HVAC Fundamental

HVAC Design,
Installation, and
operation
Prepared by Dr. Khalil M. Abd_elsalam 12/27/2005 1

Training Agenda: HVAC
Introduction
HVAC Basics.
Air properties (Psychrometric Chart).
Psychrometric process.
Psychrometric cycles.
HVAC systems.
Chillers, Air Handling, and Fan coil unit.
Air conditioning systems.
Single Zone System, Constant air volume and reheat system.
Simple Variable Air Volume (VAV), Dual Duct System., and Multi-zone
System.
Direct expansion Systems.
Cooling towers.
HVAC systems selection.
Temperature control.
VALVES, PIPE FITTINGS, AND Actuators.
• Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning,
HVAC, is a huge field.
• HVAC systems include a range from the simplest
hand-stoked stove, used for comfort heating, to the
extremely reliable total air-conditioning systems
found in submarines and space shuttles.
• Cooling equipment varies from the small domestic
unit to refrigeration machines that are 10,000 times
the size, which are used in industrial processes.

Our title, “HVAC,” thus captures the development of
our industry. The term “air conditioning” has gradually
changed, from meaning just cooling, to the total control
of:
•Temperature.
• Moisture in the air (humidity).
• Supply of outside air for ventilation.
• Filtration of airborne particles.
• Air movement in the occupied space.
•Air sound.

•A Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning
(HVAC) Control system operates the mechanical
equipment (boilers, chillers, pumps, fans, etc.) to
maintain the proper environment in a cost-effective
manner.
•A proper environment is described with four
variables: temperature, humidity, pressure and
ventilation.

Temperature — The comfor t zone for
temperature is between 68°F (20°C) and
75°F (25°C). Temperatures less than 68°F
(20°C) may cause some people to feel too
cool. Temperatures greater than 78°F (25°C)
may cause some people to feel too warm. Of
course, these values vary between people,
regions and countries.

Humidity — The comfort zone for humidity
is between 30% relative humidity (RH) and
60% RH. Humidity less than 30% RH causes
the room to be too dry, which has an adverse
effect on health, computers, printers, and
many other areas. Humidity greater than
60% RH causes the room to be muggy and
increases the likelihood of mildew problems.
Prepared by Dr. Khalil M.

Abd_elsalam 12/27/2005 7
Pressure The rooms and buildings typically have a slightly
positive pressure to reduce outside air infiltration. This
helps in keeping the building clean.
Ventilation — Rooms typically have several complete air

changes per hour. Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) is an
important issue. The distribution pattern of the air
entering room must keep people comfortable without
feeling any drafts, and this is important as well.

Scope of Modern HVAC
Modern air conditioning is critical to almost every facet of
advancing human activity. Although there have been great
advances in HVAC, there are several areas where active research
and debate continue.
•Indoor air quality : is one that directly affects us. In
many countries of the world there is a rapid rise in
asthmatics and increasing dissatisfaction with indoor-air-
quality in buildings and planes. The causes and effects
are extremely complex. A significant scientific and
engineering field has developed to investigate and
address these issues.

Scope of Modern HVAC
•Ener gy conser vation
•This interaction between lighting and HVAC
is the reason that ASHRAE and the
Illuminating Engineering Society of North
America (IESNA) joined forces to write the
building energy conservation standard,
Standar d 90.1–2004, Ener gy Standar d for
Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential
Buildings.
There are seven main processes required to achieve full air
conditioning and they are listed and explained below:
1. Heating: the process of adding thermal energy (heat) to

the conditioned space for the purposes of raising or
maintaining the temperature of the space.
2. Cooling: the process of removing thermal energy (heat)
from the conditioned space for the purposes of
lowering or maintaining the temperature of the space.
3. Humidifying: the process of adding water vapor
(moisture) to the air in the conditioned space for the
purposes of raising or maintaining the moisture content
of the air.

4. Dehumidifying: the process of removing water

vapor (moisture) from the air in the conditioned
space for the purposes of lowering or
maintaining the moisture content of the air.
5. Cleaning: the process of removing particulates,
(dust etc.,) and biological contaminants, (insects,
pollen etc.,) from the air delivered to the
conditioned space for the purposes of
improving or maintaining the air quality.

6. Ventilating: the process of exchanging air between
the outdoors and the conditioned space for the
purposes of diluting the gaseous contaminants in
the air and improving or maintaining air quality,
composition and freshness. Ventilation can be
achieved either through natur al ventilation or
mechanical ventilation . Natural ventilation is
driven by natural draft, like when you open a
window. Mechanical ventilation can be achieved by
using fans to draw air in from outside or by fans
that exhaust air from the space to outside.
7. Air Movement: the process of circulating and mixing air
through conditioned spaces in the building for the purposes
of achieving the proper ventilation and facilitating the
thermal energy transfer.
The requirements and importance of the seven processes
varies. In a climate that stays warm all year, heating may
not be required at all. Conversely, in a cold climate the
periods of heat in the summer may be so infrequent as to
make cooling unnecessary. In a dry desert climate,
dehumidification may be redundant, and in a hot, humid
climate dehumidification may be the most important design
aspect of the air-conditioning system

◦ Heat energy
◦ Heat measurement
◦ Heat movement
 States of matter
 Latent and sensible heat
 Boiling points
 Pressures- gauge and absolute
 Refrigerants

Heat, like other forms of
energy, cannot be created nor
destroyed. However, we have
the ability to move it from one
place to another. Moving heat
is more efficient than using
energy to produce heat.

Mobile heating, ventilation,
and air conditioning, MVAC
systems are concerned with
moving heat to or from the
interior of a vehicle. Heat
transfer involves moving
something that we can feel
but cannot see.
Understanding the principles of heat transfer helps a

technician understand what happens within an A/C system.

We are all familiar with temperature. This
is a measurement of heat intensity. It is
measured using a thermometer.
Two different scales are commonly
used: Celsuis
(C) which is used in most of the World
and Fahrenheit (F) which is
commonly used in the United States.

