DLG Expert report 1/2017

Panel training on odour and aroma

perception for sensory analysis

www.DLG.org
 DLG Expert report 1/2017

The core of food flavour is formed not by the five basic taste types – sweet, sour, bitter, salty and umami – which
are perceived on the tongue via the taste organ, but instead by the large number of substances and sensations that are
perceived via the olfactory organ. These include both volatile odours and flavouring substances dissolved in the food
(Legrum W., 2015, p. 26ff). In sensory analysis, the odour and aroma forms part of the spectrum to be analysed,
alongside appearance, texture and basic taste. This Expert Knowledge Report aims to provide an insight into the
training of odour and aroma perception in sensory analysis. This is because the perception of olfactory sensory im-
pressions is a skill that panel members within sensory analysis need to train regularly. Although the complexity of
the aroma perception (orthonasal and retronasal smelling) is explained, the focus of this Expert Knowledge
Report lies on the training of the orthonasal smelling, i.e. the perception of volatile flavour compounds in
the form of odours.

1. Introduction

Odour affects our life in many situations. Alongside the emotional and social aspect of odours, e.g. their influence
on likes and dislikes, positively stimulating odours and aromas also serve to quicken the appetite, while off-aromas and
odours help consumers to recognise dangers, for instance in spoiled foods.
The different stimuli (totality of all gustatory, olfactory, haptic and trigeminal stimuli) perceived via the tongue and
in the oral cavity during eating account for a relatively small part of the flavour. One central aspect is the odour of the
dish, in other words the volatile compounds of its aroma. Before the first bite the nose tests how the dish smells and
arouses various associations and emotions in the brain. Complementing this, chewing dissolves the soluble flavour
compounds and allows the perception of the aroma via the mouth-throat-nose connection which finally leads to the
product enjoyment in its full complexity. Through their sense of smell, humans can perceive, differentiate and recognise
a large number of different odours. However, odour perception and recognition depend on experiences gathered in
connection with various odours and on odour training.

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 Panel training on odour and aroma perception for sensory analysis

Sensory food tests are an important component for ensuring high product quality. Sensory analysis comprises the
testing of appearance, taste, odour, consistency and texture. In order to obtain the most informative results possible
and a high degree of “measuring” precision in human sensory analyses, the tasks are carried out with a trained panel.
Especially when smelling via the nose (olfactory sensory impression), untrained analysts find it difficult to recognise
fragrances and odours perceived and to describe these in words.
This is attributable to the fact that in the case of odour we have not just five qualities of perception, as in taste,
but instead it is possible to distinguish between a vast number of different olfactory impressions. These are caused
by thousands of perceptible odour substances, which moreover can occur in any different combination. Classifying
these odour impressions in odour groups at least is difficult and needs to be trained in order to be able to build on
an odour memory.

2. Sensory physiology of the sense of smell

The sense of smell, also called the olfactory sense, serves to perceive aromas. Here we distinguish between per-
ception of the odour of volatile substances by inhalation through the nose (direct smelling, orthonasal perception) and
perception of aroma substances that are dissolved in the food and reach the olfactory epithelium in the nose via the
mouth-throat-nose connection during exhalation (retronasal perception).

2.1 The olfactory and the nasal trigeminal system

The actual olfactory system in the narrower sense of the word and the nasal trigeminal system are involved in
olfactory perception (perception of odour). These are two physiologically different systems.
The olfactory system is localised in the upper area of the two nasal cavities in what we call the olfactory
zone (Regio olfactoria) or olfactory mucosa. This covers about 5 cm² in each nasal cavity. Here there are around
ten million olfactory receptor cells, each of which expresses only one of the around 350 different odour receptors.
The nerve fibres leading out from these olfactory receptor cells grow bundled through the ethmoid bone (a spongy
bone of the neurocranium) into the cranial cavity to the olfactory bulb (Bulbus Olfactorius), which can be consid-
ered an “offshoot” of the brain and from which the central-nervous processing of the odour stimuli begins (Fig. 1).
(https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olfaktorische_Wahrnehmung, Legrum W., 2015, S. 5ff.)
Outside the Regio olfactoria, volatile substances can be perceived in the nasal mucosa through the nasal trigeminal
system. Here the facial nerve “Nervus Trigeminus” transmits sensations such as burning, pungent, acrid, cooling in the
nasal cavity (nasal trigeminal, volatile substances) and the sensations hot or sharp, tingling, cooling in the oral cavity

