PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELPOMENT

What is Growth?
• It is a characteristic of living beings in which an irreversible permanent increase in size of
an organ or its parts occur. In smaller living beings, an increase in the size of a cell can
also be termed as growth.
Characteristics of Plant growth
• Plant Growth is Indeterminate
○ Plants retain the capacity of unlimited growth throughout life.
○ Meristems are present in plants that have the ability to divide and self perpetuate.
○ Open form of growth − New cells are always being added to the plant by
meristem.
○ Primary Growth − Occurs due to root apical meristems and shoot apical
meristems
○ Secondary growth − Occurs due to the appearance of lateral meristems, vascular
cambium, and cork cambium later in the life of certain dicots and gymnosperms
• Plant Growth is Measurable
○ Growth is measured by measuring the parameters that are directly proportional to
increase in protoplasm.
○ Increase in weight (fresh and dry weight both), length, area, volume, and cell
number are some parameters.
○ Choice of parameters depends upon type of plant.
Examples:
For pollen tube − length is the parameter
For water melon − cell size is used
For dorsiventral leaf − surface area is used
Phases of Growth
• Three Phases of growth − meristematic, elongation, and maturation
• Meristematic Phase
○ Cells rich in protoplasm
○ Cells possess large conspicuous nuclei
○ Cell wall − Primary, thin, and cellulosic with abundant plasmodesmatal
connections
○ Constantly dividing cells at root and shoot apex are in this phase.
• Elongation Phase
○ Cells enlarge and show increased vacuolation.
○ New cell wall deposits.
 ○ Cells proximal to the merismatic zone (root and shoot tip) are in this phase.
• Maturation Phase
○ Cells attain their maximum size.
○ Wall thickening and protoplasmic modifications take place completely.

.
Growth Rate
Types of Growth Rate
• Growth rate: Increase in growth per unit time
• Plants show two types of growth—Arithmetic and Geometric—according to the increase
shown by the growth rate
• Arithmetic growth
○ Only one daughter cell continues to divide while others differentiate or mature.
○ Example − root elongating at a constant rate

○ Mathematically, Lt= L0 + rt
Where: Lt = Length at time, t
L0 = Initial length
r = Growth rate
○ On plotting length against time, a linear curve is obtained.
• Geometric Growth
○ Initial growth is slow (lag phase), followed by a rapid increase in growth
(log/exponential phase), followed by a phase where growth slows down
(stationary phase)
○ Example − all cells, tissues and organs typically show this type of growth

○ Mathematically, W1 = W0 ert
W1 = Final size
W0 = Initial size
r = Growth rate
t = Time of growth
e = Base of natural algorithms
○ On plotting the size or weight of the organ against time, a sigmoid or S-shaped
curve is obtained.
Ways to compare growth quantitatively
Differentiation, Dedifferentiation, and Redifferentiation
• Differentiation
○ In this process, cells derived from root apical and shoot apical meristems and
cambium differentiate and mature to perform specific functions.
○ Structural changes occur in plant cell (both cell wall and protoplasm).
For example, cells develop strong, elastic, and lignocellulosic cell wall for long
distance transport of water.
• Dedifferentiation
○ Process in which living differentiated cells regain their capacity to divide
○ For example: Formation of meristems such as interfascicular cambium and cork
cambium from fully differentiated parenchyma cells
• Redifferentiation
○ Process in which differentiated cells that have lost their ability to divide are
reformed from dedifferentiated cells
○ Redifferentiated cells have the ability to perform specific functions.
○ Just like growth, differentiation in plants is also open since cells arising from
same meristem may differentiate to form different structures depending upon its
location.
Development − what does it mean?
• Includes all changes that an organism goes through during its life cycle
• Plasticity − Ability of plants to follow different pathways in response to environment or
phases to form different kinds of structures
Some examples are heterophylly in larkspur and Buttercup. In these plants, leaves have
different shapes based on the phase of life cycle as well as the habitat.
• Development can also be termed as − growth + differentiation
• Development is controlled by intrinsic as well as extrinsic factors.
○ Intrinsic − Genetic factors and plant growth regulators
 ○ Extrinsic − light, temperature, water, oxygen, etc.

