LIMITS CONTINUITY

Logarithmic Function  A function 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at a number 𝑐

if all of the following conditions are satisfied:
 The logarithmic form of 𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑦 is 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥 = 𝑦. a. 𝑓(𝑐) exists
 Given that b>0, lim log 𝑏 𝑥 is +∞ b. lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists
𝑥→ +∞ 𝑥→𝑐
c. 𝑓(𝑐) = lim 𝑓(𝑥)
 Given that b>0, lim+ log 𝑏 𝑥 is -∞ 𝑥→𝑐
𝑥→ 0
 lim ln 𝑥 is +∞ DISCONTINUITY
𝑥→ +∞
 lim ln 4𝑥 𝑖𝑠 − ∞  If one of the three conditions was not
𝑥→ 0+
 A vertical asymptote is a vertical line that the satisfied, then the function is discontinuous.
graph of the function approaches as f (x)  Types of Discontinuity:
approaches positive infinity or negative a. Removable Discontinuity- it occurs
infinity. when there is a hole in the graph of a
Note: Logarithmic functions have vertical function.
asymptotes in which it is the restriction of the Note: We can redefine the function to
function. remove the discontinuity.
2𝑥 2 +5𝑥−3
Example: 𝑓(𝑥) = , the redefined
Exponential Function 𝑥+3
function is:
2𝑥 2 +5𝑥−3
 Functions having an exponent that is/has a 𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥+3
; 𝑥 ≠ −3
variable and whose base is greater than zero −7; 𝑥 = −3
and is not equal to 1 is called exponential
function. Steps: 1. Copy the original function then x ≠ should not
 Given that b>0, lim 𝑏 𝑥 is +∞ be equal to the restriction.
𝑥→+∞
 Given that b>0, lim 𝑏 𝑥 is 0
𝑥→−∞ 2. Find the limit then x = restriction
 Given that 0<b<1, lim 𝑏 𝑥 is 0
𝑥→+∞
 Given that 0<b<1, lim 𝑏 𝑥 is +∞ b. Jump Discontinuity- it occurs when the
𝑥→−∞
graph of the function stops at one point and
 The lim 𝑒 𝑥 is +∞
𝑥→+∞ seems to jump at another point. In a jump
 The lim 𝑒 𝑥 is 0 discontinuity, the left hand and the right hand
𝑥→−∞
limits exist but are not equal.
 The lim 𝑒 −𝑥 is 0.
𝑥→+∞ c. Infinite Discontinuity- it occurs when the
 The lim 𝑒 −𝑥 is +∞ function has at least one infinite limit.
𝑥→−∞
 A horizontal asymptote is a horizontal line Intermediate Value Theorem
that the graph of the function approaches as
x approaches positive infinity or negative Intermediate Value theorem states that if the
infinity. function 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous on the closed interval
Note: An exponential function has a [a,b] from point A to point B, then the curve crosses
horizontal asymptote if the limit exists. every line 𝑦 = 𝑦3 in at least one point and this line
Whatever the limit of the function if it exists is lies between the line 𝑦 = 𝑦1 and 𝑦 = 𝑦2 .
automatically the horizontal asymptote of the
function. In other words a function 𝑓(𝑥) which is found to be
 Rational functions have either horizontal or continuous over a closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] will take any
vertical asymptote and some have both. value between 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑓(𝑏).