Heat quantity is also measured using
two scales: Calor ies (c) by most of
the World and Br itish Ther mal
Units (BTU) in the United States.
One BTU will
increase the temperature of one
pound of water by one degree F. One
c will increase the temperature of
Burning a large wooden
one g of water by one degree C.
match produces about 1
BTU of heat.
A MHVAC technician is concerned with heat intensity when he or
she is testing or repairing a HVAC system to make sure it is
operating correctly.
A vehicle design engineer is concerned with heat quantity
while designing a system to make sure it is the correct size to
provide adequate heat transfer. It must move enough heat to keep
the interior of a vehicle warm in cold climates and cool in very hot
areas.

 Humidity: the amount of water vapor
suspended in the air
 Warm air can hold much more water vapor
than cold air
 Humid cold air feels much colder than cold
dry air
 Humid hot air slows down evaporation of
perspiration, which makes the air feel
hotter

Heat always travels
from Hot to Cold.
In this example, heat within the engine will move from the very
hot combustion chamber to the cooler coolant. After the coolant
is moved to the radiator, the heat will move to the cooler air
passing through it.

Heat transfer rate is
determined by the temperature
difference between the hot and
cold items. A minor difference
(top) will have a slow rate. A
large difference will cause a
much faster rate of heat
exchange.
Animation: Heat Transfer Prepared by Dr. Khalil M. Abd_elsalam 12/27/2005 23

3 ways heat can
move:
 Conduction
 Convection
 Radiation

Heat transfer through a
material, from one
molecule to the next is
called conduction. The
heat entering this metal
rod is flowing to the
ends.

When we move heat by circulating a medium like air or water,
we call the process: convection. The coolant circulating in the
cooling system transfers heat from the engine to the radiator and
the warm or cool air circulating through the vehicle are both
examples of convection.

The heat transfer from the Sun
to the Earth is an example of
radiation. Heat is transferred,
but it does not warm the
medium (space) through which
it passes. Radiant heat will
warm the interior and exterior
of a vehicle that is parked in
the sun.

When we add heat, we will
warm up the liquid, in this case
it is water. We are converting
the energy in the fuel to fire and
transferring this heat to the
water.
We would have to remove heat
if we wanted to cool the water.

Solid: Ice Below
Water is a molecule formed from one 32 F Liquid: Water
hydrogen atom and two oxygen atoms.
So is ice and steam. Ice is normally a
solid at cold temperatures, and steam
is the high temperature, gas form of
water.
They are all the same molecule, but
they have a tighter or looser molecular
bond between the atoms. It takes
energy to change this bond.
Water:
Water:HH
2O2O
Gas: Steam, Above 212 F

 Sensible
heat causes a change
in temperature
 Latentheat causes a change of

state but no change in
temperature

If we add heat to water, the temperature will increase,
and this is called sensible heat. Sensible heat causes a
change in temperature.
If we add heat to ice at 32o F or to water at 212o F, the
temperature will not increase. The added heat will melt
some of the ice or boil some of the water. This is called
latent heat. Latent heat causes a change in state but not
a change in temperature. This heat energy changes the
molecular bond within the molecule.

A rather large amount of heat, 979 BTUs, is required to change one
pound of water into one pound of steam with no temperature
increase. This change of state is used as the refrigerant boils when it
enters the evaporator and condenses when it passes through the
vehicle’s condenser.

 It takes 180 Btu’s to raise the temperature
of 1 lb. of water from 32 deg. to 212 deg.
 It takes 970 Btu’s to boil or vaporize 1 lb.

of water at 212 deg.

 In an automotive A/C system, the refrigerant
changes state and absorbs heat in the evaporator
and releases heat as it changes state again in the
condenser
 Evaporator: liquid changing to gas
 Condenser: gas changing to liquid

 Boiling points can be increased or
decreased by raising or lowering the
pressure on the liquid
 Increased pressure=increased boiling point
 Decreased pressure=decreased boiling

point

10 psi Atmospheric Pressure
Boiling Point = Boiling Point =

242 Degrees F 212 Degrees F
The boiling point will increase if we raise the pressure on a liquid. In

this case, the boiling point will increase about 3o F for each psi. A 10
pound pressure will increase the boiling point about 3 X 10 or 30o F.
The condensing point of a vapor is the same as the boiling point.

 Why
are A/C systems
evacuated prior to recharging?

 At
29” of vacuum, the boiling
point of water is 76 deg. F

 The condensing point of a gas is the same as
the boiling point
 Heat is removed from a gas at 212 deg. to

cause the gas to condense to a liquid
 Raising the pressure of a gas allows the gas

to condense at temperatures above the
normal boiling point

 Critical temperature: the maximum point at
which a gas can be liquefied by raising the
pressure
 Critical pressure: the pressure that is necessary

to liquefy a gas at critical temperature

 Superheat: the temperature of a vapor above its
boiling point
 Saturated vapor: a liquid and a gas inside a closed

chamber

 Pressure: a certain amount of force exerted on an
area
◦ Pressure at sea level is 14.7 psi
 Vacuum: pressures below atmospheric pressure
 Vacuum is measured on a gauge calibrated in

inches of mercury
 29.92”Hg. is a perfect vacuum and represents no

pressure (0 psi)

 A deep or high vacuum is close to a perfect
vacuum and measured in microns of mercury
 Gauge pressures: gauges with zero points at

atmospheric pressure (psig)
 Absolute pressures: gauges with zero points at an

absolute vacuum (psia)

 The working fluid of an A/C system
 First developed by DuPont under the brand name

of Refrigerants must have a very low boiling
point- below 32 deg.
 Refrigerants must be able to mix with oil and

remain stable

 Two main types in automotive applications
◦ R-12: CFC-12
◦ R-134a: HFC-134a
 R-12 contains chlorine molecules which are

thought to be harmful to the environment
 R-134a is very similar to R-12 but does not

contain chlorine

 R-134a weighs about 90% of R-12
 R-134a is not compatible with mineral oil
 R-134a systems use poly-alkaline glycol

(PAG) oils
 R-12 systems converted to R-134a can use

ester oil as a lubricant

 R-134a is not compatible with desiccants used in
R-12 systems
 Refrigerants must not be mixed
 Some refrigerant blends contain flammable

chemicals and cannot be recycled in a shop
 Abnormally high operating pressures can be

caused by blend refrigerants

R-134a has a boiling point of –
15o F. When it is released into
the vehicle’s evaporator it will
boil immediately and absorb
heat. R-134a will absorb
almost 78 BTUs of heat for
each pound that boils.

