflocculation System
(c) Simplex System (also known as bioaeration system).
The different parts of the simplex system are,
(i) 4 to 6 square shaped deep tanks with hopper bottom.
(ii) Each tank is provided with vertical uptake (or draft) tube placed at the center of the tank. This tube is conical shaped
at the bottom. It has an electric motor with impeller like blades at the opposite end.
The sewage is sucked through the tube from the bottom of the tank, it is carried upwards, and sprayed on the surface of
the sewage. As the process goes on, a continuous circulation of the sewage occurs and oxygen is also absorbed. All the
sewage in the tank is thoroughly mixed up within a span of 20 minutes.
Electric motor
Outlet
Inlet
Vertical uptake
or draft tube
Figure (3): Diagrammatic Representation of Simplex Aeration System (Bioaeration System)
(d) Kessener Brush System
It consists of a partially submerged agitating device placed at one end of the sewage tank. The agitating device can be
either a wheel with vanes or a circular brush. The rotation of the agitating device cause the mixing of sewage with the
return sludge along with the necessary aeration.

Circular brush
Baffle wall
Figure (4): Diagrammatic Representation of Kessener Brush System

(e) Link Belt System
It consists of a rotating steel paddle wheel located near the top of the tank. A vertical baffle wall at one end of the tank has
a trough at the upper end, and an opening at the lower end. As the steel paddle wheel begins to rotate, the mixed liquor is
pushed down, which passes through the opening of the baffle wall, into the lift channel behind the baffle wall and move
into the trough. Thus, circulation of sewage ensures proper mixing and necessary aeration.
Motor
Sewage level
Lift channel
Baffle wall
Figure (5): Diagrammatic Representation of Link Belt System

Q17. Discuss the operational problems in Activated Sludge Process.
The operational problems in an activated sludge process are as follows,

1. Rising Sludge
Generally, the sludge settles to the bottom of the settling tank. At times, the sludge may begin to float on the surface of
the effluent due to the formation of nitrogen gas in the denitrification process. The gas is held in the sludge mass as small
gas bubbles, which causes the sludge to rise and float on the surface.
Remedial Measures for Rising Sludge
The remedial measures for the rising sludge problems are,
(i) Decreasing the influent waste water flow into the aeration pond.
(ii) Increase in the quantity of return sludge from the secondary clarifier to the aeration tank.
(iii) Increase in the rate of treatment and disposal of sludge from the secondary clarifier.
2. Bulking Sludge
Sometimes, the sludge formed in the settling tank do not settle properly due to its poor compressibility. Hence, the sludge
remains suspended in the settling tank and the effluent formed is of poor quality. The reasons for such a condition are:
(i) Increased proliferation of filamentous organisms.
(ii) Excessive growth of biological communities that possess large volume of water in their cell structure, making them
to remain afloat.

The factors that contribute to sludge bulking are:
(i) Insufficient aeration
(ii) Acidic pH of sewage
(iii) Increase in the detention period of the sludge in the settling tank.
(iv) Decreased agitation and aeration in the aeration tank.
(v) Presence of septic solids in the sewage water.
(vi) Discharge of industrial sewage that favours the growth of filamentous organisms.
Remedial Measures for the Bulking Sludge
The remedial measures for the problems arising from bulking sludge are,
(i) The rate of sewage flow into the aeration tank must be reduced.
(ii) The quantity of suspended solids in the sewage must be lowered.
(iii) The aeration process must be carried out for a long duration.
(iv) The returned activated sludge must be aerated properly.
(v) The growth of filamentous organisms must be arrested by the chlorination process or by the addition of hydrogen
peroxide, because the filamentous organisms contribute to the formation of bulking sludge.
(vi) Addition of lime to sewage increases the pH to alkaline side.
Q18. Derive the relationship between the bio-kinetic coefficients.
We know that,
dX
Mass of new cells generated, Rg = dt ... (1)
dX
dt = µX ... (2)
But,
S
µ = µmax ... (3)
Ks + S
Substituting (2) and (3) in (1), we get

Rg = µX
S
⇒ Rg = f µ max K + S p X
s
µ max S X
Rg = f K + S p ... (4)
s
We know that,
Rd = –Kd X ... (5)
Also,
Net Rd,(Rd)net = Rg – Rd ... (6)
Substituting (4) and (5) in (6), we get
µ max S X
(Rd)net =f K + S p − (Kd X) ... (7)
s
Note : Negative sign should not be considred for Rd

We known that,
Maximum specific growth rate, µmax = k y ... (8)
Substituting equation (8) in equation (7), we get,
(Rd)net = > K + S H − Kd X
(k y) S X
... (9)
s
Rate of utilization of substrate (Rsu) is given by,

1 dx
Rsu = – y # dt
1
= – y # µ X [ a From (2)]
S
– y f µ max K + S p X [ a From (3)]
1
=
s
µ max S X
=– ... (10)
y (ks + S)
From (8), we have
µmax =k y
µ max
⇒ y = k ... (11)
Substituting (11) in (10), we get

KSX
Rsu = –
Ks + S
Note : Negative sign implies that there is a decrease in concentration of substrate
Q19. What are the basic design equations involved in design of complete mix reactor.
Design Equations for Complete Mix Reactor Design
(i) For Reactor/System Without Sludge Recycle
Concentration of substrate of the effluent (S) for a complete mix reactor is calculated using the equation,
Ks (1 + θkd )
S =
θ (yk − kd ) − 1
Where,
θ – Hydraulic retention time in day–1
Ks – Half velocity constant in mg/l
Kd – Endogenous decay coefficient in day–1
y – Yield coefficient
k – Maximum velocity constant in day–1
Hydraulic retention time(θ) is given by,
1 Q µ max S
θ = V = ks + S – kd
Where,
Q – Rate of flow in m2/sec or m3/day
Mean cell residence time (θc) is given by,
V X
θc = Q X
V
=
Q
= θ =a θ = V G
Q

Where,
Q – Rate of flow in m3/sec (or) m3/day
X – Concentration of biomass present in the reactor in mg/l
(ii) For Reactor/System with Sludge Recycle
Ks (1 + θc kd )
Concentration of substrate in effluent, S =
θc (yk − kd ) − 1
Where,
θc – Mean cell residence time
ks – Half velocity constant
kd – Endogenous decay coefficient
k – Maximum velocity constant
If the extra/remaining biomass is removed from the reactor, mean cell residence time is give by,
V X
θc =
Qw X + Qe Xe
Where,
X – Concentration of biomass in the reactor in mg/l
Qw – Wasted rate of flow in m3/sec
Qe – Rate of flow of effluent in m3/sec
Xe – Concentration of biomass of the effluent in mg/l
If the surplus biomass is remove from the recycled line, mean cell residence time is give by,
V X
θc =
Qw Xr + Qe Xe
Where,
Xr – Recycled biomass concentration in mg/l
The concentration of biomass of the effluent (X) for a complete mix reactor without recycle is given by,
µ max (So − S)
X =
K (1 + kd θ)
But, µmax = y k
yk (So − S)
∴ X =
k (1 + kd θ)
y (So − S)
⇒ X =
k (1 + kd θ)
Where,
So – Concentration of substrate of the influent in mg/l
S – Concentration of substrate of the effluent in mg/l
k – Maximum velocity constant in day–1
kd – Endugcnous decay coefficient in day–1
θ – Hydraulic retention time in day–1

The concentration of biomass of effluent (X) for a complete mix reactor with recycle is determined using the relation,
θc y (So − S)
X =
θ (1 + kd θc)
Where,
The observed yield of the biomass (yobs) for a complete mix reactor without recycle is given by,
y
yobs =
1 + kd θ
The observed yield of the biomass(yobs) for a complete mix reactor with recycle is given by,
y
yobs =
1 + kd θc
Q20. What are the process criteria adopted in the activated sludge process for the design of activates
sludge plant?
Process Criteria adopted in the Design of Activated Sludge Plant

1. For Oxidation Ditch Process
(i) Hydraulic retention time (HRT), θ = 8 hours - 36 hours
Q
(ii) Return sludge ratio, Qr = 0.75 - 1.5
(iii) Concentration of Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids (MLSS), X = 1500 mg/l – 5000 mg/l
(iv) Solid/Sludge retention time(SRT), θc = 10 days - 30 days
(v) Rate of volumetric loading = 80 kg BOD5/1000 m3 day - 480 kg BOD5/ 1000 m3 day
(vi) Food to micro-organisms (F/M) ratio = 0.05/day - 0.30/day.
2. For Complete Mix Process
Q
(ii) Return sludge ratio, Qr = 0.25-1
(iii) Concentration of Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids (MLSS), X = 1000 mg/l - 65000 mg/l
(iv) Solid/Sludge retention time(SRT), θc = 1 day - 15 days
(v) Rate of volumetric loading = 800 - 2000 kg BOD5/1000 m3 day
(vi) Food to micro-organisms (F/M) ratio = 0.20/day - 1/day
3. For Conventional Plug Flow Process
(i) Hydraulic retention time (HRT), = 4 hours - 8 hours
Q
(iii) Concentration of Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids (MLSS) = 1000 mg/l - 3000 mg/l
(vi) Food to micro-organisms (F/M) ratio = 0.2/day - 0.5/day