Trigonometric Functions Extreme Value Theorem

sin 𝑡
 The lim 𝑡 is 1.
𝑥→ 0 The figure illustrates The Extreme Value Theorem
1−cos 𝑡
 The lim is 0. which states that a function 𝑓(𝑥) which is found to be
𝑥→ 0 𝑡
𝑡
𝑒 −1 continuous over a closed interval [a,b] is guaranteed
 The lim is 1. to have extreme values in that interval.
𝑥→ 0 𝑡
An extreme value of 𝑓, or extremum, is either a The steps in finding the equation of the tangent line
minimum or a maximum value of the function. A of any function are:
minimum value of 𝑓 occurs at some 𝑥 = 𝑐 if 𝑓(𝑐) ≤
𝑓(𝑥) for all 𝑥 ≠ 𝑐 in the interval. A maximum value of  Find the value of (𝑥0, 𝑦0 ).
f occurs at some 𝑥 = 𝑐 if 𝑓(𝑐) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥)x for all 𝑥 ≠ 𝑐 in  Get the slope of the tangent line by
the interval. computing
𝑦 − 𝑦0
𝑚 = lim
TANGENT LINE 𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥 − 𝑥0
 Substitute this value of m and the
 The tangent lines at the “peaks” and coordinates of the known point 𝑃 (𝑥0, 𝑦0 ) into
“troughs” of a smooth curve are horizontal.
the point-slope form denoted by 𝑦 − 𝑦0 =
 The tangent line drawn on (0, ±1) and (±1,0)
𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )
is shown below
Example:

Let us find the equation of the tangent line of 𝑦 =

𝑥 2 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 2.

 Find the value of (𝑥0, 𝑦0 ).

 At (±1,0), the tangent lines are vertical and 𝑥0 = 2
at (0, ±1), the tangent lines are horizontal. To find the value of 𝑦0 by substituting 𝑥0 =
2 into 𝑦 = 𝑥 2.
 The tangent line drawn on the points at the 𝑦0 = 22 = 4
first, second, third and fourth quadrant is  Get the slope of the tangent line.
shown below 𝑥2 − 4
𝑚 = lim =4
𝑥→2 𝑥 − 2
 Substitute this value of m and the
coordinates of the known point 𝑃 (𝑥0, 𝑦0 ) into
the point-slope form.
𝑦 − 4 = 4(𝑥 − 2)
𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 4

 At points in the first and third quadrants, the DERIVATIVE

tangent lines are slanting to the left and at  Let the graph below be the graph of a
points in the second and fourth quadrants, function 𝑓(𝑥)with 𝑃 (𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥)) as the
the tangent lines are slanting to the right. coordinate. Let us locate another point on
 the graph which will be labeled as point 𝑄
with coordinate (𝑥 + ∆𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥)) and
connect the two lines with a secant line 𝑃𝑄.

 As Q approaches point P, then PQ will be

tangent to the graph.
 The tangent line to 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at point P is the
limiting position of all secant lines PQ as
point 𝑄 approaches point 𝑃.

 The slope of the secant line is:

Equation of the Tangent Line

 𝑄𝑦 − 𝑃𝑦 Constant Multiple Rule
𝑚=
𝑄𝑥 − 𝑃𝑥  If 𝑐 is a constant 𝑓(𝑥) is a differentiable
𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑦
function then 𝑓′(𝑥) = 𝑐 𝑑𝑥 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑚=
(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑥  𝑓(𝑥) = 3 √𝑥
13
𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑚=
∆𝑥 13 1 1 1 1 1−1 1 −2 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = √𝑥 = 𝑥 3 = ∗ 𝑥 3 = 𝑥 3 = 3 2
3 3 3 3 9 9√𝑥

Sum and Difference Rule

 If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) + ℎ(𝑥) are differentiable

functions, then 𝑓′𝑥 = 𝑔′(𝑥) ± ℎ′(𝑥) ±…..
1 1 3
 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 +
5 3 4

1 1
𝑓′(𝑥) = (4)𝑥 4−1 + (3)𝑥 3−1 − 6(1)𝑥 1−1 + 0
5 3
4
= 𝑥3 + 𝑥2 − 6
5

 ∆𝑥 and ∆𝑦 will be smaller as 𝑄 approaches

𝑃. Product Rule
 Since we are talking about the slope of the
tangent line which is the limit of the slopes  If 𝑓(𝑥) =g(𝑥)* h(𝑥) are differentiable
of the secant lines 𝑃𝑄, we need to find the functions, then 𝑓′(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥)ℎ′(𝑥) +
limit as ∆𝑥 approaches 0. ℎ(𝑥)𝑔′(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)  𝑓(𝑥) = (3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 1)(3𝑥 2 − 4)
𝑚 𝑇𝐿 = lim 𝑑𝑦
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = (3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 1) (3𝑥 2 − 4)
𝑑𝑥
 This limit is so important that it is given a 𝑑𝑦
+ (3𝑥 2 − 4) (3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 1)
name. It is called the derivative. In other 𝑑𝑥
words, the general equation for the slope of = (3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 1)(6𝑥) + (3𝑥 2 − 4)(3𝑥 − 5)
the tangent line is the derivative of the
function. = 18𝑥 3 − 30𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 9𝑥 3 − 15𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 20

