WEEK 1 AND 2: SECURING CARGOS

Different methods

 Blocking
Examples of blocking: front wall, wedges, dunnage bags, chocks and beams.
 Lashings
Examples of lashings are web lashings, loadbinders with chain and fixed winches. The equipment can be used in different
applications e.g. top-over lashings (friction lashing), direct lashings and loop lashings.
 Locking
Means that the cargo is mechanically locked to the load bearer. One example is twistlock for containers.

Different kinds of lashings

Web lashings - To use a web lashing, or textile lashing, is one of the most common ways of securing cargo. One method
that is often used is a top-over lashing (friction lashing). When using a top-over lashing the cargo is pressed down against
the load carrier by the tensioning force built up in the lashing, simplified one could say that the weight is “increased”.
This combined “weight” in interaction with the actual friction between the cargo and the load carrier's surface prevents
the cargo from sliding. This type of lashing is also used to prevent cargo from tipping and/or to wander.The tensioning
force for the current lashing can be found on the marking (label) of the lashing and is called STF. When using the lashing
as a direct lashing or a loop-lashing the strength in straight pull is used. When doing so the LC, or Lashing Capacity, is
used.

Chain lashings - A chain lashing is used in the same way as a web lashing with the distinction that it is more commonly
used as a direct lashing. With a chain lashing in G80 or G100 much higher values for LC and STF are reached.

Fixed winches - are often mounted on the outside of the load bearer. The can be of a simple configuration with a slotted
axis, tensioning device and locking or a little bit more advanced being encapsulated containing a web storage. They can
be bolted or welded in place.

The making of lashing equipment

The choice of lashing is decided by what kind of cargo to be secured and also of what kind of load carrier that will carry
the cargo (rail, road, sea etc.)

Since May 2001, lashing equipment, with few exceptions *, has been manufactured in accordance with EN-12195 ** in
all EU countries. Since May 20, 2018, the European Directive 2014/47 / EC states that the equipment shall fulfill a
number of listed standards or otherwise be certified, including EN 12195 **. The Swedish regulations contain this
directive in the TSFS 2017: 25

* e.g. a lashing on board a ship can be marked and constructed in a different way.
** EN 12195-2 for synthetic lashings, EN 12195-3 for chain lashings.
The marking of a lashing equipment

Lashing equipment must be provided with a marking that at least contains the following information:

Lashing capacity (LC) - The lashing value allowed to calculate with, received by a straight pull in the endfittings. This
value is used when the lashing is used as a direct lashing or loop-lashing. The value is given in daN for web lashings, and
kN for chain lashings.
1 daN ≈ 1 kg
1 kN = 100 daN ≈ 100 kg

Standard Hand Force (SHF) - The Standard Handeling Force the ratchet is designed for. Normally this is 50 daN (50 kg).

Standard Tension Force (STF) - Indicates the tensioning force received when the ratchet is handled with the given SHF
(normally 50 daN). It is this value that is used calculating the need for top-over lashings (friction lashings).

Webbing and chain identification - On the label (or marking tag) is also noted what material the webbing is made of or
what grade the loadbinder and chain is made of.

Breaking Strength (BS) - The breaking strength is the force a new lashing shall withstand in straight pull. Which means
that if the hooks are to be pulled straight away from each other the lashing shall perform at least the breaking strength
stated. In general Forankra does not quote this value on our lashings. If you still want to know the approximate breaking
strength for a synthetic lashing, the indication is that the lashing must be able handle at least the double LC value
without breaking.
WEEK 3 AND 4: CONTAINER CARGO AND BULK CARGO

Containers are the most transported method of cargo form in the world as they are transported by all the three
transportation systems available i.e. land, air and water. The aspect of cargo handling of the containers of different
dimensions on ships become very critical as they are subjected to harsh weather and strong wind in the mid sea. A
research states that every year more than 10,000 containers fall overboard and spill their cargo into the ocean; 50 % of
this happens due to negligence in the cargo handling.

Different types of cargo handling equipments are used to secure containers to the ship and to other containers stacked
on top of other. The details of these equipments are given in cargo securing manual (CSM) present onboard.