4. For Extended Aeration Process

Q
(iii) Concentration of Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids (MLSS), X = 1500 mg/l 5000 mg/l
(vi) Food to micro-organisms (F/M) ratio = 0.05/day - 0.15/day
Q21. What are the design criteria adopted in the activated sludge process for the design of Activated Sludge
Plant?
Answer:
Design Criteria Adopted for the Design of Activated Sludge Plant
1. In case of surface aeration, the side water depth of wastewater lies in the range of 100 cm - 600 cm. For diffuse aeration,
it lies in the range of 450 cm - 750 cm. The usual range of side water depth of wastewater present in the aeration tank is
300 cm - 450 cm.
2. For large activated sludge plants, generally 4 or greater than 4 number of aeration tanks are used. In case of small activated
sludge plants, the number of aeration tanks to be used should not be less than 2.
3. A freeboard that lies in between 100 cm - 150 cm is adopted in case of mechanical or surface aeration. For diffuse
aeration, the range of freeboard lies in between 30 cm - 60 cm.
4. In case of diffuse aeration, if the food to micro-organisms ratio (F/M) is greater than or equal to 0.3, the requirement of
air lies in the range of 20 - 55 m3 of air/kg of BOD removed.
If the ratio of food to micro-organisms (F/M) is less than or equal to 0.3, air requirement lies in the range of 70 - 115 m3
of air/kg by BOD removed.
In case of good mixing, the requirement of air for a spiral system of diffuse aeration, lies in the range of 20-30 m3/
min/1000 m3 tant volume. Whereas, for grid system of diffuse aeration, air requirement is in between 10 and 15 m3/
min/1000 m3 tank volume.
5. In case of surface aeration, the power consumed for the complete mixing process lies in between 10 - 14 KW/1000 m3 of
volume of tank.
6. The dimensions of rectangular aeration tank are,
B: D(Breadth to depth ratio of tank) = (3 : 1) – (4 : 1)
7 The breadth (width) to depth ratio (B:D) of rectangular aeration tank varies as per the type of aeration system adopted in
the design. However, the range of breadth to depth ratio usually lies in between (3 : 1) to (4 : 1).
Length to breadth (width) ratio of rectangular aeration tank is usually taken as 5 : 1 (For every channel in case of large
activated sludge plants).
Q22. Write a short note on oxygen requirement in Activated Sludge Process.
Answer:
Oxygen Requirements
In activated sludge process, oxygen is required for the purpose of,
(i) Endogenous respiration of micro-organisms
(ii) Oxidation of the influent organic matter

Total oxygen requirement can be calculated using the formula,
TOR = Q(BODinfluent – BODeffluent)
Where,
TOR – Total oxygen requirement
Q – Rate of flow
BODinfluent – Biochemical oxygen requirement of influent
BODeffluent – Biochemical oxygen requirement of effluent
Empirical formula of biomass = C5 H7 NO2
The equation representing oxidation of biomass is,
C5 H7 NO2 + 5O2 5 CO2 + 2H2O + NH3
Molecular weight of C2H7NO2
C5 H7 NO2 = (5 × 12) + (7 × 1) + (14) + (2 × 16)
= 60 + 7 + 14 + 32
=
113
Molecular weight of 5O2 = (5 × 16 × 2) = 160
113 (Biomass) ⇒ 160 (oxygen)
1 → ? (x)
160
⇒ x = 113
= 1.42 units
\ For one unit of biomass oxidized, 1.42 units of oxygen is required
\ In order to remove carbonaceous organic content of the waste water, requirement of oxygen is calculated using the
following equation,
Q (S0 − S)
Oxygen required = f – 1.42 Px(VSS)
Where,
Q – Flow of waste water in m3/day
qc – Mean cell residence time
S0 – BOD of the influent in mg/l
S – BOD of the effluent in mg/l
X – Concentration of micro-organisms in mg/l
f – Factor to convert BODx to BODL
Px(VSS) – Net biomass available/Active sludge generated every day in kg/day
Also, Px(VSS) = yobs Q(S0 – S)

Where,
yobs – Observed yield of biomass
y
=+
1 kd θc
kd – Endogenous decay coefficient
y – Yield co-efficient
Amount of oxygen required for nitrogenous BOD is given by,
(O2)required = 4.57 Q (No – N)
Where,
Q – Flow of waste water in m3/day
No – Influent TKN (Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen) in mg/l
N – Effective TKN (Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen) in mg/l
4.57 – Conversion factor to determine amount of oxygen required to completely oxidise TKN.
Q23. Write a short note on nutrient requirements of activated sludge process.
Answer: Model Paper-III, Q9(a)
Empirical formula of the microbial system (i.e.) activated sludge process = C60 H87 O23 N12 P
Nutrient Requirements
In order to ensure the growth of cells, few nutrients must be provided apart from the supply of carbon, oxygen and
hydrogen. Therefore, nitrogen and phosphorus are the nutrients that must be provided in order to promote the growth of cells.
Requirements of nitrogen and phosphorus are calculated as follows,
Molecular weight of activated sludge = [(60 × 12) + (87 × 1) + (23 × 16) + (12 × 14) + 31]
= 720 + 87 + 368 +168 + 31
= 1374 grams
Molecular weight of only Nitrogen molecules in activated sludge = (12 × 14)
=
168 grams
168
∴ Fraction of nitrogen in activated sludge = 1374
=
0.122
⇒ 1 gram of biomass (activated sludge) contains 0.122 grams of nitrogen
∴ Total Nitrogen requirements for the entire system = 0.122 × Total biomass that is about to produce in the system
Molecular weight of only phosphorus in activated sludge (biomass) = 31 grams
∴ 1374 grams of biomass contains 31 grams of phosphorus
⇒ 1 gram of biomass contains. ________
1374 → 31
1 → ? (x)
31
∴ x = 1374
= 0.023

∴ 1 gram of biomass contains 0.023 grams of phosphorus
∴ Total phosphorus requirements for the entire system = 0.023 × Total biomass that is about to produce in the system.
Therefore, in the process of treatment of industrial waste water, if the system does not contain nutrients, nitrogen and
phosphorus need to be supplied in the ratio of 0.122 : 0.023. However, this ratio does not remain constant as it is a function of
SRT (i.e, Sludge Retention Time). Nutrient requirement will be zero for a system which does not involve the generation of micro-
organisms. This is because, the nutrients supplied to the system will be utilized by the micro-organisms for the purpose of cell
synthesis. These cells will again get oxidized, thereby releasing the nutrients required for synthesis/growth of new cells. Hence,
if there are no micro-organisms, then net requirement of nutrients will be zero.
Also, with the increase in the biological Sludge Retention Time (BSRT) the ratio of BOD : N : P also increases. BOD is
biochemical oxygen demand.
If BSRT is very less, BOD : N:P = 50 : 5.4 : 1
If BSRT increases, the ratio of BOD : N : P will be increasing in the following order, 100 : 5.4 : 1, 150 : 5.4 : 1, 200 :5.4 : 1
∴ Requirement of nutrients varies based upon the selection of nature of process and process modification.
Q24. What are oxidation ponds? Discuss.
The oxidation ponds, also referred to as wastewater stabilization ponds (WSP), consist of several artificial ponds operating
in series or parallelly. Each pond is rectangular in shape with side slopes, and dug underground with depths ranging from 0.9
m to 1.5 m. These ponds involve a simple process of treating wastewater in rural areas by the combined activities of algae and
bacteria called as symbiosis.
When the ponds are constructed in series, the BOD of the sewage is considerably reduced. The parallelly placed ponds
reduce the odour problems arising out of sewage. The bacteria inhabiting the ponds break down the organic matter and inorganic
end products to form nitrogen, phosphorus and carbondioxide. These end products are used up by the algae, which in turn,
produce oxygen in the presence of sunlight by the process of photosynthesis. It is this oxygen which is utilized by bacteria for
aerobic oxidation of wastewater. Since, both aerobic and anaerobic biochemical reactions take place in the oxidation pond, it is
also referred as facultative ponds. The dead microorganisms and organic solids settle at the bottom, where the anaerobic reactions
reduce their volume.
Parts of the Oxidation Pond
The different parts of the oxidation pond are,
1. Inlet Division Box
The influent flows through the inlet division box, into the influent pipe and discharged into the centre of the cell.
The inlet division box is provided with valves to regulate the flow of sewage into the tanks.
2. Cross-connecting/Interconnecting Pipes
The sewage flows through the cross connecting pipes in between the cells.
3. Outlet Pipe
The treated effluent is discharged via the outlet pipe.
Effluent
Outlet pipe
Primary chamber/cell Primary/secondary

chamber/cell
Interconnecting or
cross-connecting pipe
Inlet pipe
Influent pipe
Influent
Figure: Diagrammatic Representation of Oxidation Pond