 R134a has a critical temperature of 214 deg. F and
a critical pressure of 589 psi
 This is the upper limits of the high pressure side of

an A/C system using R134a

 R-12 systems use mineral oil
 R-134a systems use PAG oils

◦ Viscosities are chosen by manufacture
 R-12 systems converted to R-134a use ester

oil
Prepared by Dr. Khalil M. Abd_elsalam

50 12/27/2005
 Refrigeration is the removal of heat from a material or space,
so that it’s temperature is lower than that of it’s
surroundings.
 When refrigerant absorbs the unwanted heat, this raises the

refrigerant’s temperature (“Saturation Temperature”) so that it
changes from a liquid to a gas — it evaporates. The system
then uses condensation to release the heat and change the
refrigerant back into a liquid. This is called “Latent Heat”.
 This cycle is based on the physical principle, that a liquid

extracts heat from the surrounding area as it expands (boils)
into a gas.
 To accomplish this, the refrigerant is pumped through a

closed looped pipe system.
 The closed looped pipe system stops the refrigerant from

becoming contaminated and controls its stream. The
refrigerant will be both a vapor and a liquid in the loop.

 A change of state transfers a large amount
of energy.
 At saturation temperature, materials are

sensitive to additions or removal of heat.
 Water is an example of how saturation

property of a material, can transfer a large
amount of heat.
 Refrigerants use the same principles as

ice. For any given pressure, refrigerants
have a saturation temperature.
 If the pressure is low, the saturation

temperature is low. If pressure is high,
saturation temperature is high.
12/27/2005 Prepared by Dr. Khalil M. Abd_elsalam 53

 Heat is a form of energy that is transferred
from one object to another object.
 Heat Is a form of energy transferred by a

difference in temperature.
 Heat transfer can occur, when there is a

temperature difference between two or
more objects. Heat will only flow from a
warm object to a colder object.
 The heat transfer is greatest, when there is

a large temperature difference between
two objects.
There are four main components
in a refrigeration system:
 The Compressor
 The Condensing Coil
 The Metering Device
 The Evaporator
 Two different pressures exist in

the refrigeration cycle. The
evaporator or low pressure, in the
"low side" and the condenser, or
high pressure, in the "high side".
These pressure areas are divided
by the other two components. On
one end, is the metering device
which controls the refrigerant flow,
and on the other end, is the
compressor.

 The compressor is the heart of the
system. The compressor does just
what it’s name is. It compresses
the low pressure refrigerant vapor
from the evaporator and
compresses it into a high pressure
vapor.
 The inlet to the compressor is

called the “Suction Line”. It brings
the low pressure vapor into the
compressor.
 After the compressor compresses

the refrigerant into a high pressure
Vapor, it removes it to the outlet
called the “Discharge Line”.

 The “Discharge Line” leaves the compressor and
runs to the inlet of the condenser.
 Because the refrigerant was compressed, it is a
hot high pressure vapor (as pressure goes up –
temperature goes up).
 The hot vapor enters the condenser and starts
to flow through the tubes.
 Cool air is blown across the out side of the
finned tubes of the condenser (usually by a fan
or water with a pump).
 Since the air is cooler than the refrigerant, heat
jumps from the tubing to the cooler air (energy
goes from hot to cold – “latent heat”).
 As the heat is removed from the refrigerant, it
reaches it’s “saturated temperature” and starts
to “flash” (change states), into a high pressure
liquid.
 The high pressure liquid leaves the condenser
through the “liquid line” and travels to the
“metering device”. Sometimes running through
a filter dryer first, to remove any dirt or foreign
particles.

 Metering devices regulate how much
liquid refrigerant enters the
evaporator .
 Common used metering devices are,

small thin copper tubes referred to as
“cap tubes”, thermally controller
diaphragm valves called “TXV’s”
(thermal expansion valves) and single
opening “orifices”.
 The metering device tries to maintain

a preset temperature difference or
“super heat”, between the inlet and
outlet openings of the evaporator.
 As the metering devices regulates the

amount of refrigerant going into the
evaporator, the device lets small
amounts of refrigerant out into the
line and looses the high pressure it
has behind it.
 Now we have a low pressure, cooler

liquid refrigerant entering the
evaporative coil (pressure went down –
so temperature goes down).

 A very common type of metering device is
called a TX Valve (Thermostatic Expansion
Valve). This valve has the capability of
controlling the refrigerant flow. If the load on
the evaporator changes, the valve can
respond to the change and increase or
decrease the flow accordingly.
 The TXV has a sensing bulb attached to the

outlet of the evaporator. This bulb senses the
suction line temperature and sends a signal to
the TXV allowing it to adjust the flow rate.
This is important because, if not all, the
refrigerant in the evaporator changes state
into a gas, there could be liquid refrigerant
content returning to the compressor. This can
be fatal to the compressor. Liquid can not be
compressed and when a compressor tries to
compress a liquid, mechanical failing can
happen. The compressor can suffer
mechanical damage in the valves and
bearings. This is called” liquid slugging”.
 Normally TXV's are set to maintain 10 degrees

of superheat. That means that the gas
returning to the compressor is at least 10
degrees away from the risk of having any
liquid.

 The evaporator is where the heat is removed
from your house , business or refrigeration
box.
 Low pressure liquid leaves the metering
device and enters the evaporator.
 Usually, a fan will move warm air from the
conditioned space across the evaporator
finned coils.
 The cooler refrigerant in the evaporator
tubes, absorb the warm room air. The change
of temperature causes the refrigerant to
“flash” or “boil”, and changes from a low
pressure liquid to a low pressure cold vapor.
 The low pressure vapor is pulled into the
compressor and the cycle starts over.
 The amount of heat added to the liquid to
make it saturated and change states is called
“Super Heat”.
 One way to charge a system with refrigerant
is by super heat.