Olfactory bulb Olfactory bulb

Olfactory
epithelium
Olfactory nodes

Ethmoid bone

Cilia
Fig. 1: a) Location and structure of the
olfactory mucosa (olfactory epithelium) and
the olfactory bulb Olfactory
epithelium
Source: Evelyn Bargs-Stahl, Dr. Erika Luck-Haller,
www.planet-schule.de (25.05.2016) b) Structure of the olfactory epithelium and the olfactory bulb

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(oral-trigeminal, volatile and non-volatile substances). By contrast with

the actual olfactory system, these sensations – except for the percep-
tion of hot and cold – are not perceived via specific sensory cells, but
Frontal
branch Root
instead via free ends of nerve cells of the trigeminus nerve (Fig. 2).
Many volatile substances trigger a sense of smell both in the
olfactory system and in the nasal trigeminal system. These include
Upper volatile acids (e.g. acetic acid, butyric acid …), volatile pungent
jaw substances (including isothiocyanate from mustard, propanethi-
Lower al-S-oxide from onions, mucosa-irritating chemicals) and (pseudo-)
jaw cooling substances (menthol, eucalyptus oil). Carbonic acid/carbon
dioxide on the other hand is an example of a substance that can only
Fig. 2: Structure and location of the be perceived purely trigeminally (and not via olfactory paths in the
Nervus Trigeminus narrower sense), and vanilla is perceived exclusively via olfactory
paths. When humans inhale through the nose, the air flows through
the nasal atrium, the nasal cavity and the various nasal passages
until the odour substances interact with the olfactory receptor cells in the olfactory epithelium in the olfactory zone (Fig.
1). In sensory analysis a certain smelling technique is applied (frequent light
sniffing), so that both nostrils can be activated at the same time and conse-
quently the sensitive odour zones are reached better by the respiratory air
(Derndorfer, p. 20ff.)
The volatile odour substances reach the Regio olfactoria as described
before via the orthonasal perception track directly on inhalation or smelling of
the food when it is taken into the mouth. A second possibility occurs indirectly
via the retronasal perception avenue of the mouth-nose-throat connection.
Here the odour substances from the food ingested are released into the gas-
eous phase by chewing and then reach the nasopharynx during swallowing
and exhalation. As the oral cavity and nasopharynx are connected with each
other, the odour substances from the food can reach the olfactory zone via Fig. 3: Paths of odour perception:
both avenues at the same time (see Fig. 3). red = orthonasal;
A simple test (Skramlik Test) shows how the two different perception avenues blue = retronasal
work. For example a teaspoon of a cinnamon-sugar mixture is taken in via the Source: Bojanowski & Hummel, 2012
mouth (while holding the nose closed) and chewed. While the nose is closed one
only perceives the sweet taste of the sugar on the tongue. On breathing out through the nose an airflow develops and the
odour substance reaches the olfactory zone via the retronasal path, so that the cinnamon odour becomes noticeable there.
The retronasal perception of the odour-active substances together with the taste impressions in the narrower sense (basic
taste types: sweet, sour, salty, bitter and umami) is frequently
described in everyday language as “taste”.
Chemical Picked up by
stimulus sensory organ (receptor)
2.2 How olfactory sense cells and odour perception
work
Converted into Passed on
Odour perception (stimuli through volatile chemical sub- electrical signals to the brain

stances) thus takes place via the olfactory system and the
Processing
nasal trigeminal system. The senses of smell and taste of stimuli
belong to the chemical senses that are transmitted via mol-
ecules. Humans can distinguish between vast numbers of Sensory perception
fragrances in many different concentrations and mixtures.
Sensory perception can be divided into different steps, which Fig. 4: Steps in sensory perception
are illustrated in Fig. 4. Source: M.Mleczko angelehnt AMANN, 2010

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 Panel training on odour and aroma perception for sensory analysis