4. Chamber/Cell
A typical oxidation pond contain two cells that can be operated in either parallel or series. The sewage is released into
these chambers and retained for 25 to 30 days in it. The second cell in the oxidation pond acts as secondary chamber for
additional storage and discharge of effluents.
Oxidation ponds are suitable for small cities with thin population, where vast land areas are cheaply available for its
construction. The cold weather conditions generally reduce the rate of bacterial decomposition and algal growth, therefore, such
ponds are suitable for warmer climate regions.
The sewage treatment in oxidation ponds involves economical and simple technology, less effort is needed in opperational
procedures, low maintenance and cost effective, and it is highly efficient in BOD removal
4.2 PROCESS DESIGN CRITERIA, OXYGEN AND NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS -

CLASSIFICATION AND DESIGN OF OXIDATION PONDS, LAGOONS
Q25. Give the detailed classification of oxidation ponds. State the advantages and disadvantages of the
same.
The oxidation ponds (also referred as Wastewater Stabilization Ponds (WSP) and Stabilization Lagoon) involve a simple
process of treating wastewater in rural areas by the combined activities of algae and bacteria.
The bacteria breakdown the organic matter. The inorganic end products are used up by algae and in turn produce oxygen by
the process of photosynthesis. It is this oxygen which is utilized for aerobic oxidation of waste water. The dead micro organisms
and organic solids settle at the bottom, where anaerobic reactions reduce their volume. The greatest advantage is that the organic
matter gets stabilized and the number of pathogenic micro organisms decreases. This method of sewage treatment is beneficial
especially when the effluents are discharged to a stream or lake which is used as driking water without treatment. Thus bacteria
and algae have an important role in transforming dissolved nutrients into particle aggregates and thus contributing to the treatment
of waste water.
Classification of Oxidation Ponds
The oxidation ponds are classified as follows,
1. Aerobic Ponds
The aerobic ponds are shallow ponds of nearly I meter depth. The microbial population in such ponds require both oxygen
and a substrate to survive. These microbes consume the biodegradable soluble organic contaminants such as sugars, fats,
organic shorts chain carbon molecules, and bind the less soluble fraction into floc.
2. Anaerobic Ponds
Anaerobic ponds consistent of a large covered pond/tank, free from dissolved oxygen to promote anaerobic conditions and
to prevent loss of methane, carbondioxide, ammonia and hydrogen sulphide to the atmosphere. The anaerobic bacteria in
the pond convert organic materials into stable products such as carbondioxide and methane under anaerobic conditions.
3. Aerated Lagoons
Aerated lagoons are the surface aerated basins dug out in earth to carry out biological oxidation processes for treating
industrial wastewaters. The sludge that accumulates at the bottom of the aeration basins need to removed periodically to
avoid build up of a permanent deposit.t
4. Facultative Ponds
Facultative ponds have both aerobic and anaerobic zones. The depth of such ponds range from 1 m to 2.5 m. The natural
aerated surface layer forms the uppermost zone due to the combined action of diffusion of atmospheric oxygen along with
release of oxygen along with release of oxygen during algal photosynthesis. The anaerobic zone forms the lowermost area
and a facultative zone lies in the middle.
5. Maturation/Tertiary/Polishing Ponds
This type of pond is used to eliminate the pathogens and parasites present in wastewater, reduce the BOD, suspended solids
and nutrients (such as nitrogen and phosphorus) from wastewater effluents. The depth of maturation ponds range from 1
m to 2 m.

Advantages of Oxidation Ponds
1. Initial cost is less as compared to mechanical sewage treatment plants.
2. Operation and maintenance cost is low.
3. Efficiency is high since it removes 90% of BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand) and 99% of coliforms.
4. Oxidation ponds lend pollution control by regulating the discharge as per the requirements.
5. This method is used where dry climatic conditions exist and cost of land is cheap.
6. Oxidation ponds are not effected by the leakage of waste water which brings storm water along with waste water.
7. Oxidation ponds contain large population of algae which release the oxygen in presence of sunlight through photosynthesis
process.
Disadvantages of Oxidation Ponds
1. Oxidation ponds must be constructed in rural are because they cause odour problems and increases the mosquito population.
2. Oxidation ponds get infected during cloudy climatic conditions. Therefore certain chemicals like sodium nitrate is added
to remove the septic areas.
3. Need large land area to construct these ponds.
4. Decomposition of certain industrial wastes is low.
5. It does not meet the effluent quantity standard requirements for suspended solids (i.e., std. quantity = 30 mg/l).
Q26. What are aerated lagoons?
An aerated lagoons (also known as aerated stabilization basin) is a surface aerated basin, dug out deep in the earth, to carry
out biological oxidation processes for treating the sewage. It is generally limed with clay, asphalt, compacted earth, or some other
impervious material to prevent leaching. An artificial ridge/embankment is built around the lagoon to prevent run off of sewage.
The aeration of sewage is carried out by motor-driven floating aerators. These aerators provide oxygen for aerobic degradation
of organic matter and prevent the settling of the suspended biomass.
Aerated lagoons are generally categorized into two types,
(a) Facultative Aerated Lagoon
The facultative aerated lagoon is also known as aerobic - anaerobic lagoon/ partially suspended lagoon. In this type, the
solids in the sewage settle down to the bottom of the tank, which undergo anaerobic decomposition, while some of them
remain suspended in the medium and flow with the effluent. This is because the aeration provided to such lagoons is just
sufficient for oxygenation and not for keeping the solids in suspension.
(b) Aerobic Aerated Lagoon
The aerobic aerated lagoon is also known as suspended growth aerated lagoon/ completely mixed aerated lagoon. In this
type of lagoon, the biomass and solids remain in suspension due to the thorough aeration of the medium with mechanical
aerators (either fixed/ floating type).
The effluents from the aerated lagoons are directed to a settling tank to separate the solids in the wastewater.
Inlet pipe
Mechanical aerators
Outlet pipe
Figure: Diagrammatic Representation of an Aerated Lagoon

Q27. Design an Oxidation pond to treat sewage for a population of 10000. Capita Water Supply may be
assumed as 135 lpcd. Sewage discharge may assume - as 75% of water supply with a BOD5 of 240 mg/L.
The BOD5 loading rate = 225 kg/day/Hectare. Draw the sketch of oxidation pond for the design.
Answer : (Model Paper-II, Q9(a) | Model Paper-III, Q9(b))
Given that,
Population = 10,000
Water supply per capita = 135 lpcd
Sewage discharge = 75% of water supply
BOD5 of sewage = 240 mg/L
BOD5 loading rate = 225 kg/day/Hectare
Now,
Daily flow = 10,000 × 135
= 1.35 × 106 litres.
Sewage discharge = 75% of water supply
75
= [1.35 × 106]
100
= 1.01 × 106
240×1.01×10 6
\ BOD of sewage =
1000×1000
= 242.4 kg/day.
Hydraulic loading/ BOD5 loading rate = 225 kg/day/hectare.
242.4
Pond area =
225
= 1.0773 hectares
= 10773.33 m2 [\ 1 hectare = 104 m2]
Assume operational depth = 1.2 m
Pond capacity = pond area × operational depth
= 10773.33 × 1.2
= 12928 m3
= 12.928 × 106 litres [1m3 = 103 litres]
Capacity of pond
\ Detention period =
flow of water
12.928×10 6
=
1.35×10 6
= 9.57 ≈ 10
= 10 days
Pond area required per 1000 persons.
1.07×1000
=
10000
= 0.107 ha. (which is permissible)

Assume sludge deposit depth = 0.5 m,
2
Available sludge capacity = 0.5 × × 10773.33
3
= 3591.11 m3
Assuming sludge accumulation at 0.07 m3/capital year
3591.11
Frequency of desludging =
0.07×10000
= 5.13 ≈ 5.2
\ Frequency of desludging = 5.2 years
\ Design parameters of oxidation pond,
Detention period= 10 days.
Pond capacity = 12928 m3
Sludge capacity = 3591.11 m3
Frequency of desludging = 5.2 years
Gases (CO2, NH4...etc.)
Effluents In Effluents Out
Operational (12928 m3)

1.2 m
depth
Bottom sludge (0.5 m)

