UNIT 6: Fundamentals of GUIDED WAVES, Wave guides, Coaxial cables, fiber optic

cables, Cable types and specifications

Introduction
1. TLine can only support TEM wave whereas waveguide can support many possible field
configurations.
2. At microwave frequencies (3 to 300 GHz), TLine becomes inefficient due to skin effect and
dielectric losses, but waveguides are used at microwave frequencies to obtain larger bandwidth
and lower signal attenuation.
3. TLine can operate above dc (f =0) to a very high frequency, but waveguide can operate only
above cutoff frequency and therefore acts as a high pass filter.

Definition: A Hollow metallic tube of uniform cross section for transmitting electromagnetic waves
by successive reflections from the inner walls of the tube is called waveguide.
In order to determine the EM field configuration within the waveguide, Maxwell’s equations. For
simplicity, consider the guide filled with lossless, charge free media and the walls to be perfect
conductors.
  ES  0    D  0   HS  0    B  0
  E S   j H S   H S  j E S
 2 E S   2  E S  0  2 H S   2  H S  0
Basic Features:
Waveguides may be used to carry energy between pieces of equipment or over longer
distances to carry transmitter power to an antenna or microwave signals from an antenna to a
receiver
Waveguides are made from copper, aluminum or brass.
The electric and magnetic fields associated with the signal bounce off the inside walls1back
and forth as it progresses down the waveguide.
Possible Types of modes
1. Transverse Electro Magnetic (TEM) wave: Here both electric and magnetic fields
are directed components. (i.e.) E z = 0 and Hz = 0
2. Transverse Electric (TE) wave: Here only the electric field is purely transverse to
the direction of propagation and the magnetic field is not purely transverse. (i.e.)
E z = 0, Hz ≠ 0
3. Transverse Magnetic (TM) wave: Here only magnetic field is transverse to the
direction of propagation and the electric field is not purely transverse. (i.e.) E
z ≠ 0, Hz = 0.
4. Hybrid (HE) wave: Here neither electric nor magnetic fields are purely transverse
to the direction of propagation. (i.e.) E z ≠ 0, Hz ≠ 0.
Transmission
Waveguides
Line

Coaxial
Stripline Rectangular Circular
Line

Microstrip Ridge Flexible

• hollow rectangular waveguide that can propagate TM and

TE modes but not TEM since only one conductor is
present.
• Applications: high-power systems, millimeter wave
applications, satellite systems, precision test applications
2
• waveguide refers to constructs that only support non-TEM mode propagation. Such
constructs share an important trait: they are unable to support wave propagation below a
certain frequency, termed the cutoff frequency.
• Critical (cut-off) frequency, fc(Hz): the lowest frequency
for which a mode will propagate in a waveguide. Rectangular Circular
• Critical (cut-off) wavelength, λc (m/cycle): the largest waveguide waveguide
wavelength that can propagate in the waveguide without
any / minimum attenuation
• Group velocity (vg, m/s):
a) The velocity at which a wave propagates.
b) at which signals or energy is propagated. Optical Fiber
Dielectric Waveguide
• Phase velocity (vp, m/s):
a) The velocity at which the wave changes phase.
b) It is the apparent velocity of the wave (i.e.: max
electric intensity point).
c) vp always equal to or greater than vg (vp ≥ vg).
d) It may exceed the velocity of light
• In theory: c < vg ≤ vp. ………c2 = vg + vp
• Propagation wavelength in the waveguide (λg, m/s):
a) Wavelength of travelling wave that propagates down the
waveguide.
b) λg greater in the waveguide than in free space (λo).
• Waveguide characteristic impedance (Zo, Ω):
a) It depends on the cut-off frequency, which in turn is
determined by the guide dimension.
b) It is also closely related to the characteristic impedance of
free space (377 Ω). Generally, Zo > 377 Ω. 3
• Let us consider a rectangular waveguide with interior
dimensions are a x b,
Rectangular Waveguide
• Waveguide can support TE and TM modes.
– In TE modes, the electric field is transverse to the
direction of propagation.
– In TM modes, the magnetic field that is transverse and
an electric field component is in the propagation
direction.
Location of modes
• The order of the mode refers to the field configuration in
the guide, TEmn and TMmn.
– The m subscript corresponds to the number of half-
wave variations of the field in the x direction, and
– The n subscript is the number of half-wave variations
in the y direction.
• A particular mode is only supported above its cutoff
frequency. The cutoff frequency is given by
2 2 2 2
1 m n c m n
fcmn          
2   a  b 2 r  r  a  b
1 1 1 1 c
u   
 o  r  o r  o o r  r r  r