 Starting at the compressor;
 Low pressure vapor refrigerant is compressed
and discharged out of the compressor.
 The refrigerant at this point is a high
temperature, high pressure, “superheated”
vapor.
 The high pressure refrigerant flows to the
condenser by way of the "Discharge Line".
 The condenser changes the high pressure
refrigerant from a high temperature vapor to a
low temperature, high pressure liquid and
leaves through the "Liquid Line".
 The high pressure refrigerant then flows
through a filter dryer to the Thermal
Expansion valve or TXV.
 The TXV meters the correct amount of liquid
refrigerant into the evaporator.
 As the TXV meters the refrigerant, the high
pressure liquid changes to a low pressure, low
temperature, saturated liquid/vapor.
 This saturated liquid/vapor enters the
evaporator and is changed to a low pressure,
dry vapor.
 The low pressure, dry vapor is then returned
to the compressor in the "Suction line".
 The cycle then starts over.

 When you are charging or just checking a
refrigeration unit, you use a set of gauges.
The blue hose connects to a port on the low
side of the system and your red hose will
connect to the high side of the system.
 To properly know what your pressures and
temperatures should be, you will need to
know what refrigerant you are working with
and a “Pressure\Temperature Chart” (P/T
Chart).
 With a P/T chart, if you know a temperature
or a pressure of the ambient air or the
refrigerant in your system, you can use a P/T
chart to convert it to the equal pressure or
temperature.
 For an example using the chart at the right,
at 100°f R22 refrigerant pressure would be
198.4.
 R502 at 100° would be 218.6, R12 at 100°
would be 119.4 lb’s pressure.
 If you just know a pressure, cross the
pressure on the chart to the corresponding
temperature.

•A common method for checking or charging is by “head
pressure”.
•Find the units design condenser temperature from the
specifications, add 30° to the outside ambient air temperature
(70° is the outside air temp. add 30°, that gives you 100°). Take
your P/T chart and see what the pressure crosses up to at 100°
using R22.
•At 100°f R22 equals 198.4 PSI, so you would charge your system
up until you “head pressure” was close to 198.4.
•If the unit has a sight glass, check it for bubbles. If it does have
bubbles, add more refrigerant slowly until it clears
•Always charge refrigerant into the suction line as a vapor. This
is done by keeping your refrigerant cylinder right side up. If your
cylinder is on it’s side or upside down, you will be charging liquid
refrigerant and it could damage your compressor.
•If you are charging a cap tube system, charging by “super heat”
is a good method. Check your units specifications and pick a
desired “super heat” (10° to 16°), add or subtract refrigerant
until the super heat is achieved. The superheat is fixed at 8 to 12
degrees in most residential air conditioning systems.

 Measure Sub-cooling:
 Get the refrigerant saturation pressure-temperature. Take a
pressure reading of the liquid line leaving the condenser.
Refrigerant saturation temperature is the pressure-temperature,
when the refrigerant is turning from a high-pressure vapor into a
high-pressure liquid (giving up heat). At saturation pressure-
temperature, both liquid and vapor are at the same temperature.
 (1) Convert pressure to temperature with a P/T chart.
 (2) Take a temperature reading at the leaving liquid line of the
condenser.
 Compare both, the saturated temperature and leaving liquid line
temperature. Subtracting one from the other, the difference is
the amount the refrigerant has cooled past saturated
temperature.
 Measure Evaporator Superheat:
 Get a pressure reading of the suction line leaving the evaporator
to get refrigerant saturation pressure-temperature. Refrigerant
saturation temperature is the pressure-temperature, when the
refrigerant is turning from a low-pressure liquid to a low-
pressure vapor (absorbing heat). At saturation pressure-
temperature, both liquid and vapor are at the same temperature.
 Convert pressure to temperature with a P/T chart. If reading is
obtained at the compressor, not at the evaporator line leaving,
you may have to add a few pounds of pressure due to pressure
drop in the suction line.
 Take a temperature reading at the leaving suction line of the
evaporator.
 Compare both, the saturated temperature and the leaving
suction line temperature. Subtracting one from the other, the
difference is the amount the refrigerant gas has heated past
saturated temperature.
 BTU’s - An air conditioner's capacity is measured in “British Thermal Units”, or BTUs. A BTU is the
amount of heat required to raise, by one degree, the temperature of a pound of water. So if you
buy an air conditioner rated at 10,000 BTUs, it has the ability to cool 10,000 pounds -- about
1,200 gallons -- of water, one degree in an hour. Refrigeration is normally measured in “Tons”.
12,000 BTU’s equal 1 ton.
 Latent Heat - Latent Heat is the heat given up or absorbed by a substance as it changes state. It is
called latent because it is not associated with a change in temperature. Each substance has a
characteristic latent heat of fusion, latent heat of vaporization, latent heat of condensation and
latent heat of sublimation.
 Superheated Vapor - Refrigerant vapor is heated above its saturation temperature. If a refrigerant
is superheated, there is no liquid present. Superheat is an indication of how full the evaporator is
of liquid refrigerant. High superheat means the evaporator is empty. Low superheat means the
evaporator is full.
 Saturation Temperature - Also referred to as the boiling point or the condensing
temperature. This is the temperature at which a refrigerant will change state from a liquid to a
vapor or vice versa.
 Sensible Heat - Heat, that when added or removed, causes a change in temperature but not in
state.
 Sub-Cooling - Sub-cooling is a temperature below saturated pressure-temperature. Sub-cooling
is a measurement of how much liquid is in the condenser. In air conditioning, it is important to
measure sub-cooling because the longer the liquid stays in the condenser, the greater the sensible
(visible) heat loss. Low sub-cooling means that a condenser is empty. High sub-cooling means
that a condenser is full. Over filling a system, increases pressure due to the liquid filling of a
condenser that shows up as high sub-cooling. To move the refrigerant from condenser to the
liquid line, it must be pushed down the liquid line to a metering device. If a pressure drop occurs
in the liquid line and the refrigerant has no sub-cooling, the refrigerant will start to re-vaporize
(change state from a liquid to a vapor) before reaching the metering devise.
 Atmospheric pressure
 Measure with a barometer
 Standard pressure (dry air at sea level)

◦ 14.7 psia
◦ 29.92 in. Hg. Absolute
 Gauge pressure scale
 Conversion between atmospheric and gauge

pressure

 What is the absolute pressure if the gauge
pressure reads 42 psig?
 What is the gauge pressure if the absolute

pressure reads 27 psia?