• Two ways to compare growth quantitatively: By measuring (i) absolute growth rate and
(ii) relative growth rate
• Absolute growth rate:
○ Measurement of total growth per unit time
○ In the given figure, an absolute increase is shown in the areas of the leaves A and
B to form leaves A1 and B1.
• Relative growth rate:
○ Growth of a given system per unit time expressed on a common basis; e.g., per
unit of initial parameter
○ In the given figure, both leaves increase by 10 cm2, but a relatively greater growth
has occurred in leaf A.
Conditions for Growth
• Include: water, oxygen, nutrients
• Water:
○ Cell enlargement requires water.
○ Water provides medium for enzymatic activities.
• Oxygen:
○ Releases metabolic energy needed for growth.
• Nutrients:
○ Source of energy
○ Required for synthesis of protoplasm
• Temperature:
 ○ Plays an important role in growth. Any deviation from the optimum temperature
hampers growth.
• Environment signals (light and gravity)
Differentiation and Development in Plants
Differentiation, Dedifferentiation, and Redifferentiation
• Differentiation
○ In this process, cells derived from root apical and shoot apical meristems and
cambium differentiate and mature to perform specific functions.
○ Structural changes occur in plant cell (both cell wall and protoplasm).
For example, cells develop strong, elastic, and lignocellulosic cell wall for long
distance transport of water.
• Dedifferentiation
○ Process in which living differentiated cells regain their capacity to divide
○ For example: Formation of meristems such as interfascicular cambium and cork
cambium from fully differentiated parenchyma cells
• Redifferentiation
○ Process in which differentiated cells that have lost their ability to divide are
reformed from dedifferentiated cells
○ Redifferentiated cells have the ability to perform specific functions.
○ Just like growth, differentiation in plants is also open since cells arising from
same meristem may differentiate to form different structures depending upon its
location.
Development − what does it mean?
• Includes all changes that an organism goes through during its life cycle
• Plasticity − Ability of plants to follow different pathways in response to environment or
phases to form different kinds of structures
Some examples are heterophylly in larkspur and Buttercup. In these plants, leaves have
different shapes based on the phase of life cycle as well as the habitat.
• Development can also be termed as − growth + differentiation
• Development is controlled by intrinsic as well as extrinsic factors.
○ Intrinsic − Genetic factors and plant growth regulators
○ Extrinsic − light, temperature, water, oxygen, etc.
Division Algae
Classification within Angiosperms
• Artificial system of classification
○ Given by Linnaeus
○ Based on vegetative characters and androecium structures
○ Gave equal importance to vegetative and sexual characteristics
• Natural system of classification
○ Based on morphology, anatomy, embryology, and phytochemistry
○ Given by George Bentham and Joseph Dalton Hooker
• Phylogenetic system of classification - based on evolutionary relationship
• Numerical Taxonomy
○ Based on all observable characteristics
○ Numbers and codes assigned to all characters
○ Easily carried out using computers
• Cytotaxonomy − Based on cytological information such as chromosome number,
structure, behaviour
• Chemotaxonomy − Based on chemical constituents of plant to resolve doubts and
confusions
Division Algae
• Includes chlorophyll-bearing, simple, thalloid, autotrophic, and largely aquatic
(freshwater and marine) organisms
• Some occur in association with fungi (lichens) and animals (on sloth bear).
• Size ranges from microscopic unicellular forms such as Chlamydomonas to colonial
 forms such as Volvoxand to filamentous forms such as Ulothrix and Spirogyra.
• Massive plant-like bodies are seen in some marine forms (such as kelps).

Economic Importance
• Carbon dioxide fixation on earth is majorly carried out by algae.
• Important as primary producers of energy-rich compounds
Example − Sargassum, Laminaria, and Porphyra used as food
• Some brown and red algae species produce water-holding hydrocolloids.
Example − Algin (brown algae) and carrageen (red algae)
• Agar produced by Gelidium and Gracilaria is used to grow microbes and in preparation
of ice creams and jellies.
• Chlorella and Spirulina are protein-rich unicellular algae, used as food supplements.
They are also known as space food.
• Major classes of algae:
Chlorophyceae

• Commonly called green algae

• May be unicellular, colonial, or filamentous
• Grass green in colour due to abundance of chlorophyll a and b

• Chloroplast of most of the Chlorophyceae contains pyrenoids.