Some of the important container cargo handling equipments are:

Base Twistlock: As the name suggests, it is used on deck and is mounted on the socket provided on the deck. The
shipping container is loaded over the base twist lock and it is to be installed as per the procedure in CSM. After loading
ensure that the wire handle is in lock position.

Locked position
To remove pull the wire all the way, tilt the twist lock backwards and lift the twist lock from the socket.

Semi Automatic Twistlock: This twistlock are used in between the containers i.e, when a container is loaded on top of
other container to form a stack. A semi automatic twist lock is inserted in between them. They are not used for the
position of midlocks.
Midlocks: They are used on deck between the 20 ft containers.

Semi Automatic Base Twistlock: They are also used on deck on the lowermost tier except for the position of midlocks.

Hanging staker: A hanging staker is equipment which holds for 20 ft containers on all the four sides.

Lashing Rods: Lashing rods are rods of different lengths to hold the containers from one end and are tied up to the deck
surface from the other end.

Turnbuckle & Bottle screw: They are used in combination for tensioning the lashing of the container so that they won’t
get loose.

Spammer: A spanner or a tightening tool must be available for tightening the bottle screws and turnbuckles.

Emergency tool: It is a tool which is used when a twist lock cannot be unlocked by pulling the wire handle. It is used in
such a way that the emergency tool is in a position that will keep the twist lock open and the container can be then lifted
along with the tool.

Grease: It is an anti seize compound that should be applied to all the lashing equipment as required so that they are well
maintained and in operational condition.
A brief list of equipments used for container handling on ports:

Port equipment includes straddle carriers for container transportation on berth

Tractors and trailers/semi-trailers for back up transportation and movement within a terminal area,
Stacker cranes and side loaders to assist in cargo handling.
The cargo handling equipment used for ship during cargo operations are gantry cranes on the pier.
Gantry cranes are especially used for container handling. These cranes are fitted with spreaders that can be adjusted for
twenty foot, forty foot and forty-five foot containers. Some of them can also be adjusted for twin lift.
Some ships are fitted with cranes, which can also be used for container handling. These cranes are operated by trained
and experienced personnel.
It should be noted that the lashing should not be over tightened as they are pre tensioned. Excessive tightening may
lead to excessive loading on the containers and may damage them during rolling. Hence lashing should be tightened
with only the spanner with slight force. Also the lock nuts on the turnbuckle should be locked in position

Bulk carriers are a type of ship which transports cargoes in bulk quantities. The cargo transported in such ships is loose
cargo i.e. without any specific packaging to it and generally contains items like food grains, ores and coals and even
cement. Since their inception towards the mid-19th century, bulk vessels have been revolutionized and streamlined in
order to facilitate greater ease for their owners and operators, presently. In addition to carrying dry cargo like the ones
specified above, a bulker is also engaged at times to carry liquefied cargoes. The liquefied cargo carried by the bulk ship
includes oil, petrol and various other liquid chemical substances.

Although bulk carriers have been employed since the 1850s, their appropriate definition and interpretation can be
found in the SOLAS Convention – year 1999. However, over the years various other interpretations have also been
added to the official definition, which are now being employed quite effectively.

In terms of capacitances, bulk vessels can carry a maximum cargo of about 4, 00,000 DWT. The vessels are further sub-
divided into six major classes based on their cargo carrying capacitance and the important marine channels through
which they can easily pass. The various classes of bulk cargo vessels in the descending order of cargo capacitance can be
elaborated as under:

 Very Large Carriers

 Capesize & handymax
 Panamax
 Handysize
 Small sized
Apart from these major classifications, there are several other classifications applicable to certain specific navigation
channels. These vessel classifications however do not form a part of the international shipping domain but are restricted
to certain geographical shipping arenas. In order to bring about a better quality to the cargo ship, it has been proposed
that these vessels be built according to Common Structural Rules or CSR. Vessels that are built according to the CSR
specifications are annotated with the CSR notation, which helps to boost the vessel’s credibility in the global sector.
Similarly the vessels are also required to undertake the ESP (Enhanced Survey Program) as a part of the SOLAS
Convention rules. The ESP mainly involves a thorough monitoring and checking of the hulls of these types of ships.
Statistically, the bulk cargo carriers have a stake of about 40% in the international shipping sector. Of these 40%, the
market leaders in terms of ownerships and operations are the South Asian countries like China, Japan and South Korea.
In addition to these nations, Greece is yet another leading owner and operator of bulk carriers. Looking at these figures,
it can be inferred that the bulk ship still enjoys a vital position in the overall scheme of operations in the maritime sector.
Also with a greater reduction in the threat to safety and health of the crewmen and the longevity of the vessel as well, it
can be prognosticated that these vessels will still continue to remain a part of the maritime industry for years to come.
WEEK 5 : BULK GRAIN CARGO