For air r  1
2 2 and  r  1 c m n
2 2
c m n fcmn     
fcmn      2  a  b
4
2 r  r  a  b where c  3 108 m/s
Table 7.1: Some Standard Rectangular Waveguide Example: Calculate the cutoff
Waveguide a b t fc10 freq range frequency for the first four
Designation (in) (in) (in) (GHz) (GHz)
modes of WR284 waveguide.
WR975 9.750 4.875 .125 .605 .75 – 1.12
Sol:
WR650 6.500 3.250 .080 .908 1.12 – 1.70
From table, the guide
WR430 4.300 2.150 .080 1.375 1.70 – 2.60
dimensions are a=2.840 inches
WR284 2.84 1.34 .080 2.08 2.60 – 3.95 and b=1.340 inches.
WR187 1.872 .872 .064 3.16 3.95 – 5.85 Converting to metric units:
WR137 1.372 .622 .064 4.29 5.85 – 8.20 a  7.214 cm
WR90 .900 .450 .050 6.56 8.2 – 12.4 b  3.404 cm
WR62 .622 .311 .040 9.49 12.4 - 18 2 2
c m n
2 2 fcmn     
1 1 0 c 2  a  b
fc10       fc10 
2  a b 2a

c 3x108 m
TE10: fc10   s 100cm  2.08 GHz TE20: fc 20 
c
 4.16 GHz
2a 2  7.214cm  1m a
TM11
c 3x10 m8

TE01: fc 01   s 100cm  4.41 GHz TE10 TE20 TE01 TE11

2b 2  3.404cm  1m
2.08 GHz 4.16 GHz 4.41 GHz 4.87 GHz
3x108 m  1  
2
1  100cm
2

TE11: fc11  s
     4.87 GHz
2  7.214cm   3.404cm  1m
Example

For air c  3 108 m/s

6
Rectangular Waveguide - Wave Propagation
We can achieve a qualitative understanding of wave propagation
in waveguide by considering the wave to be a superposition of a
pair of TEM waves.
Let us consider a TEM wave propagating in the z direction (Fig.
a). Fig. b shows the wave fronts; bold lines indicating constant
phase at the maximum value of the field (+Eo), and lighter lines
indicating constant phase at the minimum value (-Eo).
The waves propagate at a velocity uu, where the u subscript
indicates media unbounded by guide walls. In air, uu = c.

•Now consider a pair of identical TEM waves, labeled as u+ and u-

in Figure (a). The u+ wave is propagating at an angle + to the z
axis, while the u- wave propagates at an angle –.
These waves are combined in Figure (b). Notice that horizontal
lines can be drawn on the superposed waves that correspond to
zero field. Along these lines the u+ wave is always 180 out of
phase with the u- wave.

7
Rectangular Waveguide - Wave Propagation
Since we know E = 0 on a perfect conductor, we can replace the
horizontal lines of zero field with perfect conducting walls. Now,
u+ and u- are reflected off the walls as they propagate along the
guide.
The distance separating adjacent zero-field lines in Figure (b), or
separating the conducting walls in Figure (a), is given as the (a)
dimension a in Figure (b).
The distance a is determined by the angle  and by the distance
between wave front peaks, or the wavelength . For a given
wave velocity uu, the frequency is f = uu/. a
If we fix the wall separation at a, and change the frequency, we
must then also change the angle  if we are to maintain a
propagating wave. Figure (b) shows wave fronts for the u+ (b)
wave.
The edge of a +Eo wave front (point A) will line up with the edge
of a –Eo front (point B), and the two fronts must be /2 apart for
the m = 1 mode.
For any value of m, we can write by simple trigonometry
m 2 2a uu
sin     sin  
m f
a
The waveguide can support propagation as long as the wavelength is
smaller than a critical value, c, that occurs at  = 90, or
2a uu
c  
m fc 8
Where fc is the cutoff frequency for the propagating mode.
We can relate the angle  to the operating frequency and
the cutoff frequency by  fc
sin   
c f
The time tAC it takes for the wavefront to move from A
to C (a distance lAC) is
Distance from A to C l AC m 2
t AC   
Wavefront Velocity uu uu
A constant phase point moves along the wall from A to D. Calling
this phase velocity up, and given the distance lAD is
m 2
l AD 
cos  l m 2
t AD  AD 
Then the time tAD to travel from A to D is u cos  u p p
uu
Since the times tAD and tAC must be equal, we have u p 
cos 
1 1 1 1 c
The Wave velocity is given by uu    
 o  r  o r o o r  r r  r
The Phase velocity is given by
uu
uu up 
up 
 