UNIT-5 Sludge Treatment and Disposal 5.1
UNIT
Marketed by :
SLUDGE TREATMENT AND
5
DISPOSAL SIA GROUP
PART-A
Q1. Discuss the need for sludge treatment.
Answer : Model Paper-I, Q1(i)
Need for Sludge Treatment
1. To get rid of the offensive smell arising from sludge
2. To minimise the toxicity
3. To minimise pathogens, organic matter present in it
4. To make it eco-friendly so that it will not affect and disturb the environmental conditions
5. To reduce the volume and weight of sludge so that the cost involved in the disposal of it will be minimised to some extent.
Q2. Analyze the role of sludge management in Sewage Treatment.
Answer :
Sludge is the accumulated residue in waste water treatment plants. It is also called as biosolids. The semi-solid, solid or
slurry residual material which is formed as a waste water treatment by-product is termed as sewage sludge. It is sub-divided into
primary sludge and secondary sludge. The sludge produced from sedimentation, chemical precipitation, through different primary
processes is termed as primary sludge. The activated biomass waste produced from biological treatment is called as secondary
sludge. Sludge treatment and disposal plays on important and major role in the process of treatment of waste water. Before the
final disposal of sludge, it is essential to treat the sludge in order to minimise the volume of it and also for stabilisation of organic
materials. Stabilized sludge will be free from offensive smell and will not create any disturbances, does not affect the health of
individuals. Reduction in the volume of sludge minimises the storage and pumping costs.
Q3. Enumerate the various methods of sludge treatments.
Answer : Model Paper-II, Q1(i)
The methods of sludge treatment are,
(i) Concentration/Thickening of raw sludge
(ii) Digestion/stabilization
(iii) Sludge conditioning
(iv) Dewatering
(v) Heat drying of sludge
(vi) Incineration.

Q4. Enumerate the various sludge disposal Q8. State the objectives of sludge digestion.
methods. Answer :
Answer : Objectives of Sludge Digestion
The various sludge disposal methods are, The solid in the form of slurry contain unwanted
substances in waste water is called as sludge. Main objectives
(i) By drying on beds for digestion of sludge are as follows:
(ii) By disposal on land 1. To destroy the pathogenic bacteria present in the waste
water.
(iii) Dumping into the sea
2. To obtain the fertilizers and other valuable products,
(iv) Lagooning otherwise which would be wasted.
(v) Incineration. 3. To recover the combustile gases which are used as fuel
or power.
Q5. Discuss the role of sludge thickening in sludge
handling. 4. The digested sludge is of better quality and it can be
easily handled.
Answer : Model Paper-III, Q1(i)
5. To reduce the volume of sludge which becomes easier
Need for Sludge Thickening to dispose.
The process of sludge thickening is necessary to, Q9. What are the types of anaerobic sludge
digesters?
(i) Lower the sludge volume to economize on the
Answer :
transportation expenses and the handling cost of the
sludge. The types of anaerobic sludge digesters are,
(ii) To make the sludge completely odourless and non- (i) Standard rate/low rate/conventional sludge digesters
putrescible. (ii) High rate sludge digesters.
(iii) Removal of excess sludge moisture saves fuel if Q10. How is the chemical waste disposed and name
incineration is practiced. the biochemical reactions occuring in anaerobic
sludge digestion.
(iv) To minimize the land area required for final disposal.
Answer :
(v) To reduce the seepage of leachate at the landfill site. The chemical liquids or solution must be disposed
Q6. What is meant by sludge digestion? through proper waste disposal procedures. Such compounds may
be poured into the drains. These drains must be connected to
Answer : the wastewater treatment plants. The chemical compounds that
can be drained include acetic acid, acetone, glycerol, methanol,
Sludge is the solid part (in the form of slurry) removed propanol, formic acids, sugars, sodium and potassium salts of
or separated from the waste water. Sludge digestion is defined carboxylic acids. The compounds that are not suitable for drain
as the process of biochemical decomposition (aerobic or disposal must be carefully packed and transported to designated
anaerobic) of organic matter in sludge such that it is prevented landfill sites.
from dewatering process over mechanical filters or sand beds The different biochemical reactions occurring in a
before it is disposed to land or sea. anaerobic sludge digestion are hydrolysis, acid fermentation
and methane fermentation.
Q7. Enumerate the factors that influence the sludge
digestion. Q11. Write a short note on sludge volume index.
Answer : Model Paper-II, Q1(j)
Answer :
SVI (Sludge Volume Index)
The factors that influence the sludge digestion are, The measure of nature of physical state of sludge is called
sludge volume index.
(a) Temperature
v To determine SVI, the sludge setting rate and mixed
(b) Sludge seeding liquor suspended solids (MLSS) are to be known.
(c) Efficient mixing v The sludge with 90% of moisture content, equals
to half of its quantity with sludge of 95% moisture.
(d) pH value
v SVI effects sludge setting i.e., lower the value of
(e) Presence of fluorides, chlorides, radioactive materials, etc. SVI, better is the setting efficiency.

Q12. Enumerate the processes involved in dewatering of sludge.
Answer :
The processes involved in dewatering of sludge are,
(i) Natural evaporation
(ii) Percolation method (drying beds and sludge lagoons)
(iii) Belt filter press
(iv) Vacuum filtration
(v) Centrifugation
(vi) Recessed plate filter presses.
Q13. What is sludge gas and state its composition.
Answer : Model Paper-I, Q1(j)
The gas which is released from the decomposition of wastes is known as sludge gas. These include methane, carbondioxide,
traces of inert gases, nitrogen and hydrogen sulphate. Methane gas can be used as an energy fuel.
Sludge gas comprises of two type of gases,
(i) Combustible Gases-Methane, hydrogen sulphide.
(ii) Inert Gases-Carbondioxide, nitrogen.
Q14. What are the uses of sludge gas?
Answer : Model Paper-III, Q1(j)
Uses of Sludge Gas

1. It is used for the development of power in gas engines, further it is used to run the air compressors and pumps.
2. It is used to dry the sludge on wastes.
3. It can be used as a fuel for motor vehicles.
4. Removal of Co2 from sludge gas is done to prepare methane gas.
5. It is used in refrigerators and laboratories burners.
6. It is used to warm the sludge absorption tanks.
7. It is used to provide heat to the buildings.
8. It is used to burn the substance by removing it from the surface of a liquid.
9. It is used to ignite the treatment units.
Q15. What is meant by the term sludge conditioning?
Answer :
The term sludge conditioning refers to the addition of chemicals to the sludge to enhance the dewatering and thickening
characteristics of the sludge. The common methods of sludge conditioning are chemical conditioning, thermal conditioning/heat
treatment and elutriation.

PART-B
5.1 SLUDGE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL : SLUDGE THICKENING, AEROBIC AND
ANAEROBIC SLUDGE DIGESTION PROCESSES
Q16. What are the different steps in biological sludge management.
The different steps in biological sludge management include :

(i) Screening and grit removal process.
(ii) Plain sedimentation of raw sludge.
(iii) Chemical precipitation.
(iv) Secondary treatment using trickling filters, activated sludge process.
(v) Sludge thickening by gravity thickening method and air floatation thickening method.
(vi) Centrifugation by solid bowl centrifuge, disc nozzle centrifuge, basket centrifuge.
(vii) Sludge digestion/ stabilization by aerobic and anaerobic processes.
(viii) Sludge conditioning by chemical treatment and thermal treatment.
(ix) Elutriation
(x) Dewatering
(xi) Composting by trenching, windrow composting and mechanical composting.
(xii) Heat drying of sludge.
(xiii) Incineration of sludge.
(xiv) Disposal of sludge in landfills, or used as raw material in the manufacture of cement and bricks, and as agriculture fertilizer.
Q17. Explain various stages of sludge treatment process.
Sludge Treatment Processes

The sludge generated by water and waste water treatment processes is managed by various methods of sludge treatment.
These include concentration/thickening of raw sludge, digestion/stabilization, sludge conditioning, dewatering, heat drying of
sludge and incineration.
1. Concentration/Thickening of Raw Sludge
Concentration or thickening of raw sludge refers to the removal of liquid fraction in the sludge by various means to increase
the solid content of the sludge and reduce the sludge volume. The methods involved in sludge concentration are gravity
settling, flotation, centrifugation gravity belt and rotary drum.
2. Digestion/Stabilization
The main aim of digestion or stabilization of sludge are,
(i) To reduce the disease causing micro organisms
(ii) To get rid of the offensive odours
(iii) To increase the density of the sludge
(iv) Stabilization of organic solids
(v) To make the sludge more acceptable for final disposal.