Carrying Grain :One of the most difficult and dangerous cargoes to carry in bulk are grain cargoes. Most grains have an
angle of repose (slip angle) of about 20° from the horizontal, which means that if the ship rolls more than 20° the cargo
will shift. Then this happens the ship will develop a large list, lying on her side and still rolling will obviously cause a
greater shift of cargo which in turn will capsize the vessel.

Most authorities therefore request that the master proves that his ship is capable of remaining stable even if the grain
cargo shifts. This is done by the compiling of the Grain Loading Form which fully outlines the ships stability at the worse
condition on passage.
Because grain cargoes are liable to shift, heavy emphasis is placed on the stability of ships that carry them. The main
reason is the variation in the types of grain, including its size and its ability to develop a free flow state when loaded in
bulk.

Each ship carrying grain has to provide grain specific stability information, including grain heeling moments, to the
terminal. This section looks at various problems, methods and precautions that must be taken when carrying grain
cargoes. Grain cargoes carried in bags are not considered as bulk cargo.

The bulk carriers' grain loading manual contains Volumetric Heeling Moments (VHM), which are values based on an
assumed surface grain shift of 15° (for a full compartment) and 25° (for a partially full compartment).

1. To avoid shifting of cargo, the grain surfaces must be reasonably trimmed:

a) Filled compartment, trimmed - the cargo should be trimmed so that all spaces under deck and hatch
covers are filled to the fullest extent possible.

b) Filled compartment, untrimmed - the cargo should be trimmed within the hatchway but may be left
at its natural angle of repose on the surrounding area of the hatchway. The same can be applied for a filled
compartment, trimmed if:

dispensation is granted from trimming by the authority issuing the Document of Authorisation on the basis that the
cargo can flow freely to underdeck empty areas through feeder ducts, perforated decks, etc, or
The compartment is designated a `Specially Suitable Compartment', in which case exemption may be granted from
trimming the compartment ends.

2. If the cargo is stowed only in the lower compartment, the lower compartment hatch covers should be secured
in the approved manner.

3. If the cargo is stowed in the upper compartment above a tween deck whose covers are not grain- tight, the
covers should be made grain-tight using sealing tape, tarpaulins or separation cloths.

4. In partly filled compartments, the surface of bulk grain should be secured by over-stowing except in cases
where heeling moments due to grain shift have been calculated and taken into consideration for stability of the vessel.

5. Longitudinal divisions may be fitted to reduce heeling moments due to shift of grain in filled compartments,
trimmed, filled compartments, untrimmed and partly filled compartments, provided that each division:
a. Is made grain-tight.
b. Is constructed according to the Grain Code standards.
c. Extends from deck to deck in tweendecks.
d. Extends downwards from the underside of the hatch covers.
6. The Master shall ensure that the ship:
a. Before loading, can comply with intact stability criteria at all stages of the voyage.
b. Is upright before proceeding to sea.
c. Has all the paperwork completed and onboard.

Fumigation requirement - Charterers and shippers may require the cargo to be fumigated. If this is to be done during the
voyage or before or after loading, full and clear instructions should be received from the charterers and shippers. These
instructions should refer to product data sheets and the correct procedures and safety advice, application dangers,
method of handling, and requirements for personal protective equipment and monitoring equipment. Refer to IMO
Recommendations on the Safe Use of Pesticides on Ships. Always carry out a risk assessment. A qualified fumigator
should be engaged by the charterers when fumigation is to be done in port. All spaces should be padlocked and sealed
to prevent anyone from entering the space. No-one should enter a space that has been fumigated until after it has been
thoroughly ventilated. It is recommended that an expert chemist declares whether the space is safe to enter. If the
cargo requires ventilation after fumigation, advice should be sought from fumigation experts in respect to crew safety.

