REPORT

On

BLACK HOLES

SUBMITTED BY

V Semester-Section (A)

Department of Civil Engineering

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CERTIFICATE

1. Report title: BLACK HOLES

2. Grade for which report is submitted: ……………………………………

3. Specification regarding report format have been closely followed.

4. The content of the report have been organised based on the guidelines.

5. The report has been prepared without resorting to plagiarism

6. All sources used have been cited appropriately

SUBMITTED BY

Incharge

Session Incharge

Head of Department

Program Incharge

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SPECIFICATION AND GUIDELINES

TABLE OF CONTENT

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE NO.

NO

1. INTRODUCTION TO BLACK HOLE 4

2. PARTS OF BLACK HOLE. 5

3. SIZE OF A BLACK HOLE 6

4. CONSTITUENTS OF A BLACK HOLE 7

5. FORMATION OF BLACK HOLE. 8

6. LOCATING A BLACK HOLE. 9

7. CLOSEST BLACK HOLE NEAR EARTH. 9

8. NUMBER OF BLACK HOLE IN 10

UNIVERSE.
9. CONCLUSION 11

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INTRODUCTION TO BLACK HOLE

 A black hole is a place in space where gravity pulls so much that even
light can not get out. The gravity is so strong because matter has been
squeezed into a tiny space. This can happen when a star is dying.

 Because no light can get out, people can't see black holes. They are
invisible. Space telescopes with special tools can help find black holes.
The special tools can see how stars that are very close to black holes act
differently than other stars.

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PARTS OF BLACK HOLE

 The Singularity: This is the region of the black hole where all the mass
of the black hole has been compressed down to nearly zero volume. As a
result the singularity has almost infinite density and creates an enormous
gravitational force

 The Event Horizon: This is the "point of no return". Any object, even
light, that is within this radius cannot escape the gravitational pull of the
black hole

 The Schwarzschild Radius: This is the event horizon's radius. It is the

radius at which the escape velocity is equal to the speed of light,
o R = 2GM/c2

 The Accretion Disk: This is a disk composed of stellar material that is

spiraling towards that black hole

 The Ergosphere: If the black hole is rotating, then as it spins, its mass
causes the space time around the black hole to rotate as well. This region
is called the ergosphere.

 Jets of Gas: For some black holes high intensity magnetic fields are
emitted perpendicular to the accretion disk. This causes charged particles
to circle these magnetic field lines and creates jets of gas perpendicular to
the acceleration disk.

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SIZE OF A BLACK HOLE

 Black holes can be big or small. Scientists think the smallest black holes
are as small as just one atom. These black holes are very tiny but have the
mass of a large mountain. Mass is the amount of matter, or "stuff," in an
object.
 Another kind of black hole is called "stellar." Its mass can be up to 20
times more than the mass of the sun. There may be many, many stellar
mass black holes in Earth's galaxy. Earth's galaxy is called the Milky
Way.
 The largest black holes are called "supermassive." These black holes have
masses that are more than 1 million suns together. Scientists have found
proof that every large galaxy contains a supermassive black hole at its
center. The supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way
galaxy is called Sagittarius A. It has a mass equal to about 4 million suns
and would fit inside a very large ball that could hold a few million Earths .

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CONSTITUENTS OF A BLACK HOLE

Simply we cannot really be sure. Black holes are by definition regions of

spacetime where extreme gravitational forces prevent anything, including light
from escaping.

In this sense rather than being made from something, they are, in fact, a result of
the absence of visible stuff. It is known that the matter that falls into, and never
leaves, these curious objects is no different from everything outside of them but
that's about as precise as we can really be.

Once past the event horizon, as matter 'goes down the rabbit hole, the more and
more our understanding of what's going on in there completely falls apart.

"Thanks to General Relativity, we think we understand what happens in this

extreme gravity and, with the help of Quantum Mechanics, we can make an
intelligent estimate as to what happens at smaller, microscopic scales. But if the
two theories are combined – like they would be at the center of a black hole –
they break down, leaving us with no idea as to what’s going on!" -
spaceanswers.
This would require the grandly titled "Theory of Everything" realized to be able
to tell us what the physics 'looks like' down there. Until such time we are at a
loss to really say for sure.