 Common measure in air distribution systems
 14.7 psi = 406.9” water = 33.9’ water
 1 psi = 27.68 inches water
 Convert inches water to psi: divide by 27.68
 Convert psi to inches water: multiply by 27.68

 What is the pressure in inches water if the
gauge reading is 2.2 psi?
 What is the pressure in psi if the manometer

reads 3.8 inches water?

 Dry air is a gas
 Follows specific laws pertaining to

relationships between pressure, temperature
and volume
 Known as the gas laws

 Total pressure of a mixture of confined
gases is the sum of the pressures each gas
would exert if it alone occupied the volume
of the mixture at the same temperature.
 Each gas acts independently
 TP = P1 + P2 + … Pn

 At constant temperature, the pressure on a
given quantity of confined gas varies
inversely with the volume of the gas.
 At constant temperature, the volume of a

given quantity of gas varies inversely with the
applied pressure.

 Po x Vo = Pn x Vn
 Vn = Vo x Po / Pn
 Pn = Po x Vo / Vn
 Where:
◦ Po = original absolute pressure (psia)
◦ Pn = new absolute pressure (psia)
◦ Vo = original volume (cubic feet)
◦ Vn = new volume (cubic feet)

 What is the new volume of 3 cubic feet of gas
at 25 psig if it is compressed to 40 psig?
 4 cubic feet of gas is expanded from 45 psig

to 10 psig. What is the new volume in cubic
feet?

 With a constant pressure, the volume of a
given quantity of confined gas varies
directly with its absolute temperature
 With a constant volume of gas, the pressure

varies directly with its absolute temperature
 Absolute temperature = oF + 460

 At constant pressure:
◦ Vo x Tn = Vn x To
◦ Vn = Vo x Tn / To
◦ Tn = Vn x To / Vo
◦ Where:
 To = original absolute temperature
 Tn = new absolute temperature
 Vo = original volume (cubic feet)
 Vn = new volume (cubic feet)

 At constant volume:
◦ Po x Tn = Pn x To
◦ Tn = Pn x To / Po
◦ Pn = Po x Tn / To
◦ Where:
 To = original absolute temperature
 Tn = new absolute temperature
 Po = original absolute pressure (psia)
 Pn = new absolute pressure (psia)

 What is the new volume of 10 cubic feet of
gas at 50 degrees if the temperature is raised
to 130 degrees at constant pressure?
 What is the new pressure (in psig) of a

quantity of gas in a cylinder whose pressure
is 30 psig at 40 degrees if the temperature is
raised to 95 degrees?

 Study of dry air and water vapor mixtures
 Condition of the air (temperature and

humidity) affect human comfort
 Dry air a mixture of gases (nitrogen, oxygen

and others)

 Specific volume: how much space 1 pound of
dry air occupies.
◦ At 70oF and sea level: 13.33 ft3/lb
 Specific density: Weight of dry air per 1 ft3

◦ At 70oF and sea level: 0.075 lb/ft3
 Specific heat: ability to get hot

◦ At 70oF and sea level: 0.24 Btu/lb/oF

 The amount of heat which, when added to
air, causes a change in temperature with no
change in the amount of moisture present
 Measured with a thermometer
 Sensible heat = specific heat x specific

density x 60 min/hr x CFM x ∆T (Btuh)
◦ Btuh = 0.24 x.075 x 60 x CFM x ∆T
◦ Btuh = 1.08 x CFM x ∆T

 Amount of humidity affects rate at which
perspiration evaporates, making skin cooler
 Comes from evaporation of earth’s ocean and

other bodies into the atmosphere
 Inside, comes from cooking, showers, human

respiration and perspiration

 Moisture contained in the air
◦ Pounds moisture per pound of dry air
◦ Grains moisture per pound of dry air
◦ At 70oF and sea level, 7000 grains per pound of
water
 Saturated air: holds all the moisture it can at

that temperature and pressure
 Saturated air at 70oF and sea level contains
110.5 grains of water or 0.01579 pounds of
water per pound of dry air

 Amount of water held by the air as a percent
of what it can hold at that temperature and
pressure
 Expressed as a percentage
 Warmer air will hold more water

 Relative humidity affects comfort
◦ Winter: 67-76oF, 30% RH
◦ Summer: 72-81oF, 40% RH

 Dressed in typical summer
or winter clothing
 Engaged in sedentary
activity
 Air motion in occupied

zone does not exceed 30
fpm (winter) or 50 fpm
(summer)
ASHRAE Comfort Chart

 Sling psychrometers
 Electronic psychrometers
 Hygrometers with thermometers
 Measure both air temperature and moisture

content

 Two thermometers – dry bulb and wet bulb
 Dry bulb measures sensible heat
 Wet bulb thermometer has wick saturated

with distilled water, evaporation lowers
temperature, taking into account moisture
content of air

 Insure that wick is wet
 Whirl psychrometer with a steady motion through

surrounding air (30 sec. minimum)
 Periodically check wet bulb readings
 Accept wet bulb reading when two consecutive readings

the same
 Always read wet bulb before dry bulb
 Do not touch wick when taking reading

 Determine approximate relative humidity
from sliding scale
 More precise readings can be made by

plotting the dry bulb and wet bulb
temperatures on the psychrometric chart
(covered next week)

 Measure dry bulb and wet bulb temperature
directly or measure relative humidity directly
 Read out relative humidity

 Temperature at which water vapor in the air
becomes saturated with moisture and the
moisture starts to condense into water
droplets
 If relative humidity is 100%, dewpoint, wet

bulb and dry bulb temperatures are all the
same (no water can be evaporated from the
wet bulb thermometer)

 Total heat content of air and water vapor mixture
 Measured from pre-determined base point
 Expressed in Btu/lb
 Find enthalpy of air stream by measuring dry and

wet bulb temperature and plotting on a
psychrometric chart

 Btu/hr
 Enthalpy difference of air entering and

leaving equipment x specific density of air x
cfm x 60 min/hr
 Btu/hr (Btuh) = 4.5 x cfm x ∆H

 Enthalpy of 10,000 cfm of air entering and
leaving a cooling coil are as follows:
◦ 41.5 btu/lb
◦ 22.3 Btu/lb
 What is capacity of unit in Btu/hr? Tons?