The common methods of stabilization of raw sludge are,
(a) Aerobic Oxidation
The organic sludge is aerated in an open tank.
(b) Anaerobic Digestion
The anaerobic digestion of raw sludge involves the use of anaerobic micro organisms in airtight tanks (anoxygenic
conditions) to digest the organic matter. This process results in the formation of methane and other inorganic products
like carbondioxide, water, volatile acids and hydrogen sulphate.
The other methods of sludge stabilization include chemical stabilization and fixation, lime stabilization and thermal
conditioning. The methane formed during the anaerobic digestion of sludge can be used to supplement natural gas
provisions.
3. Sludge Conditioning
Sludge conditioning involves the addition of chemicals to sludge to enhance the dewatering and thickening characteristics
of the sludge. The common methods of sludge conditioning are,
(a) Chemical Conditioning
It involves the use of chemicals such Sulphuric Acid, Alum, Chlorinated Copperas, Ferrous Sulphate, Ferric Chloride
either alone or in combination with lime, or organic polymers. Addition of chemicals to the sludge cause coagulation
of small particles into larger ones.
(b) Thermal Conditioning/Heat Treatment
In this process, the sludge is heated at high temperature of 140° C to 240° C and at high pressure for about 30 minutes.
The resultant effects of this process are,
(i) Increased dewater ability of the sludge.
(ii) Formation of a sterilized sludge.
(iii) Production of a deodorized sludge.
(c) Elutriation
In this step, the soluble organic and inorganic compounds in the sludge are eliminated by washing the sludge with
either water or the final effluent followed by settling in a gravity thickener.
4. Dewatering
In this step the moisture content of the sludge is reduced by any of the following processes,
(i) Natural evaporation
(ii) Percolation method (drying beds and sludge lagoons)
(iii) Belt filter press
(iv) Vacuum filtration
(v) Centrifugation
(vi) Recessed plate filter presses.
5. Heat Drying of Sludge
Heat drying of sludge is an important step to reduce both pathogens and the moisture content of the sewage sludge. This
method employs the following processes,
(i) Flash dryers
(ii) Direct rotary dryers
(iii) Fluidized bed dryers.

6. Incineration
The term incineration refers to combustion or burning of the sewage sludge at high temperature in an enclosed structure.
The aim of incineration process is to,
(a) Reduce the volume of the sludge
(b) Dry the sludge to form ash/sterile residue
(c) Destroy the toxic components in the sludge
(d) Elimination of environment and health problems by destroying pathogens.
This method employs the following types of incinerators,
(i) Multiple hearth incinerator
(ii) Fluidized bed incinerator
(iii) Electric furnace
(iv) Cyclonic furnace.
Incineration results in emission of significant quantities of pollutants such as,
(i) Particulate matter
(ii) Metals
(iii) Carbonmonoxide
(iv) Nitrogenoxides
(v) Sulphurdioxide
(vi) Unburnt hydrocarbons
(vii) Toxic organic compounds.
Disposal of Sludge
The ash formed as a by-product of incineration process may be utilized in the following ways,
(a) It can be used as a raw material in the manufacture of cement and brick
(b) Landfills and land reclamations
(c) Used for agricultural purpose as a substitute for commercial fertilizers, for growing a wide range of crops including grains,
animal feeds and non-food crops.
(d) Use of ash in forestry.
Q18. Briefly explain the methods of sludge thickening.
Sludge thickening/dewatering refers to removal of water from the sludge, and is importance as,
(i) To reduce the moisture content of the sludge.
(ii) To reduce the volume of sludge.
(iii) To increase the solid contents.
Methods of Sludge Thickening
Sludge thickening is achieved by any of the following methods.

1. Gravity Thickening
The process of gravity thickening is considered as the simplest and easiest method.
The dilute sludge influent is fed to the center of a circular/rectangular concrete tank, similar to the conventional primary
sedimentation tank, through the inlet pipe. The diameter of the tank varies from 10 m to 24 m with steep slopes in the floor
and depth range from 3 to 4 m. The sludge is allowed to settle and compact, the thickened sludge is withdrawn from the
bottom of the tank to the digesters or dewatering equipment. The process of gravity thickening is carried out in either of
the two types of thickeners.
(a) Continous flow type thickener.
(b) Fill and draw type thickener.
Foot bridge Influent wall to prevent
counter flow
Outlet for Supernatant

withdrawal
Inlet pipe for sludge
Outlet for sewage
Figure(1): Schematic Representation of a Gravity Thickener

2. Air Floatation Thickening
Air floatation thickening is used for activated sludge which does not thicken properly in gravity thickeners.
Air floatation thickening is a physical process that is most widely used to remove oil, grease, solids and odours from the
sludge by bringing them to the surface of the floatation tank.
Air is dissolved in waste water under high pressure in a closed tank called as the saturation/retention tank and then sent to
the floatation tank. The air bubbles attach to the suspended/colloidal particles, reduce the density of the particle, resulting
in increased buoyancy and thus cause its flaotation on the surface.
The skimmers provided at the top of the tank remove the floating material. Some chemicals may be added to the sludge
to promote floatation of solid particle. These include aluminium and iron salts, activated silica and organic polymers.
Skimmer
Mixing Thickened
chamber sludge overflow Effluent
Sludge inlet
Outlet for set-
Dissolved Air Baffle
tled solids
floatation Tank
Pressure lowering
valve
Air compressor
Recycle pump
Air saturation tank

Figure(2): Schematic Representation of Air Floatation Thickener
The shape of the floatation tank can be circular or rectangular and made up of steel or concrete. Generally, the small sized
tanks are made up of steel, while large tanks are made of concrete.
3. Centrifugation
Centrifugation is one of the common methods that can be used to reduce the water content and thus thicken the sludge.
Centrifuges are used to settle the sludge particles under the influence of centrifugal forces.
Types of Centrifugation
The different types of centrifuges designed for sludge thickening are,
(a) Solid Bowl Centrifuge (also known as Continuous Decanter Scroll, Helical Screw Conveyor Centrifuge)
It consists of a rotating bowl unit placed horizontally and tapered at one end. The bowl is connected to a conveyor by a gear
system. Both the units rotate in the same direction but with varying speed. The sludge is continuously introduced through a
central sludge feed pipe. The helical scroll of the conveyor unit push the solids out from the water and cause the sludge to stick
to the walls of the bowl at the tapered ends. As the solids begins to accumulate, they become heavy and drop down from the
outlet port for solid cake discharge. The clarified liquid or supernatants flows out through the centrate outlet port located at the
larger end of the machine.
Rotating bowl
Central sludge
feed pipe
Gear
Centrate outlet port Solid cake discharge
Figure(3): Diagrammatic Representation of Solid Bowl Centrifuge

(b) Disc Nozzle Centrifuge
It consists of a several stacked, conical shaped discs enclosed in a rotor bowl that rotates about the vertical axis. It has a
number of ports for raw sludge feeding, effluent discharge and sludge discharge.
The raw sludge influent is injected through a central pipe into the rotating bowl. The effect of the centrifugal forces throws
the heavy solid particles to the circumference and discharged from the outlet ports. The lighter solid particles pass through
the spaces between conical shaped discs. The clarified liquid (centrate) flows out through the outlet ports. The concentrated
sludge is discharged through the sludge discharge port.
Inlet for sludge
influent
Outlet for effluent Outlet for effluent

discharge discharge
Stacked conical shaped discs
Rotor bowl
Outlet pipe for Outlet pipe for

sludge discharge sludge discharge
MOTOR
Figure(4): Diagrammatic Representation of Disc Nozzle Centrifuge

(c) Basket Centrifuge
A typical basket centrifuge consists of a vertically mounted, perforated/imperforated drum and operated on a batch basis.
The perforated drum has holes in it so that water can pass through it, During its operation, the sludge is fed into the drum.
Under the effect of centrifugal force, the water moves away from the drum which is then drained out. In imperforated
drum, the sludge is fed into the drum. Under the effect of centrifugal force, the sludge settles to the bottom and sides of
the drum, while the centrate separates out and flows from the top of the bowl. The drum is generally provided with a knife
or shovel to remove the dried cake before the next batch can proceed with the process. Usually, the high end models are
provided with a built-in wash spray nozzles to remove the cake from the drum. The main advantage of basket centrifuge
is that dried cake and clearer waste water as supernatant is obtained.

Centrifugal force
Perforated drum
Outlet for filtrate discharge
Influent feed pipe
Figure(5): Diagrammatic Representation of Basket Centrifuge

Q19. Explain the sludge digestion process.
The sludge digestion process is carried out in the following ways.