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FORMATION OF BLACK HOLE

A common type of black hole is produced by certain dying stars. A star with a
mass greater than about 20 times the mass of our Sun may produce a black hole
at the end of its life.
In the normal life of a star there is a constant tug of war between gravity pulling
in and pressure pushing out. Nuclear reactions in the core of the star produce
enough energy and pressure to push outward. For most of a star’s life, gravity
and pressure balance each other exactly, and so the star is stable. However,
when a star runs out of nuclear fuel, gravity gets the upper hand and the material
in the core is compressed even further. The more massive the core of the star,
the greater the force of gravity that compresses the material, collapsing it under
its own weight.
For small stars, when the nuclear fuel is exhausted and there are no more
nuclear reactions to fight gravity, the repulsive forces among electrons within
the star eventually create enough pressure to halt further gravitational collapse.
The star then cools and dies peacefully. This type of star is called a "white
dwarf."
When a very massive star exhausts its nuclear fuel it explodes as a supernova.
The outer parts of the star are expelled violently into space, while the core
completely collapses under its own weight.
If the core remaining after the supernova is very massive (more than 2.5 times
the mass of the Sun), no known repulsive force inside a star can push back hard
enough to prevent gravity from completely collapsing the core into a black hole.
From the perspective of the collapsing star, the core compacts into a
mathematical point with virtually zero volume, where it is said to have infinite
density. This is called a singularity.
Where this happens, it would require a velocity greater than the speed of light to
escape the object's gravity. Since no object can reach a speed faster than light,
no matter or radiation can escape. Anything, including light, that passes within
the boundary of the black hole -- called the "event horizon" -- is trapped forever.

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LOCATING A BLACK HOLE

 A black hole cannot be seen because strong gravity pulls all of the light
into the middle of the black hole. But scientists can see how the strong
gravity affects the stars and gas around the black hole. Scientists can
study stars to find out if they are flying around, or orbiting, a black hole.

 When a black hole and a star are close together, high-energy light is
made. This kind of light cannot be seen with human eyes. Scientists use
satellites and telescopes in space to see the high-energy light.

CLOSEST BLACK HOLE NEAR EARTH

 The closest black holes yet discovered to Earth are several thousand light
years away from us. At this distance, these black holes will have no
discernible effect on our planet or its environment.

 To date, the nearest black hole, called V616 Monocerotosis, is 3,000 light
years away and has a mass around 9-13 times that of our life-giving Sun.
The next closest is Cygnus X-1 (about 6,000 light years away with a
mass of 15 suns).

 Next up is GRO J0422 + 32, which is actually one of the smallest yet
'discovered' and is roughly 7,800 light years away.

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NUMBER OF BLACK HOLES IN UNIVERSE

How long is a piece of string? How many grains of sand are there on a beach?
How many stars are there in the Galaxy? These questions are nigh on
impossible to answer.

The same is true for the number of black holes in the Universe, there are so
many you couldn't ever hope to count them.

Even if we tried to count them we would never get the right answer as a large
part of the Universe will be obscured from our view, forever. If such an attempt
was made we would first need to limit our count to "our Universe" or what is
more correctly called the "Observable Universe".
We can, however, make some educated guesses.
Stellar-mass black holes form from the supernovae of massive stars. Our Milky
Way alone contains around 100 Billion stars and roughly one in every thousand
stars is big enough to create a black hole when it dies.
This should mean that there might be as many as 100 million stellar-scale black
holes in our galaxy. But this number is increasing with every second that
passes.
New-stellar mass type black holes are thought to form once every second or so.

If we are talking about supermassive black holes these tend to lurk at the center
of galaxies. In our local region of space, there are about 100
Billion supermassive black holes or thereabouts.

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 CONCLUSION

Black holes are full of wonder and mystery. They are also somewhat
interesting with their characteristics. Still, scientists continuously research these
amazing “space creatures” even though they are invisible. Would you consider
to be one of these scientists that research black holes? Or would you consider
to go in space and take a risk to get a closer look at black holes? There are
many conclusions to everything but there may never be a conclusion to a black
hole.

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REFERENCES

 BLACK HOLE AND BABY UNIVERSES AND OTHER ESSAY~ BY

STEPHAN HAWKING.
 https://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/5-8/features/nasa-knows/what-
is-a-black-hole-58.html
 BLACK HOLES : THE REITH LECTURES ~ BY STEPHAN
HAWKING
 https://leeblackholes.weebly.com/conclusion.html

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