The odour substances pass via the orthonasal or retronasal path to the olfactory zone and there first of all to the
olfactory mucosa with 10 to 30 million olfactory receptor cells. These display many tiny olfactory hairs (cilia) surrounded
by mucus that contain the actual odour receptors (Fig. 1b). On its surface each olfactory receptor cell expresses only
one of approx. 350 receptors still active in humans.
The sensophysiological operation of perceiving odours is also described as chemo-electrical transduction, because
during smelling a chemical signal, namely the presence of odour molecules, is transformed into an electrical signal of
the neural stimulus conduction. The central function in this context is fulfilled by the olfactory receptor cells that virtually
serve as “interpreters”, as they master “both languages”.
As soon as odourant molecules have become dissolved in the mucus and reach the “docking places” (odour
receptors), they interact with the matching receptors and trigger a cascade of signals in the cell, which ultimately
leads to electrical impulses that are then passed on via the nerve fibres (axons) of the sensory cells to the olfactory
bulb.
In this way the aroma information is translated from the chemical language into the electrical language. Generally
the odour substances do not just interact with one of the around 350 odour receptors, but because of their molecular
structure can also bond on a number of receptors. The activated olfactory receptor cells now transfer an electrical
stimulus to the olfactory nodes (glomeruli) of the olfactory bulb. The olfactory bulb or bulbus olfactorius thus forms the
first “odour station” in the brain and, as it were, collects the information from the olfactory receptor cells in small specific
olfactory nodes (glomeruli). Rather like a “computer centre”, this activates various glomeruli and a particular neuronal
pattern results for each odour substance. This is guided via further nerve cells to the brain, where new sorting and
bundling are carried out. Finally, through linking with existing experiences and memories, odour perception and odour
recognition take place.
However, all this leads to an infinite variety of odour impressions, for in the case of complex fragrances that can
contain very large numbers of odour substances, very many olfactory receptor cells are activated at the same time
to different levels of intensity and thus produce an unlimited variety of neuronal patterns (Legrum, W. 2015, S. 17ff;
Bargs-Stahl, E. and Luck-Haller, E.)

3. Overview of aromas

3.1 Legal frameworks

In the European Community, aromas and food ingredients with aroma properties are regulated by the Flavouring
Regulation (EC) No.1334/2008 and the associated Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 872/2012 (with the positive list
of the chemically defined flavouring substances). Transitional provisions (EU No. 873/2012) apply with limitations up
to 2018. See http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/
One of the goals pursued by the Flavouring Regulation is to protect consumers and ensure consumer health. The
Regulation specifies what flavouring and source substances may be used in foods, what conditions apply for production
of flavourings, and how flavourings are to be labelled. The natural and synthetic flavouring substances are tested by
the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) for their health safety. The flavouring substances that can be used are set
out in the positive list in Implementing Regulation EU 872/2012.

Flavourings are defined as products that are not intended for consumption as such and are added to foods in order
to impart or modify a particular odour and/or taste (Reg. EC 1334/2008, Art. 3, 2a). Flavourings may be produced from
or consist of the following categories:
• flavouring substances
• flavouring preparations
• thermal process flavourings
• smoke flavourings
• flavour precursors
• other flavourings or mixtures thereof

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 DLG Expert report 1/2017

All the said categories are defined in the Flavouring Regulation as regards their production or extraction. Specific
requirements are made of the use of the term “natural” (Art. 16, EU 1334/2008). According to the Flavouring Regulation,
natural flavour substances are substances that occur naturally and have already been detected in nature. They are
produced using legally defined physical, enzymatic or microbiological methods. The source materials can be of plant
(e.g. cell materials, fats, fruits), animal or microbiological (e.g. yeasts) origin. The natural flavouring substances thus
include, for example vanillin extracted from vanilla pods and biotechnologically produced γ-decalactone (peach-like).
Up to the repeal of Directive 88/388/EEC in the year 2011, there were also the legally defined classifications “synthetic
flavourings” (flavourings produced synthetically and not occurring in nature) and “nature-identical flavourings” (synthet-
ically produced flavourings that occur in nature), but these are no longer used today.

3.2 Characterisation of flavouring substances

Various values serve to characterise flavouring substances. Some of these are important indicators for human
sensory tasting, but also for chemical-technical analyses. Only the most important of these are outlined briefly below.
When a food is consumed, all the senses work together and an overall sensory impression results. This contains not
just the oral perception of texture, but also the sum of the non-volatile basic taste substances perceived via the recep-
tors on the tongue and the volatile flavouring substances perceived via the odour receptors and the nasal trigeminal
system. The term flavouring substance is used without involving any valuation, for the same volatile compound can
be involved in the characteristic and pleasant flavour profile in one food, but as an “off-flavour” in another food
so that this food can be rated as “not marketable” or as inedible.

Consideration of the flavouring substance content in foods shows that although there are only around 10 to 50
mg volatile aroma-active compounds in one kg food, the number and diversity of the various flavouring components
is very high. If the products have also been treated for instance by fermentation or thermal processes, as in the case
of tea and coffee, the number of volatile compounds can increase even further and finally amount to more than 800
different ones. Many of these compounds are present in a low concentration and therefore when taken alone are
not very significant for the flavour. It is only when the concentration of the compound is higher than the recognition
threshold in this food that the substance influences the flavour and aroma of the food.