◦ Btu/hr = 4.5 x 10000 x (41.5-22.3) = 864,000
Btu/hr
◦ 864,000 Btu/hr x 1ton/12,000 Btu/hr = 72 T

 Read pages 11.1 – 11.7
 Answer “Think about it” in complete and

thoughtful sentences and paragraphs. Watch
spelling and grammar. Neatness counts!
 Worksheet on gas pressure relationships
 Lab on RH measurements

 Review of the Process
 Defining State Points
 Application of Mixed Air Calculation
 Defining Sensible Heat Ratio
 Application of Sensible Heat Ratio
 Defining Supply Airflow

dry-bulb humidity dry-bulb humidity
temp. ratio temp. ratio
25°F 19.14 60°F 77.61
30°F 24.19 65°F 92.89
35°F 29.94 70°F 110.82
40°F 36.51 75°F 131.83
45°F 44.34 80°F 156.38
50°F 53.63 85°F 185.03
55°F 64.63 90°F 218.42

220
218.42
200
Humidity Ratio (grains/lb of dry air)
180 185.03
160
156.38
140
131.83
120
110.82
100
92.89
80
77.61
60 64.63
53.63
40 44.34
36.51
20 24.19
29.94
19.14
0
25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110
Dry-Bulb Temperature (°F)

10
220
200
180
100% relative humidity curve
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110

10
220
200
relative humidity
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0%
25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110

10
220
200
180
160
140
120
100 dew point

80 humidity ratio
60
40 wet bulb
dry bulb
20 relative humidity
25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110
Dry-Bulb Temperature Abd_elsalam (°F)

12/27/2005
10
3
220
200
180
160
specific volume lines
140 (cubic feet / pound of dry air)
120
100
80
60
40
20
25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110
Dry-Bulb Temperature
Prepared (°F)12/27/2005
by Dr. Khalil M. Abd_elsalam
10
4
10
78°F
72°F
95°F
11
mixture outdoor
supply C air (OA)
fan B
cooling
coil A
Re-circulated air (RA)
11
outdoor air
B
A
Re-circulated air
95°F
80°F
11
C B
4,000 cfm 1,000 cfm

mixed air OA
1,000 cfm
= 0.25 A
4,000 cfm
3,000 cfm
OA = 25% RA
RA = 75%
mixture = 100%
11
95°F × 0.25 = 23.75°F
80°F × 0.75 = 60.00°F
mixture = 83.75°F
11
B
70°F
C
A 95°F
83.75°F
80°F
11
supply air
return air
sensible
heat
latent
heat
11
Sensible Heat Gain
SHR =
Sensible Heat Gain + Latent Heat Gain
11
78°F DB
65°F WB
index point
11
Drawing an SHR Line
A
index point
Prepared by Dr. Khalil M. 11

Drawing an SHR Line
B
D
C
index point 80°F

STEP 1: Calculate the sensible heat ratio (SHR)
80,000 Btu/hr sensible heat gain

20,000 Btu/hr latent heat gain
80,000 Btu/hr
SHR = = 0.80
100,000 Btu/hr

room — 78°F DB, 50% RH
outdoor air (OA) — 95°F DB, 78°F WB
ventilation — 25% OA

STEP 2: Plot room, outdoor, and entering conditions
95°F × 0.25 = 23.75°F

78°F × 0.75 = 58.50°F
mixture = 82.25°F
B
12
Determining Supply Airflow
STEP 3: Identify supply air conditions
A
D
56.5°F 78°F
12
STEP 4: Solve the supply airflow equation
Supply Sensible Heat Gain

=
Airflow 1.085 × (Room DB – Supply DB)
80,000 Btu/hr
= 3,430 cfm
1.085 × (78°F – 56.5°F)
12
B
C
D A
56.5°
F
SA D C B
82.2°F DB
3,430 cfm
68.6°F WB OA
56.5°F DB mixture
55.2°F WB
A
RA
Prepared by Dr. Khalil M. Abd_elsalam 12/27/2005
12
7
12
Building Energy Efficiency
Topic 2: Gas-Vapor Mixtures and Air-Conditioning
 Dry and Atmospheric Air

 Specific and Relative
Humidity
 Dew-Point Temperature
 Adiabatic Saturation and Wet-
Bulb Temperatures
 The Psychrometric Chart
 Cooling Systems
12
 Dry and Atmospheric Air
 (fig. 13-1)
13
© The McGraw-Hill
Prepared by Dr. Khalil M. Abd_elsalam 12/27/2005 Companies, Inc.,1998 0
 The enthalpy change of dry air during a
process can be determined from
 The atmospheric air can be treated as an

ideal-gas mixture whose pressure is the sum
of the partial pressure of dry air Pa and that of
the water vapor Pv,
P = Pa + Pv
13
At temperatures below 50•C, the h = constant lines
coincide with the T = constant lines in the
superheated region of water
13
 The enthalpy of water vapor in the air can be
taken to be equal to the enthalpy of the
saturated vapor at the same temperature:

in the temperature range - 10 to 50oC (15 to

120oF).
13
 (Fig. 13-3)
13
 Specific and Relative Humidity
 The mass of water vapor present in 1 unit
mass of dry air is called the specific or
absolute humidity,
where P is the total pressure of air and Pv is

the vapor pressure.
 There is a limit on the amount of vapor the air
can hold at a given temperature. Air that is
holding as much moisture as it can is called
saturated air .
13
 The ratio of the amount of moisture air holds
(mv) to the maximum amount of moisture air
can hold at the same temperature (mg) is called
the relative humidity
where Pg = Psat @ T
13
 (Fig. 13-4)
13
 In this topic we discussed the air-water-
vapor mixture, which is the most commonly
encountered gas-vapor mixture in practice.
The air in the atmosphere normally contains
some water vapor, and it is referred to as
atmospheric air. By contrast, air that contains
no water vapor is called dry air.
 In the temperature range encountered in air-