1. Aerobic Digestion
Aerobic digestion of sludge is a biological process, wherein the biodegradable organic matter undergoes decomposition
by aerobic microorganisms in the presence of free oxygen to produce carbondioxide, water and other products.
The different aerobic processes used in the treatment of sludge are,
(i) Activated Sludge System
(ii) Trickling Filter Process
(iii) Rotating Biological Contactors
(v) Sequencing Batch Reactor System
(v) Aerated Lagoons.
2. Anaerobic Digestion
Anaerobic digestion is a biological process wherein, the microorganisms degrade the complex organic matter into simpler
forms in the absence of free oxygen. Methane, carbondioxide and water are formed during this process.
Organic Anaerobic
Matter CO2 + CH3 + new cells + energy for cells, other products (H2S, H2, N2)
Bacteria
The different types of biochemical reactions catalyzed by the microorganisms are,
(a) Hydrolysis
The complex carbohydrates, proteins and lipids in the sludge are converted into simple organic matter by the hydrolytic bacteria.
(b) Acid Fermentation
The acetogenic bacteria convert the simple organic matter into acetic acid, hydrogen gas, carbondioxide and low molecular
weight organic acids.
Carbohydrates Simple Sugars Alcohols Aldehydes Organic acids
Proteins Amino acids Organic Acids NH3
Fats and Oils Organic acids

(c) Methane Fermentation
The low molecular weight organic acids are converted to methane by the methanogenic bacteria in a narrow pH range of
6.7 to 7.4.
Acid splitting
Organic Methanogenic
Acids CO2 + CH4 + H2S + H2+ N2
Bacteria
(»70%) (» 40%) (Traces)
The figure given below provides a summary of the reactions in the anaerobic digestion of organic waste in sludge.
Complex/ Insoluble
Organic Compounds
(Carbohydrates, proteins, fats)
Hydrolytic bacteria
Simple/Soluble Organic
Compounds
(Sugars, Amino acids)
Acid forming bacteria
Low molecular weight

New
Organic acids, CO2, H2 Other
Bacterial
products
cells
Methanogenic bacteria
CO2, CH2,H2S, H2,

N2, Bacterial Cells

Figure: Summary of Reactions in the Anaerobic Digestion of Organic Waste
Q20. Differentiate between anaerobic and aerobic digestion.
The differences between aerobic and anaerobic digestion are tabulated below.
Aerobic Digestion Anaerobic Digestion
1. The process in which micro-organisms acquire 1. The process in which the organic matter decomposes
energy by auto oxidation of their cellular biologically in the absence of oxygen is known as
protoplasm is known as aerobic digestion. anaerobic digestion.
2. There is no production of usable by-products 2. Production of usable by-products such as methane gas.
such as methane gas in aerobic digestion.
3. The required oxygen ranges from 1.7 to 1.9 gm/gm 3. No requirement of oxygen.
of destroyed volatile solids.
4. Aerobic digestion requires 10 to 12 days for 4. Anaerobic digestion requires 18 to 56 days for
destroying the volatile solids. destroying the volatile solids.
5. The temperature required is 20°C. 5. The temperature of about 20°C to 40°C is required.
6. No need to cover or insulate aerobic digestion. 6. Anaerobic digestion has to be covered or insulated.
7. The initial capital cost is low. 7. The initial capital cost is greater than cost of
aerobic digestion.

Q21. Explain the process involved in sludge digestion.
Answer :
The process of sludge digestion involves the following three stages,
1. Acidification
2. Liquefaction
3. Gasification.
1. Acidification
Due to the decomposition of fresh sewage-sludge anaerobically, the available food substances such as carbohydrates
and soluble compounds of nitrogen are attacked by the bacteria. Acid carbonates, organic acids along with gases such as
hydrogen sulphide and carbondioxide are the products of this decomposition. Acidification lowers the pH value to less
than 6. The decomposed smell is also evolved due to acidification.
2. Liquefaction
The compounds of nitrogen and organic acids of the acidification stage are liquefied at this stage. The compounds are
transformed to a soluble or fine dissolved state from large solid particles by the process of hydrolysis with the help of extra
cellular enzymes. Fermentation products such as acid carbonates and ammonia compounds are accumulated during this
stage and the value of pH rises to 6.8 with an offensive smell. The gases of decomposition is entrapped by the sludge. The
decomposing sludge becomes foam and rises to the surface forming scum. Liquefaction stage remains for long duration
when compared to the acidification stage.
3. Gasification
This stage is also known as alkaline fermentation. In this stage, large volume of methane gas of high calorific value is
produced in addition to lesser volume of carbondioxide gas. Highly resistant materials such as proteins and organic acids
are splitted in this stage. The value of pH rises to 7 and the odour changes to tarry smell. In the final stages, the gasification
process slows down with adjusted and stable sludge sufficient for the disposal.
Q22. What are the conditions that increase the efficiency of sludge digestion? How are these incorporated
in sludge digestion unit.
Factors that Influence the Sludge Digestion

Sludge digestion is greatly influenced by the following factors that increase the efficiency of sludge digestion :
1. Temperature
2. Sludge seeding
3. Efficient mixing
4. pH value
5. Other conditions.
1. Temperature
Temperature plays a vital role in the anaerobic treatment technology used for waste water treatment. Normally sludge
digestion requires several months to complete the process at a temperature of 20°C. If the temperature is increased to a
range of 26°C to 35°C with an optimum temperature of 30°C this zone is termed as “Mesophilic digestion zone”. By this
method it takes only about 30 days for complete sludge digestion. If the temperature range is further increased to 35°C
to 60°C with an optimum temperature of 53°C then, it is called as “Thermophilic digestion zone”. By this method, the
period of digestion is brought down to about 8 to 10 days. In actual practice, the mesophilic zone is preferred because
thermophilic zone requires effective control of temperature which usually depends upon climatic conditions.
2. Sludge Seeding
Addition of fresh sludge to the previously digested sludge in the tank is known as “sludge seeding”. Alkaline condition
may be prevailed in the tank during addition of sludge. When the balanced condition is attained in the tank, raw sludge can
be continuously supplied to the tank. It usually varies from 2% to 3.5% by weight of fresh dry solid per day to attain the
pH value of ‘7’. When lime is used to maintain the desired pH value then its percentage increases to about 5.5% and if the
digestion is under thermophilic zone the percentage is further increased to about 6.5% per day. Sludge seeding improves
the conditions for micro-organisms due to which, the period of digestion is reduced.

3. Efficient Mixing
During sludge seeding process, if the sludge is excessively mixed, it may lead to harmful effects. Efficient mixing of
raw sludge can be obtained by stirring the sludge with some slow mechanical device. Efficient mixing results in even
distributions of incoming sludge, uniform temperature in the tank, increase in production of gas, etc.
4. pH Value
The pH value plays an important role in the sludge digestion process. The effective digestion takes place when the
pH value ranges between 6.5 to 7.5. This can be achieved by addition of time to the tank, adding required quantity
of sludge, etc.
5. Other Conditions
The other conditions which effect the process of sludge digestion are :
(i) Presence of fluorides, chlorides, radioactive materials, etc.
(ii) Quality of supply water to consumers.
5.2 DESIGN OF DIGESTER TANK, SLUDGE DEWATERING, ULTIMATE DISPOSAL, SLUDGE

DRYING BEDS, OTHER METHODS OF SLUDGE TREATMENT
Q23. What are the factors that need to be considered in the design of digester tank?
In the design of sludge digester tank, it is required to determine the capacity (or size) of the tank. The factors that need to
be considered in the design of digester tank are,
1. Total solid content of the sludge.
2. Sludge moisture content.
3. Amount of inorganic i.e., fixed and organic i.e., volatile solids present in the total solids content.
4. Specific gravities of total solids, volatile solids and fixed solids.
5. Specific gravity of the sludge.
6. Amount of suspended solids present in the influent or raw waste water.
7. Removal efficiencies of suspended solids for both secondary clarifier and primary clarifier.
8. Hydraulic retention time of the sludge.
9. Mean cell residence time of the sludge.
10. Operating temperature of the digester.
Q24. Explain the different types of anaerobic sludge digesters.
The anaerobic sludge digesters are of the following types.

1. Standard Rate/Low Rate/ Conventional/Classical Sludge Digesters
It is a single stage sludge digestion process and also known as feed-and-draw process. In this type of digesters, the processes
involved in sludge acidification, methane fermentation and sludge thickening take place in a single tank. These tanks are
circular in shape with diameter ranging from 6 m to 45 m.
Parts of the Digesters
The different components of the digesters are,
(i) Inlet Pipe
The raw sludge influent is injected through the inlet pipe into the centre of the digester at short intervals. The detention
time for the sludge stabilization is for longer duration of 40 to 60 days.
(ii) An Outlet Pipe for Gas
The biogas formed during the sludge digestion process is collected in the gas dome and withdrawn through a gas pipe and
burnt as a fuel in the sludge heater.