2
fc
cos  1
using f

9
cos   cos   1  sin   1   fc f 
2 2 2
 The Group velocity is given by
uG  uu cos 

 
2
fc
uG  uu 1  Phase velocity

 
f 2
fc
The phase constant is given by    1  up Wave velocity
u
f
Group velocity
u
The guide wavelength is given by  
 
2
fc
1
f
The ratio of the transverse electric field to the Analogy!
transverse magnetic field for a propagating mode at
a particular frequency is the waveguide impedance. Beach
Point of contact

For a TE mode, the wave impedance is u p Phase velocity

Wave velocity
u uu
TE
Z mn  ,
2
f 
1  c 
 f  uG Group velocity
For a TM mode, the wave impedance is
2
 f 
TM
Z mn  u 1   c  . uu
10
 f  Ocean
Example

11
 Coaxial cable
UTP
Wire (guided) Twisted Pair
STP
Fiber Optic
Transmission media:
Transmission
Radio waves
Media
Physical Transmission

Wired (Guided) media

A signal travelling
Microwave
along guided media is
Wireless directed and contained
(unguided) Infrared by the physical limits of
the medium
Baseband
Satellite Wireless (Unguided)
Transmission
Signaling media
Techniques Broadband Unguided media transport
Laser
Transmission signals without using a
Components of a computer network: physical conductor.
1. Computer with NIC (PCs, laptops, handhelds);
2. 2. routers & switches (IP router, Ethernet switch)
3. Links” Transmission media” (wired, wireless);
4. protocols (IP,TCP,CSMA/CD,CSMA/CA)
5. applications (network services) i.e. Network Operating System (NOS); 12
6. humans and service agents
Twisted Pair
• Wires Consists of two insulated copper wires, each with its own plastic insulation, twisted
together arranged in a regular spiral pattern to minimize the electromagnetic interference
between adjacent pairs
• Often used at over distances to carry voice as well as data communications
• Low
STP (shielded twisted pair)
the pair is wrapped with metallic foil or braid to insulate the pair from electromagnetic
interference
UTP (unshielded twisted pair)
each wire is insulated with plastic wrap, but the pair is encased in an outer covering
frequency transmission medium

13
The characteristics of UTP are:
Cheap
Ease of use
flexible
easy to install.
The characteristics of STP:
less susceptible to noise
materials and manufacturing requirements make STP more expensive than UTP

Advantages Disadvantages
• Inexpensive and available • Sensitivity to interference and
• Flexible and light weight noise
• Easy to work with and install • Relatively low bandwidth (3000Hz)

14
Coaxial Cable (or Coax)
Carries signals of higher frequency ranges than twisted pair cable.

Has an inner conductor enclosed in an insulator, which is in turn encased in an outer

conductor of metal braided mesh.