Differentiation Rules = 27𝑥 3 − 45𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 20

Constant Rule

 If 𝑐 is any constant denoted by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐, Quotient Rule

then 𝑓′(𝑥) = 0 𝑔(𝑥)
[𝑓(𝑥+∆𝑥)]−𝑓(𝑥)  If 𝑓(𝑥) = ℎ(𝑥) are differentiable functions and
 𝑚 𝑇𝐿 = lim ∆𝑥
∆𝑥→0 ℎ(𝑥)(𝑔′ (𝑥)−𝑔(𝑥)(ℎ ′ (𝑥))
9−9 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓′(𝑥) = 2 .
= lim (ℎ(𝑥))
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥
𝑚 𝑇𝐿 = 0  𝑓′(𝑥) =
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
(5𝑥 2 −3𝑥+2)𝑑𝑥(3𝑥 2 +4)−(3𝑥 2 +4) 𝑑𝑥(5𝑥 2 −3𝑥+2)
Power Rule (5𝑥 2 −3𝑥+2)2
 If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 is a power function, then (5𝑥 2 −3𝑥+2)(6𝑥)−(3𝑥 2 +4) (10𝑥−3)
= (5𝑥 2 −3𝑥+2)2
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
1 30𝑥 3 +18𝑥 2 −12𝑥−30𝑥 3 +9𝑥 2 −40𝑥+12
=
 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 (5𝑥 2 −3𝑥+2)2
27𝑥 2 −52𝑥+12
1 1 1 2√𝑥 =
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑥 −2 = = (5𝑥 2 −3𝑥+2)2
2 2√𝑥 2𝑥
Chain Rule

 It is in the form 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑔(𝑥)) ∗ 𝑔(𝑥)

1
 𝑓(𝑥) = (15𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 2)2
1
1 𝑑𝑦
𝑓′(𝑥) = (15𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 2)2−1 (15𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 2)
2 𝑑𝑥
1
1
= 2 (15𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 2)−2 (30𝑥 − 6)
1
30𝑥−6
=( 2
) (15𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 2)−2
15𝑥−3
=
√15𝑥 2 −6𝑥+2

 𝑓(𝑥) = (3𝑥 − 2)(5𝑥 + 4)2

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑓′(𝑥 = (3𝑥 − 2) (5𝑥 + 4)2 + (5𝑥 + 4)2 (3𝑥 − 2)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= (3𝑥 − 2)(2)(5𝑥 + 4)2−1 (5) + (5𝑥 + 4)2 (3)

= 10(3𝑥 − 2)(5𝑥 + 4) + 3(5𝑥 + 4)2

= 10(15𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 8) + 3(25𝑥 2 + 40𝑥 + 16)

= 150𝑥 2 + 20𝑥 − 80 + 75𝑥 2 + 120𝑥 + 48
= 225𝑥 2 + 140𝑥 − 32

DIFFERENTIABILITY AND CONTINUITY

 If 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎, it does not

mean that (𝑥) is differentiable at 𝑥 = 𝑎.
 If 𝑓(𝑥) is not continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎, then f is
not differentiable 𝑥 = 𝑎.
 If 𝑓(𝑥) is not differentiable at 𝑥 = 𝑎, it does
not mean that 𝑓(𝑥) is not continuous at 𝑥 =
𝑎.
 A function 𝑓(𝑥) is not differentiable at 𝑥 = 𝑎
if one of the following is true:
a. 𝑓(𝑥) is not continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎.
b. the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) has a vertical tangent
line at 𝑥 = 𝑎
c. the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) has a corner or cusp
at 𝑥 = 𝑎.