conditioning applications, both the dry air and
the water vapor can be treated as ideal gases.
13
 The relative and specific humidities can also
be expressed as
ωP 0.622 Pv
φ= ; and ω =
(0.622 + ω)Pg P − Pv
Relative humidity ranges from o for dry air to
1 for saturated air.
 The enthalpy of atmospheric air is expressed

per unit mass of dry air , instead of per unit
mass of the air-water-vapor mixture, as
13
The enthalpy of moist (atmospheric) air is expressed
per unit mass of dry air, not per unit mass of moist
air
14
 Dew-Point Temperature
 The ordinary temperature of atmospheric air
is referred to as the dry-bulb temperature to
differentiate it from other forms of
temperatures
 The temperature at which condensation

begins if the air is cooled at constant pressure
is called the dew-point temperature TdP:
Tdp = Tsat @ Pv
14
 (Fig. 13-8)
14
 Adiabatic Saturation and Wet-Bulb Temperature
Liquid water
14
 Relative humidity and specific humidity of air
can be determined by measuring the
adiabatic saturation temperature of air, which
is the temperature the air attains after
flowing over water in a long channel until it is
saturated,
C p (T2 − T1 ) + ω2 h fg 2 0.622 Pg 2
ω1 = where ω2 =
hg 1 − h f 2 P2 − Pg 2
and T2 is the adiabatic saturation

temperature.
14
 A more practical approach to determining the
properties of air in air-conditioning
applications is to use a thermometer whose
bulb is covered with a cotton wick saturated
with water and to blow air over the wick. The
temperature measured in this manner is
called the wet-bulb temperature Twb, and it is
used in place of the adiabatic saturation
temperature.
14
 Adiabatic Saturation and Wet-Bulb
Temperature
Sling Psychrometer
14
 The properties of atmospheric air at a
specified total pressure are presented in the
form of easily readable charts, called
psychrometric charts. The lines of constant
enthalpy and the lines of constant wet-bulb
temperature are very nearly parallel on these
charts.
14
Quality is related to the horizontal differences of
P-V and T-v diagrams
14
 The needs of the human body and the
conditions of the environment are not quite
compatible. Therefore, it often becomes
necessary to change the conditions of a living
space to make it more comfortable. Maintaining
a living space or an industrial facility at the
desired temperature and humidity may require
simple heating (raising the temperature), simple
cooling (lowering the temperature), humidifying
(adding moisture), or dehumidifying (removing
moisture). Sometimes two or more of these
processes are needed to bring the air to the
desired temperature and humidity level.
14
 (Fig. 13-20)
15
 Most air-conditioning processes can be modeled
as steady-flow processes, and therefore they can
be analyzed by applying the steady-flow mass
(for both dry air and water) and energy balances,
Dry air mass:
Water mass:
Energy:
where subscripts i and e denote inlet and exit

states, respectively. The changes in kinetic and
potential energies are assumed to be negligible.
15
 Cooling Systems
 During a simple heating or cooling process
(T2 >Tdp,1), the specific humidity remains
constant, but the temperature and the
relative humidity change.
 Sometimes air is humidified after it is heated,
and some cooling processes include
dehumidification (T2 <Tdp,1). In dry climates,
the air can be cooled via evaporative cooling
by passing it through a section where it is
sprayed with water.
15
At a given P and T, a pure substance will exist as a
compressed liquid if T<T sat @ P
15
When two airstreams at
states 1 and 2 are mixed
adiabatically, the state of the
mixture lies on the straight
line connecting the two
states
m a1 ω2 − ω3
=
m a 2 ω3 − ω1
h2 − h3
=
h3 − h1
15
15
 (fig. 13-32)
15
 In locations with limited water supply, large
amounts of waste heat can be rejected to the
atmosphere with minimum water loss through
the use of cooling towers.
15
15
15
The Basics of Heating, Ventilation
and Air Conditioning
16
 Energy
Code
Workshops
 Greenprint
s
 Commercia
l Systems
 EarthCraft
House
16
 Heating, Ventilation and
Air Conditioning
 Provides comfort for
people
 Allows humans to exist
under adverse
conditions.
16
 Comfort is primary
intent of HVAC
systems.
 Productivity
 Building Durability
 Health
 Mold
16
 Heating and Cooling
 Accuracy important!
 Design conditions
 Building shell load
 R, U value
 Internal load
 Ventilation load
 Infiltration
 Occupancy schedules
16
 Conduction
 Convection
 Radiation
 Resistance (R-Value)
 U=1/R
 Q = U x A x ∆T U-Value is the rate of
heat flow in Btu/h
through a one ft2 area
when one side is 1oF
warmer
16
The amount of solar
heat energy allowed to
pass through a window
Example: SHGC = 0.40

Allows 40% through and
turns 60% away
16
 Dry bulb temp.
 Wet bulb temp.
 Humidity
 Dew point
 Moisture content
 Heating
 Cooling
 Humidify
 De-Humidify
Psychrometric Chart
16
Condenser
Compressor
Expansion
Valve
Evaporator
16
 Fans / Blowers
 Furnace / Heating unit
 Filters
 Compressor
 Condensing units
 Evaporator (cooling coil)
 Control System
 Air Distribution System
16
17
 Packaged Constant Volume
Rooftop Unit
Variable Volume
 Split System
Indoor Air Quality
 Heat Pump
Direct Expansion
 Geothermal
 Air to Air
 Hydronic (water)
 PTAC / PTHP
17
17
Ductwork
Heating
and Cooling
Equipment
FURNACE
A/C UNIT
Temperature &
Humidity Controls
17
• Operate on simple
refrigeration cycle
• Reversing the cycle
provides heating
• Temperature limitations
• Air to air
• Water source
• Geothermal
• Lake coupled
17
17
Variable Speed
Supply Fan Supply Ducts
VAV Box
Filters
Cool Coil w/Temp Reset
Heat Coil w/Temp