• Pyrenoids − Storage bodies containing proteins in addition to starch
• Food storage occurs in the form of oil droplets in some algae.
• Cells have rigid cell wall: inner layer made of cellulose, outer layer made of pectose
Phaeophyceae (Brown algae)
• Primarily marine forms
• Show great variation in size and form
• Range from simple-branched, filamentous forms (Ectocarpus) to profusely branched
forms such as kelps (may reach a height of 100 m)
• Possess chlorophyll a, c, carotenoids, and xanthophylls
• Vary in colour from olive green to various shades of brown (depending on amount of
xanthophyll and fucoxanthin)
• Food stored as complex carbohydrates such as laminarin or mannitol
• Vegetative cells have cellulosic wall covered on the outside by gelatinous coating of
algin.
• Cell contains a centrally located vacuole and nucleus in addition to plastids.

• Union of gametes takes place in water or within oogonium (oogamous species).

• Gametes are pyriform (pear-shaped).
Example − Ectocarpus, Dictyota, Laminaria, Sargassum, and Fucus
Rhodophyceae (Red algae)

• Commonly called red algae due to the presence of red pigment, r-phycoerythrin
• Mainly marine forms with bulk mass inhabiting warmer areas
• Occur in well-lighted regions i.e., close to the surface of water and also in deeper areas
• Red thalli of most of these species are multicellular. Some have complex body
organization.
• Food is stored as Floridian starch similar to amylopectin and glycogen in structure.

Example − Polysiphonia, Gelidium, Gracilaria, Porphyra

Division Bryophyta
• Known as amphibians of plant kingdom since they live on land, but depend on water for
sexual reproduction
• Usually occur in cool, damp, and shady areas
• Play an important role in plant succession on bare rocks/soils
• Plant body more differentiated than algae
• Thallus-like plant body is attached to substratum by unicellular or multicellular rhizoids.
• Lack true roots, stem and leaves; may possesses root-like, stem-like, and leaf-like
structures
 • Sporophyte is dependent on gametophyte for food. Hence, it remains attached to the
gametophyte.
• Few cells of sporophyte undergo meiosis to produce spores (haploid).
• Spores germinate to form gametophyte.
Economic Importance
• Provide food for herbaceous mammals, birds, and insects
• Peat provided by Sphagnum is used as fuel.
• Sphagnum is also used as packing material in trans-shipment of living material because
of their water-holding capacity.
• They form dense mats on the soil and hence prevent soil erosion.
• Mosses along with lichens form the pioneer community in land and desert succession.
Classes of bryophytes

Liverworts
 • Grow in moist, shady habitats
• Plant body is thalloid.
• Thallus is dorsiventrally appressed to the substrate.
• Leafy members have tiny leaf-like appendages on stem-like structures

Mosses
Gametophyte
• Predominant stage

Sporophyte
• More elaborate than liverworts
• Consists of foot, seta, and capsule
 • Capsule contains spores.
• Spores formed by meiosis
• Elaborate mechanism of spore dispersal
Example − Funaria, Polytrichum, and Sphagnum

Division Pteridophyta
General Characteristics
• The dominant plant body is sporophyte.
• First terrestrial plants to possess xylem and phloem
• Found in cool, damp, shady places
• Have well-differentiated true stem, leaves, and roots
• Leaves may be microphylls as in Selaginella or macrophylls as in ferns.
• Sporophytes bear sporangia, which develop in association with leaves called sporophylls.
• In some pteridophytes, sporophylls form distinct, compact structures called strobili or
cones (Selaginella, Equisetum).
• Sporangia produce spores by meiosis in spore mother cells.
• Spores germinate to form small, multicellular, free-living photosynthetic thalloid
gametophyte called prothallus.
• Major classes:

Gametophyte
• Require cool, damp, shady places to grow
• Also require water for sexual reproduction
 • Zygote produces well-differentiated, multicellular sporophyte.
Sporophyte

• Example of heterospory − Selaginella and Salvinia

Division Gymnospermae
• Word gymnosperms, gymnos − naked, sperma − seeds
• Ovules not enclosed by any ovary wall
• Seeds formed after fertilization are not covered (i.e., naked).
• Include medium-sized trees, shrubs, and tall trees
• Contains the world’s largest plant Sequoia - the giant redwood
• Plants have tap roots. Roots in some genera show symbiotic associations.
○ Mycorrhiza shows association of fungi with Pinus roots.
○ Coralloid roots of Cycas show association withN2-fixing Cyanobacteria.
• Leaves are well-adapted to withstand extreme conditions. In conifers, needle-like leaves
with thick cuticle and sunken stomata reduce surface area and water loss.