(iii) An Outlet Pipe for Sludge Withdrawn
The digested sludge formed at the bottom of the digester is withdrawn at short intervals through the sludge outlet pipe and
sent to the drying beds.
(iv) Mechanical Stirrer
The mechanical stirrer is provided with revolving arms at the lower end and it is meant for breaking up the scum.
When the sludge is not mixed properly, the contents of the digester undergo thermal stratification and form five distinct
layers that can be distinguished from top to bottom. The layers formed are,
(a) Biogas Layer
Biogas layer forms the topmost layer of sludge digester.
(b) Scum Layer
The scum layer consists of non-biodegradable/ slowly biodegradable material floating on the liquid phase.
(c) Supernatant Layer
The supernatant layer is formed as a result of the sedimentation process and has low concentration of solids.
(d) Digesting Sludge Layer
It is the active digestion zone wherein the organic matter is converted to biogas in this zone.
(e) Digested Sludge Layer
The digested sludge gets collected which is ultimately removed through the sludge outlet pipe for additional treatment
or final disposal.
This process of sludge digestion is considered inefficient as the retention time is quite long.
Outlet for biogas
to combustion
Biogas layer
Scum layer
Inlet for sludge Supernatant Outlet for Supernatant, recycled
influent to biological reactor
Digesting Sludge
Digested Sludge
Outlet for digested sludge

to drying beds
Figure: Diagrammatic Representation of Conventional Standard Rate Digester
2. Single/ One Stage High Rate Sludge Digester
In this method, the raw sludge influent is injected into the digester continuously at a uniform rate along with heating and
uniform stirring. The complete mixing of the sludge ensures better contact between fresh sludge and active microbes, thus
creating a homogeneous environment inside the digester and preventing stratification.
Inlet
Figure: Schematic Representation of Single Stage High Rate Anaerobic Sludge Digester

3. Two Stage High Rate Sludge Digester
The process involves the use of two tanks in series, one for acidification and the other for methane formation, sludge
thickening and supernatant formation. The first tank is called as primary digester. It is provided with heating and mixing
devices for sludge digestion. The second tank (called as secondary digester) is meant for accumulation and thickening of
the digested sludge, supernatant and gas formation.
Biogas
Inlet for raw

sludge influent Gas Gas
Outlet for
Active zone
Supernatant Supernatant
Mechanical Digested
Heating Mixing Sludge
element
Digested Sludge for additional

treatment/ drying
Figure: Schematic Representation of Two Stage High Rate Anaerobic Sludge Digester
Q25. What are the design criteria adopted in the design of the anaerobic digesters?
Design Criteria Adopted in the Design of Anaerobic Digesters.

1. Side water depth of the digester tank is usually adopted in the range of 400cm – 900cm.
2. Tank diameter usually lies in between 600cm to 3000cm.
3. For capacity of tank upto 4 MLD, the number of units to be adopted are 1 and for capacity of tank greater than 4 MLD,
the number of units to be adopted are 2 or greater than 2 (in multiples of 2).
4. Freeboard of the digester tank must be greater than 0.4 m for fixed dome. In case of floating dome freeboard should be
more than 0.6 m. For fixed slabs/flat roofs, free board must be greater than 0.8 m.
5. Hydraulic retention time (q) for a standard rate digester is usually adopted in between 30 days to 90 days. In case of high
rate digester, hydraulic retention time (q) lies in between 10 days - 20 days.
6. Concentration of digested sludge solids is usually adopted in the range of 4-6%.
7. Percentage of reduction of volatile solids, in case of high rate digester usually lies in between 45% to 55%. For a standard
rate digester, reduction of volatile solids lies in the range of 35-50%
8. Rate of volumetric loading for primary sludge is in between 0.05 to 0.08 m3/person. In case of primary and activated sludge,
rate of volumetric loading lies in the range of 0.113 m3/person - 0.17 m3/person. Volumetric loading rate of 0.113 – 0.145
m3/person is adopted for primary and trickling filter sludge.
9. For the range of temperature in between 18°C – 40°C, the mean cell residence time (qc ) lies in the limits of 30 days to 10 days.
10. Rate of organic/solids loading in case of high rate digester is in between 1.5 – 6.5 kg VSS/m3.d. For standard rate digester,
rate of organic loading lies in the range of 0.48 – 1.5 kg VSS/m3.d.
Q26. Write a detailed note on ultimate disposal of sludge.
The various methods for ultimate disposal of sludge are,

1. Ocean disposal
2. Sanitary landfills
3. Land reclamation
4. Land farming
5. Agricultural reuse
6. Incineration
7. Lagooning

Ocean Disposal
The sludge is disposed into the sea by the means of ocean outfalls. Before disposal, the sludge must be subjected to pre-
conditioning. This method of sludge disposal is a low cost method. But, it results in the pollution of flora, fauna and ocean water
Sanitary Landfills
In this method, sludge is disposed into the trenches or ditches. It is then compacted and filled with soil completely. After
compacting and covering the sludge with soil, it is then sealed. Disposal of sewage sludge must be carried out at a particular
assigned landfills.
This method of sludge disposed is a low cost method. But, large area is required for this method. It requires special
characteristics of soil and results in the production of leachate and gas. In urban areas, this method of disposal might create issues
regarding the place where the sludge must be disposed.
Land Reclamation
In this method, sludge is disposed in certain areas where there is no scope of soil for vegetation, development etc. The best
example for this type of area is the place where mining works are carried out.
Land Farming
It is one of the land disposal method where the organic portion of the sludge is degraded biologically into the top soil layer
and then the inorganic portion of sludge is secured into this layer.
The main advantages of this type of disposal are it is a low cost disposal method and for one unit area, larger quantities of
sludge can be disposed off. Disadvantages of this method of disposal are,
(i) It results in the contamination/pollution of groundwater
(ii) Decaying particles and metals get accumulated within the soil.
(iii) It attracts more number of vectors (insects etc.)
(iv) It emits bad smell (odour).
Agricultural Reuse
In this method, sludge is disposed into the agricultural soils, so that it helps in the growth of crops.
Incineration
In this method. sludge is subjected to the process of thermal decomposition with the help of oxidation. In this method,
burning of total volatile solids present in the sludge takes place aerobically (i.e., oxygen is present). After burning, volatile solids
will be transformed into CO2 and H2O. Fixed solids present in the sludge will turn into ashes after burning.
The main advantages of this method of sludge disposal are, drastic reduction in the volume of sludge and sterilisation.
Disadvantages of this disposal method are,
(i) It is not an economical method. It involves more expenditure.
(ii) It results in the emission of ashes.
(iii) It creates atmospheric pollution.
Lagooning
This is the most suitable method for disposing sludge if wastewater treatment plant is situated in remote areas. A lagoon
is nothing but a shallow lake situated close to the sea or a river.
In this method, stabilization of sludge takes place by decomposing the sludge both in the presence and absence of oxygen
(i.e., Aerobic and anaerobic decomposition takes place). Hence, the lagoons must be far away from the populated areas, highways
to get rid of disturbances.
The sludge which is stabilized gets deposited into the lower portion (bottom) of the lagoon and will be stored inside it. It
can be removed or can be stored for indefinite period of time inside the lagoon.

Q27. Explain in detail about the sludge drying beds. What are the advantages and disadvantages of sludge
drying beds?
Answer :
Sludge Drying Beds
Sludge drying beds are used for the purpose of dewatering the digested sludge. Disposal of digested sludge takes place
on greve bed and sand bed which are drained well. Generally, sludge layer thickness lies in between 150 mm – 200 mm. Sludge
drying gravel beds facilitate for the reduction in the sludge water content by about 70%. More than 60% of volume of sludge can
be minimised in the sludge drying beds.
Design Criteria for Sludge Drying Beds
1. Time required for drying of sludge is approximately equal to 2-4 weeks.
2. Length of the bed usually lies in between 6 m - 30 m.
3. Width of the bed usually lies in between 3 m - 8 m.
4. Rate of loading of sludge solids usually lies in range of 50-210 kg/m2-yr.
5. Area of surface of bed that is essential for digested primary sludge usually lies in the range of 0.1 – 0.25 m2/capita or 80-
120 kg dry solids/m2/yr.
6. Area of surface of bed that if essential for digested primary sludge and activated mixed sludge usually lies in between
0.15 - 0.28 m2/capita or 60-120 kg dry solids/m2/yr.
Advantages of Sludge Drying Bed
1. Cost of construction of sludge drying bed is less.
2. It is very simple and easy to operate.
3. It requires less attention and less qualified skilled labour.
4. It requires very less electrical energy. Sometimes, electrical energy is not at all required.
5. The requirement of chemical products is less. Sometimes chemical products are not at all required.
Disadvantages of Sludge Drying Bed
1. Area required for sludge drying bed is more.
2. Sludge must be stabilised before entering into the sludge drying bed.
3. Climatic variations will significantly affect the operating characteristics of sludge drying bed.
4. Sludge cake will be removed very slowly.
5. Proliferation of flies and emission of bad smell (odour) will be more.
6. More number of workers are required for the removal of dry-cake.
Q28. Write note on Sludge Conditioning. Why elutriation is necessary prior to Chemical Conditioning.
Sludge Conditioning
For the improvement of dewatering characteristics, sludge is conditioned after the process of stabilization.
Following operations are carried out on sludge in sludge conditioning,
(i) In this process, chemical precipitation with coagulants is carried out with or without the treatment of lime.
(ii) The pathogenic organisms are killed by disinfection by chlorine or lime.
(iii) After heat treatment, elutriation is carried out to remove chemicals that interact with precipitation.
(iv) Under the influence of gravity or due to centrifugal action, sludge is thickened.
(v) The sludge is dewatered by vacuum filtration.
(vi) After centrifugation, incineration is carried out for organic matter.
(vii) The final product obtained is solid sludge and used as a fertilizer.