Bulk cargo fire hazard

Fuel oil tanks precautions

 masters and officers must be aware of the location of the heated fuel oil tanks
 masters and officers should monitor the tank top temperature above the fuel oil tanks as this can affect the
integrity of certain cargoes – particularly grain cargoes
 fuel oil temperatures can be monitored on the fuel oil transfer pumps
  masters and chief engineers should manage the fuel oil onboard to reduce heat damage to cargoes loaded in
holds above heated fuel oil tanks
 heat only fuel oil tanks in use

Failed pipes onboard ship carrying grain often cause, or contribute to, many serious claims. Bagged grain on a small bulk
carrier was damaged after water escaped from an air pipe running between a ballast tank and the cargo hold. The pipe
had a corrosion crack where it connected to the tank top and water escaped through the crack when the ballast tank
was overfilled. The ship was 20 years old, but nothing had ever been done to protect the pipe from corrosion; not even a
lick of paint. Cost – $220,000. Repairs to the pipe would have cost less than $150.

Measures against spontaneous combustion : Some grade of grain cargos are carried in a damp condition and may cause
spontaneous combustion to occur. The centre of these cargos will have very little ventilation to allow for cooling effect,
therefore the natural heat generated can build up to such a degree that combustion takes place. Due to the restriction
of oxygen, the cargo will only smolder until part of the cargo is removed, then admitting additional air will cause the
cargo to burst into flames.The only possible way to obtain an early warning of the start of spontaneous combustion is by
monitoring the temperature of the cargo holds. Many ships are fitted with `temperature ports', ie pipes that are fitted
beside the cargo hold access ladders into which thermometers can be lowered to obtain the hold temperature. The best
practice is to leave the thermometers within the ports and withdraw them when a reading is desired. However, if the
ship is not fitted with temperature ports, the sounding pipes could also be used to obtain temperatures. Whichever
method is used for measuring temperature:
a. The thermometers should be reset before introducing them into the pipes
b. the thermometers should be left in the pipes for some time (2-3 minutes at least)
c. the temperature should be measured at least 2-3 height levels within the hold
d. the temperature should not be measured solely at the surface of cargo as it is likely to be quite different from
that at the bottom of the cargo hold.
Modern bulk carriers may be fitted with permanent temperature sensors providing continuous readings. It is important
to maintain records of all temperature observations and ensure readings are taken at the same times and at regular
intervals. This makes it easy to establish a pattern for any irregularities in the observed behaviour.
WEEK 6: CARGO CARE INSPECTION AND PREPARATION OF HOLES SEGREGATION AND SEPARATIONS OF CARGO

Abstract
Many of the chemicals we deal with each day are dangerous and need to be handled correctly and safely. Safe use of
dangerous goods includes recognising when situations can arise where the consequence of a failure or error will result in
danger to life, property or the environment. One of the methods used to minimise risk when dealing with dangerous
goods is by separation and segregation.

Keywords: Hazard, storage facility, control, emergency plan, MSDS, material safety data

DANGEROUS GOODS - A dangerous good is any gas, liquid or solid that has been classified and is listed in the Australian
Code for the Transport of Dangerous Goods or other international equivalent Codes. Typically they are chemicals that
destroy or have the potential to destroy life, property or the environment. They are classified and labeled as a
dangerous good belonging to one of the categories shown in Table 1.

Table 1 Classes of DAngerous Goods

Class Category Description
1 Explosives Fragment violentyly
2 Gases Are vapour or gas at atmospheric conditions
3 Flammable liquids Liquids able to be ignited and burn
4 Flammable solids Spontaneously combust or liberate flammable gases in contact iwth water
5 Oxidizers Release oxygen and may combust
6 Poisonous Cause death or injury to life if it enters into the body
7 Radioactive Emits radiation
8 Corrosive Cause damage to human tissue by chemical reaction
9 Miscellaneous Hazardous materials not fitting into one of hte previous categories
Some of the categories are further broken down into sub- classes that better define the risks associated with the
materials. For example gases are sub-classified as flammable (Class 2.1), non-flammable and non-toxic (Class 2.2) and
poisonous (Class 2.3).Dangerous goods can also have multiple classifications. Once the primary classification is
determined additional classifications are known as subsidiary risks. For example liquid air is classed as 2.2 (non-toxic gas)
with a sub-class of 5.1 (oxidising agent).