Both conductors share a common center axial, hence the term “co-axial”

Used for cable television, LANs, telephony

15
1
Cable Overview:
 Necessary to avoid bouncing of the signal off the cable’s ends – accomplished by
using connectors or special terminators with the same impedance as the cable
used
 Two common types – F-type and BNC
F-Connector:
 Suitable for cables with a solid metal core – becomes the pin in the center of the
connector (used in RG-6)
 Mounted on a cable by crimping or compression – both male and female
connectors are threaded and screw together like a nut and bolt assembly
Bayonet Neill-Concelman (BNC) Connector:
 Mounted on a cable by crimping, compression, or twisting – connects to another
BNC connector via a turning and locking mechanism (“bayonet coupling”)
 Male connector uses its own conducting pin – not the core of the cable like F-type
ones
 Commonly used with RG-59 cable
Advantages
Disadvantages
• Higher bandwidth
• High attenuation rate makes it expensive
– 400 to 600Mhz over long distance
• Much less susceptible to interference than • It’s not used anymore due to high cost and
twisted pair other technical factors.
• It will not cause a toxic gas when its burned. 16
That’s why they use it in some buildings.
Fiber Optic Cable
Relatively new transmission medium used by telephone companies in place of long-distance trunk lines
Fiber Optic works on the properties of light. When light ray hits at critical angle it tends to refracts at 90
degree. This property has been used in fiber optic. The core of fiber optic cable is made of high quality glass
or plastic. From one end of it light is emitted, it travels through it and at the other end light detector detects
light stream and converts it to electric data form.
Fiber Optic provides the highest mode of speed.
Also used by private companies in implementing local data communications networks
Require a light source with injection laser diode (ILD) or light-emitting diodes (LED)
Optical fiber is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light.
The cable consists of a strand of glass (core) surrounded by a glass tube (cladding).
Its surrounded by a plastic isolation layer for protection .
Fiber Optic Layered Structure:
Inner core – glass or plastic fibers at the center
that carry laser pulses or an LED light used
for data transmission
Cladding – a layer of plastic or glass around the
fibers that reflects the light back to the core
Plastic buffer – an opaque layer that protects the
cladding and the core and absorbs any light
that escapes
Strands of Kevlar – a polymeric fiber that surrounds the plastic buffer and prevents
stretching and damaging
Plastic sheath – providing the overall cable protection
Single-Mode Fiber (SMF):
 Uses narrow core – less than 10 microns in diameter
 Propagates light without reflections – causes no dispersion and no significant
energy loss
 Provides the highest bandwidth of all media and allows the longest distance
without requiring repeaters
 Allows 60 km (37 mi) long segments at 10 Gbps
 Good for connecting large networks together
 The most expensive networking medium 18
 Suitable for WANs
Multi-Mode Fiber (MMF):
 Uses wider core – from 50 to 115 microns in diameter, with 62.5 microns being most
common size
 Multiple laser or LED pulses are sent over the fiber at different angles
 Allows 300 m (910 ft) long segments at 10 Gbps, 550 m (1670 ft) at 1 Gbps, and 2 km
(6060 ft) at 100 Mbps
 Used for connecting network devices to a backbone
 Suitable for both LANs and WANs
Characteristics:
 Highest throughput – no resistance allows achieving 100 Gbps per channel and
reduces errors
 Highest cost – most expensive medium, NICs, and hubs, plus the highest installation
costs – not practical for small networks
 Best EMI and noise immunity – no current used
 Size and scalability – segment length is limited by degradation of the signal (“optical
loss”), with typical values from 150 to 40,000 meters (455 to 121,200 ft)
 Imperfections at connection points affect segment length
Connectors:
 Ten different types exist, with four being being most common – Straight Tip (ST),
Standard Connector (SC), Local Connector (LC), and Mechanical Transfer
Registered Jack (MT-RJ)
19
Fiber Optic Types - Digital data is converted to light
Single mode - one light source flashes a light down the cable.
can carries single ray of light
Multimode - supports many simultaneous light transmissions.
capable of carrying multiple beams of light.

fiber optic multimode step-index

fiber optic multimode graded-index

fiber optic single mode

Disadvantages
1. expensive over short distance
Advantages 2. requires highly skilled installers
1. greater capacity (bandwidth of up to 2 Gbps) 3. adding additional nodes is difficult
2. Speed (100 - 500 mbps) Type of Cable depends on:
3. smaller size and lighter weight 1. Transmission speed.
4. lower attenuation 2. Maximum cable length.
5. immunity to environmental interference 3. Shielded requirements. 20
6. highly secure 4. Price