• Spores produced within sporangia, borne on sporophylls, which form strobili or cones

• Male and female strobili may be borne on same tree (Pinus) or on different trees (Cycas).
• Megaspore mother cell divides mieotically to form four megaspores.
• Megaspore mother cell is a differentiated cell of nucellus. Nucellus protected by
envelopes is known as an ovule.
• Male and female gametophytes do not have independent existence, hence remain within
sporangia.
• Steps in fertilization:
Pollen grain released from microsporangium
↓
Carried by air currents
↓
Come in contact with ovules
↓
Discharge of pollen content on mouth of archegonia
↓
Fertilization
↓
Formation of zygote
 ↓
Development of naked seed
Division Angiosperms
• Large group of plants inhabiting a wide range of habitats
• The pollen grains and ovules are developed in structures called flowers.
• Seeds enclosed by fruits
• Range from tiny, almost microscopic, specimens (Wolfia) to tall trees like Eucalyptus
• Two main groups are:
○ Monocotyledons − having one cotyledon in their seeds
○ Dicotyledons − having two cotyledons in their seeds
• The male sex organ in a flower is a stamen.
• Each stamen consists of:
○ a slender filament
○ an anther at the tip
• The anther produces pollen grains by meiosis.
• The female sex organ is a pistil or carpel
• Each pistil consists of:
○ an ovary
○ a style
○ a stigma
• The ovary encloses one or more ovules.
• Within the ovule (the highly reduced female gametophyte) embryo sacs are present.
• Embryo sac is a seven-celled, eight-nucleated structure. Embryo sac contains
○ One egg cell
○ Two synergids
○ Three antipodal cells
○ One central cell
• The polar nuclei fuse to form a secondary nucleus (diploid).
 • Pollen grains, after dispersal from anthers are carried by the wind or other agents to the
stigma of the pistil; termed as pollination

• Fertilisation in angiosperms is termed as double fertilisation.

• The synergids and antipodals degenerate after fertilisation.
• The ovules develop to form seeds, and the ovaries develop into fruits.
LIFE CYCLE OF AN ANGIOSPERM

Plant Life Cycles

• There is alternation of generations between haploid gametophyte and diploid sporophyte
in the life cycle of a plant.
 • In plants, both haploid and diploid cells can divide by mitosis.
• Hence, there are two different plant bodies − haploid and diploid.
• The haploid plant body produces gametes by mitosis and represents a gametophyte.
• Mitotic division is encountered in diploid cells when zygote divides by mitosis to
produce sporophytic plant body after fertilization.
• This sporophyte produces haploid spores by meiosis.
• Spores in turn undergo mitosis to form haploid plant body.
Types of Life Cycles in Plants
Haplontic Life cycle

• In this, sporophyte is represented by one-celled zygote.

• There is no free living sporophyte.
• Zygote undergoes meiotic division to produce spores, which divide mitotically and form
gametophyte.
• Gametophyte is the dominant phase in this life cycle as it is dominant, free living, and
photosynthetic.
• Algae such as Spirogyra and some species of Chlamydomonas have this type of life
cycle.
Diplontic Life Cycle

• In this case, diploid sporophyte is the dominant phase as it is free living and
photosynthetic.
• Gametophyte is single to few-celled.
• Example − All seed-bearing plants, gymnosperms, and angiosperms, some algae-like
Fucus

Haplodiplontic
Life Cycle

• Intermediate condition
• Both gametophyte and sporophyte are free-living and multicellular, but have different
dominant phases.
○ In Bryophytes, haploid gametophyte is dominant, independent, and
photosynthetic. It alternates with short-lived multicellular sporophyte totally or
partially and is dependent on gametophyte for nutrition and anchorage.
○ In Pteridophytes, diploid sporophyte is dominant, independent, and
photosynthetic. It alternates with short-lived haploid gametophyte, which is
independent of sporophyte.