Return Air
Reheat Coil
Reset
T T
Zone Thermostat
Variable Speed Return Ducts

Return Fan
17
HVAC-17
Variable Constant volume:
volume: Series
Parallel
17
 Pumps
 Piping
 Valves
17
 Thermostats
◦ Manual
◦ Programmable
 Optimum Start
 DDC Systems
 Variable Speed Drives
 Automatic Valves and Dampers
 Outdoor Sensors
17
 Chillers
 Boilers
 Cooling
Towers
18
Air Side Water Side
18
Free cooling source: When available, use cool
outdoor air instead of mechanically cooled air.
Minimum supply of 55 oF and up
outside air
55 oF 85%
outside air
85%
80 oF exhaust 80 oF
Normal Operation Economizer Operation

Outside air dampers are positioned Outside air dampers are fully open.
to provide the minimum outside air Maximum outside air is provided
18
HVAC-18
• Economizers provide “free cooling”
when outdoor conditions are optimal
• Proper orientation & zoning yields

comfort & efficiency
W Core E
18
HVAC-18
 Ductwork
◦ Metal
◦ Flexible
◦ Ductboard
 Grilles,
Louvers,
& Registers
 Dampers
◦ Shut off
◦ Fire
◦ Smoke
 Sealants
 Supports
18
Return Plenum Problems
18
HVAC-18
 Energy Recovery
Units
 Desiccant Systems
18
 Heat Exchangers
 Humidifiers
 Silencers
18
Return air is mixed with ventilation air
Cold coil condenses moisture
Heat is added back (electric or gas) so that room air

is not over cooled- Reheat
Filter
18
70
Smoking 62-89
60
50
40 Flugge
Billings
1905
1895
Nightengale
30 1865
Smoking 62-81
ASH-
RAE
20 ASHRAE 62-89
62-73
Tredgold Yaglou
10 1836 1938
ASHRAE 62-81
0
35
42
49
56
63
70
77
84
91
98
05
12
19
26
33
40
47
54
61
68
75
82
89
96
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
18
• Mechanically provide filtered and
dehumidified outdoor air to the
breathing space
• Vary ventilation based on the number
of occupants and process loads -
changes in occupancy can be measured
by CO2 sensors
• Consider designs that separate
ventilation and space conditioning
• Utilize heat recovery systems to reduce
system size and ventilation energy
costs
19
 Effective mixing of
ventilation air within
space
 Net positive pressure in
the southeast; exhaust
from appropriate spaces
 Provide clean outdoor
air, avoid:
◦ loading docks
◦ exhaust vents
◦ plumbing stacks
◦ waste collection
◦ stagnant water
19
 ASHRAE – The American Society of
Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
Conditioning Engineers
◦ www.ashrae.org
 Southface Energy Institute
www.southface.org
 Geothermal heat pump consortium
www.geoexchange.org
 www.buildingscience.com
 www.energycodes.gov
19

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HVAC Design,

Prepared by Dr. Khalil M. Abd_elsalam 12/27/2005 1

Prepared by Dr. Khalil M. Abd_elsalam 12/27/2005 3

Prepared by Dr. Khalil M. Abd_elsalam 12/27/2005 4

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Prepared by Dr. Khalil M.

Ventilation — Rooms typically have several complete air

Prepared by Dr. Khalil M. Abd_elsalam 12/27/2005 8

Prepared by Dr. Khalil M. Abd_elsalam 12/27/2005 9

1. Heating: the process of adding thermal energy (heat) to

Prepared by Dr. Khalil M. Abd_elsalam 12/27/2005 11

4. Dehumidifying: the process of removing water

Prepared by Dr. Khalil M. Abd_elsalam 12/27/2005 12

Prepared by Dr. Khalil M. Abd_elsalam 12/27/2005 14

Prepared by Dr. Khalil M.

Prepared by Dr. Khalil M. Abd_elsalam 12/27/2005 16

Understanding the principles of heat transfer helps a

Prepared by Dr. Khalil M. Abd_elsalam 12/27/2005 17

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Prepared by Dr. Khalil M. Abd_elsalam 12/27/2005 22

Animation: Heat Transfer Prepared by Dr. Khalil M. Abd_elsalam 12/27/2005 23

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Prepared by Dr. Khalil M. Abd_elsalam 12/27/2005 27

Prepared by Dr. Khalil M. Abd_elsalam 12/27/2005 28

Gas: Steam, Above 212 F

 Latentheat causes a change of

Prepared by Dr. Khalil M. Abd_elsalam 12/27/2005 30

Prepared by Dr. Khalil M. Abd_elsalam 12/27/2005 31

Prepared by Dr. Khalil M. Abd_elsalam 12/27/2005 32

 It takes 970 Btu’s to boil or vaporize 1 lb.

Prepared by Dr. Khalil M. Abd_elsalam 12/27/2005 33

 Evaporator: liquid changing to gas

 Condenser: gas changing to liquid

Prepared by Dr. Khalil M. Abd_elsalam 12/27/2005 34

 Increased pressure=increased boiling point

 Decreased pressure=decreased boiling

Prepared by Dr. Khalil M. Abd_elsalam 12/27/2005 35

Boiling Point = Boiling Point =

The boiling point will increase if we raise the pressure on a liquid. In

Prepared by Dr. Khalil M. Abd_elsalam 12/27/2005 36

Prepared by Dr. Khalil M. Abd_elsalam 12/27/2005 37

Prepared by Dr. Khalil M. Abd_elsalam 12/27/2005 38

 Heat is removed from a gas at 212 deg. to

 Raising the pressure of a gas allows the gas

Prepared by Dr. Khalil M. Abd_elsalam 12/27/2005 39

 Critical pressure: the pressure that is necessary

Prepared by Dr. Khalil M. Abd_elsalam 12/27/2005 40

 Saturated vapor: a liquid and a gas inside a closed

Prepared by Dr. Khalil M. Abd_elsalam 12/27/2005 41

 Vacuum: pressures below atmospheric pressure

 Vacuum is measured on a gauge calibrated in

 29.92”Hg. is a perfect vacuum and represents no

Prepared by Dr. Khalil M.

 Gauge pressures: gauges with zero points at

 Absolute pressures: gauges with zero points at an