Dangerous goods can also have multiple classifications. Once the primary classification is determined additional
classifications are known as subsidiary risks. For example liquid air is classed as 2.2 (non-toxic gas) with a sub-class of 5.1
(oxidising agent).Because many dangerous goods are transported internationally the United Nations have established an
internationally accepted numbering system to indicate dangerous goods. The UN Number must appear on all transport
documentation. Because many dangerous goods are transported internationally the United Nations have established an
internationally accepted numbering system to indicate dangerous goods. The UN Number must appear on all transport
documentation.To assist with emergency situations involving dangerous goods a special coding system known as the
Hazchem Code has been developed. The code’s alphanumeric characters inform the emergency services of the
immediate response actions needed to minimise hazards and restrict the spillage. To assist with emergency situations
involving dangerous goods a special coding system known as the Hazchem Code has been developed. The code’s
alphanumeric characters inform the emergency services of the immediate response actions needed to minimise hazards
and restrict the spillage.All this relevant information and a telephone number for emergency contact is displayed on the
Hazchem Sign or label that accompanies transportation of the chemical.

All this relevant information and a telephone number for emergency contact is displayed on the Hazchem Sign or label
that accompanies transportation of the chemical. An example of a Hazchem sign is shown in Figure 1.
SAFE STORAGE PRACTICES - All hazardous substances must be stored 15 meters from boundary fences and from other
buildings on-site. If a hazard does occur it is better to have a small problem removed from people than a large problem
close to people.
A good philosophy to adopt when storing dangerous good is to only store the least quantity necessary for a short period
of time and make arrangements to replenish stocks often. An alternate approach is to store the required quantity in
several small containers. If one were to be spilt or ruptured only a small volume would be involved. In situations where
large amounts or multiple dangerous goods are required at a site the strategy of separation and segregation combined
with containment is adopted. Separation is the purposeful creation of a barrier between incompatible substances so
they can never come together. Segregation is the spacing of incompatible substances from each other within the same
location. Containment is the deliberate restriction of a hazard to a small geographic area. The Material Safety Data Sheet
(MSDS), which suppliers of chemicals must provide to all users, indicates the requirements for proper storage of the
chemical. In addition various Codes, Standards and Regulations are available that specify separation and segregation
requirements. Usually separation is achieved by installing walls of suitable material between incompatible or hazardous
chemicals. A typical example is the bunding around acid storage tanks. Another example is the locked drug and poisons
cabinet in a doctor’s surgery. Segregation is achieved by spacing incompatible chemicals a prescribed distance apart and
preventing mixing of any spillage. An example is the storage shelves in a hardware store where packages of incompatible
chemicals are separated onto individual shelves. Containment is achieved by limiting any spillage or discharge to the
boundaries of an enclosure. An example is the concrete floor in a mechanic’s workshop graded towards a drain so oil
spills can be captured. Another example is the bunding around aboveground fuel tanks that limit spills and leaks to the
immediate area of the tank.

PLAN TO CONTROL THE HAZARDS - In all cases where chemicals have associated risks and hazards there must be a plan
in place to control the hazards. The best plans are those put together by the people that have to use a chemical and the
people who supply the chemical. This permits practical solutions to be used that satisfy the dangerous characteristics of
the chemical. The plan must satisfy the hazards that arise from the most severe of occurrences. If when designing a plan
it is evident that a major catastrophe is beyond control then it is necessary to redesign the facility and reduce the risk to
one that is manageable with available resources and technology. Plans must consider, amongst the site specific issues,
materials of construction; washing down facilities for contaminated items and clothing; protection against heat and
ignition sources; storage of emergency response equipment; fire protection requirements; the procedure to handle
spillage and the procedure to handle major emergencies. An additional important requirement is practice. Where your
plan includes using in-house resources to confront a hazard the resources must be at constant readiness. This means
regular practice in confronting the hazard. If a hazard does occur you want to be ready and prepared to confront it
rather than e hoping things will be all right.
Mike Sondalini – Maintenance Engineer