Elutriation
The method in which sludge is mixed with water in the ratio of 1 : 2 and kept for about 6 hours for the separation of mixture
is known as elutriation.
Elutriation of the digested waste water sludge is carried out before chemical conditioning for the reduction of coagulant
demand which is exerted due to alkalinity related to digested sludge. Elutriation is also carried out prior to chemical conditioning
for improving the drainability of the sludge and reducing the chemical requirement.
Q29. Explain the different methods of sludge composting.
Answer :
Composting
Composting is a biological process wherein, the biodegradable organic matter undergoes aerobic decomposition by aerobic
microorganisms, ants, nematodes and oligochaete worms to form compost (humus). It can serve as an excellent soil conditioner
as it is rich in nutrients and organic carbon. The ideal conditions needed for composting are,
(i) 50% moisture content
(ii) Carbon to nitrogen ratio of 25 to 30
(iii) Temperature 55°C.
Methods of Composting
Composting of sludge is practiced by the following three methods.
(a) Composting by Trenching
The process of trenching involves digging out the earth with the following dimensions,
Length = 3 m to 12 m
Width = 2 m to 3 m
Depth = 1 m to 2 m
Dry refuse of 15 cm thickness is laid first, followed by 5 cm thick night soil/ animal dung. Finally, it is layered with 10
cm thick layer of soil to avoid the problem arising from the rodents and flies gaining access to the material.
The anaerobic process begins, wherein the soil organisms and worms consume a small amount of the trenched material and
produce a brown colored odourless humus and worm castings rich in nutrients. The humus is removed from the trenches
and sieved properly to remove coarse materials such as stones, pebbles, glass items etc. The sieved material is then packed
and marketed.
(b) Open Windrow Composting
In this process, the refuse is first excluded of the coarse inert material and then placed on a solid, non-permeable surface in
the form of rows of prism-shaped long piles of waste known as windrows. The piles of refuse generally have the following
dimensions,
Length = 6 m
Width =1 m to 2 m
Height = 0.6 to 1 m
The night soil/animal waste is laid on the refuse layer. The aerobic process of degradation takes place by the aerobic bacteria.
The heat produced in the process raises the temperature to about 75°C in the refuse piles. The windrows are turned at
regular intervals using a specialized windrow turner machine to assist in thorough mixing of materials and supply oxygen
to the bacteria. The process of composting can take upto 12 to 16 weeks to form a nature compost for use as manure.
Advantage of Open Windrow Composting
Open windrow composting involves low investment. It improves the nutrient composition of the manure.
Disadvantage of Open Windrow Composting
The process involves increased use of water and vast stretches of land. Serious health issues may arise due to the discharge
of maladourous emissions. The liquid waste produced during the composting process can contaminate the ground and surface
water supplies.

(c) Mechanical Composting Step 1 : Evaluation of Amount of Sludge Generated due to
the Removal of Suspended Solids
The method of mechanical composting involves
the feeding of organic material into a specially built Amount of dry suspended solids removed in the primary
apparatus called as composter, where the environment sludge,
conditions such as temperature, moisture and aeration
Wss = ηss × Xss × C
are closely monitored.
The steps involved in this process are, = 0.6 × 200 × 20 × 106
(i) Collecting the refuse. = 2.4 × 109 mg/day
(ii) Segregation of refuse. This step involves the use of = 2.4 × 109 × 10–6 kg/day
magnetic separators to separate the ferrous materials, [Q 1 mg = 10–3 g = 10–6 kg]
while the other materials are handpicked and removed.
= 2400 Kg/day
(iii) Shredding, pulverizing and grinding the waste material.
Step 2 : Calculation of Primary Sludge Volume
(iv) The contents in the vessel can be slowly tumbled over
for mixing and aeration and a mature compost is formed Sludge volume is given by,
in 3 to 6 days. The immature compost is windrowed for Wss
about 3 months to complete the composting process. Vs =
r w # Gs # Xs
Advantages of Mechanical Composting
2400
The advantages of various types of composting are as =
1000 # 1.03 # 0.05
follows,
= 46.6 m3/day
1. Easy cultivation of soil.
~ 47 m3/day
2. Prevents erosion of soil by keeping the soil covered.
Step 3 : Determination of Capacity of Anaerobic Digester
3. Helps to keep the soil cool in summer and warm in winter.
Capacity or volume of anaerobic sludge digester,
4. Supplies essential nutrients to the growing plants.
Vsd = Vs × qc
Q30. Calculate the anaerobic sludge digester = 47 × 20
capacity in order to treat primary sludge which
is produced from wastewater treatment plant = 940 m3
of capacity 20 MLD. Adopt mean-cell residence \ Capacity of anaerobic sludge digester = 940 m3
time as 20 days. Assume the necessary data.
Given that,
Capacity of wastewater treatment plant,
C = 20 MLD
= 20 × 106 litres/day
Mean cell residence time, qc = 20 days
Assume,
Removal efficiency of suspended solids for a
primary clarifier, ηss = 60%

= 0.6
Concentration of suspended solids, Xss = 200 mg/l
Density of water, rw = 1000 kg/m3
Amount (%) of solids present in sludge, Xs = 5%
= 0.05
Specific gravity of sludge, Gs = 1.03

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INDUSTRIAL WASTE WATER

Syllabus as per R16 Curriculum

Model Paper-II MP.3

UNIT-WISE SHORT & ESSAY QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS

UNIT - I INTRODUCTION TO WASTEWATER

Part-A SHORT QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS Q1 - Q11 1.1 - 1.3

Part-B ESSAY QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS Q12 - Q25 1.4 - 1.16

1.1 Introduction : Wastewater Characteristics – Standards of

1.2 Layouts of Primary, Secondary and Advanced

Part-A SHORT QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS Q1 - Q12 2.1 - 2.3

Part-B ESSAY QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS Q13 - Q30 2.4 - 2.22

2.1 Design of Preliminary and Primary Treatment Operations :

2.2 Primary and Secondary Sedimentation Tanks Q21 - Q30 2.12

UNIT - III BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT PROCESSES AND

Part-A SHORT QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS Q1 - Q14 3.1 - 3.4

Part-B ESSAY QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS Q15 - Q32 3.5 - 3.22

3.1 Biological Treatment Process : Types, Kinetics of Plug

3.2 Attached Growth Processes : Trickling Filters (Standard

UNIT - IV SUSPENDED GROWTH PROCESSES Q1 - Q27 4.1 - 4.22

Part-A SHORT QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS Q1 - Q13 4.1 - 4.4

Part-B ESSAY QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS Q14 - Q27 4.5 - 4.22

4.1 Suspended Growth Processes : Activated Sludge Process –

4.2 Process Design Criteria, Oxygen and Nutrient Requirements -

UNIT - V SLUDGE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL Q1 - Q30 5.1 - 5.18

Part-A SHORT QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS Q1 - Q15 5.1 - 5.3

Part-B ESSAY QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS Q16 - Q30 5.4 - 5.18

5.1 Sludge Treatment and Disposal : Sludge Thickening,

5.2 Design of Digester Tank, Sludge Dewatering, Ultimate

1 CHARACTERISTICS SIA GROUP

The major physical characteristics of water are,

The major chemical characteristics of water are,

The main biological characteristics of waste water include,

Q5. Define turbidity.

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The main physical characteristics of wastewater are as mentioned below,

The chemical characteristics of wastewater include the following,

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Characteristics of Industrial Waste Water

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Industry Total Pollutant/Toxic Substances

1. Colour and odour Colourless and -- Colourless & odourless

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14. Mercury (as Hg), (mg/l), 0.01 0.01 - 0.01

Q16. Write down the objectives of wastewater treatment.

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The following are some of the miscellaneous treatment methods.

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4. The consumption of energy for the entire process is low.

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(i) Reduction in waste

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1.2 LAYOUTS OF PRIMARY, SECONDARY AND ADVANCED TREATMENT UNITS

Different Stage of Waste Water Treatment

Q21. List any three objectives of primary treatment in a clarifier.

Primary treatment of raw sewage or effluent involves,

Primary Sludge Treatment or

To Remove Oil and