3.2.1 Perception, recognition and differentiation threshold

The recognition threshold (identification threshold, DIN EN ISO 5492:2009) describes the concentration of the
flavouring substance that is just enough to recognise or describe the odour (“recognised effect”). Alongside the
recognition threshold, we also distinguish the lower-lying stimulus or perception threshold, which states the concen-
tration at which volatile compounds can be perceived, but not yet recognised and/or described. (“not-yet-recognised
effect”) (Busch-Stockfisch, Praxishandbuch Sensorik).
Tabulated values for recognition thresholds of flavouring substances in the air (determined by sniffing) and
in water (determined by tasting of aqueous
solutions) are frequently found in the rele-
6
vant literature. They can differ from the odour
threshold values of these aroma substances 5 Saturation zone
Sensation intensity

in specific foods (e.g. beer, yoghurt) by 4

Intensity difference
powers of ten due to matrix effects. Var- threshold 4 to 5
3
ious influences, such as for instance the Intensity 2
2 Recognition threshold
vapour pressure of the compound (variable 0.054 mg/l

depending on temperature and medium) or 1 Intensity 1

Stimulus threshold
interactions with other odour substances 0
0.02 mg/l

(e.g. additive effects) play a role. Changes in 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
mg/l hexanal in water
the concentration of a flavouring substance
(e.g. due to changing of the formulation or Fig. 5: Threshold values for hexanal

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 Panel training on odour and aroma perception for sensory analysis

ür Hexanal
the production process, can influence the desired flavour profile of the product and be expressed in a changed
product or odour perception. The same applies for the occurrence of foreign flavouring substances that thus lead
fe to sensory product faults.
Furthermore, the difference threshold shows the lowest concentration difference that is necessary in order to
Vielzahl von aromaaktiven Substanzen, die miteinander
perceive a difference (“just-enough effect”).
echselwirkung den sensorischen Gesamt-Aromaeindruck beim
It should be noted that the sensation intensity of a flavouring substance does not increase in linear fashion with its
nige Lebensmittel enthalten jedoch Schlüsselaromastoffe
ds), die überwiegend dasbutcharakteristische
concentration, instead in accordance with a logarithmic function (Weber’s Law, Fig. 5). Accordingly, starting from
Lebensmittelaroma
the stimulus
Schlüsselaromen sindthreshold
in Tab.concentration, the hexanal concentration in water always has to be approximately tripled in order
1 dargestellt.
to reach the respective next higher – significantly distinguishable – intensity level. As the logarithmic curve flattens, a
üsselaromastoffe
saturation zone develops for high concentrations and intensities, i.e. the concentration zone of a substance where any
ehrbuch der Lebensmittelchemie)
further increase in concentration hardly causes any further increase in intensity (“zero effect”). (See Busch-Stockfisch,
Praxishandbuch Sensorik)
Aroma-
Vorkommen (Beispiel)
3.2.2 Charakter
Key flavouring substances
Foods contain a large
Bittermandel numberKirschen,
Mandeln, Substance Pflaumen Flavouring character Occurrence (example)
of aroma-active substances that in- benzaldehyde bitter almond almonds, cherries, plums
Zitrone Zitronen
teract with each other and in their citral (neral/geranial) lemon lemons
Himbeere Himbeeren raspberry ketone
interaction trigger the sensory over- raspberry raspberries
allPilze
flavour impression inChampignons,
consumers. Camembert
(R)-(−)-1-octen-3-ol mushroom-like champignons, Camembert
However, (E,Z)-nona-2,6-dienal cucumber cucumbers
Gurke some foods Gurkencontain key
geosmin earthy beetroot
flavouring substances (character im-
erdig Rote Bete
pact compounds) that largely shape Tab. 1: Examples of key flavouring substances
the characteristic food flavour. Some (Selection from Belitz Grosch, Lehrbuch der Lebensmittelchemie)
examples of key flavouring substanc-
es areeines
g des Beitrages shownAromastoffes
in Table 1. The aroma value (AW) can serve
zum Gesamtaroma kannasdera very rough estimate of the contribution of a flavouring
Der Aromawertsubstance
ist einetodimensionslose
the overall aroma. The aroma value
Maßzahl. is an absolute
Er ergibt sich alsmeasure. It results as a quotient from the concentration
tion eines Aromastoffes im Lebensmittel
of a flavouring substance und
in the food andderthe odour threshold concentration of this same flavouring substance in the
ation desselben Aromastoffes
food (or water). (Belitz,im Lebensmittel
Grosch (oder Wasser).
p. 274ff.; Legrum W., p. 121ff).
grum W., S. 121ff)
AW = Aroma value of a flavouring substance
𝑐𝑐𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = CLbm = Concentration of the flavouring substance in the food
𝑐𝑐𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸_𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
CES_Lbm = Odour threshold concentration of the aroma substance in the food (or in water)
8
Many products display value-adding aromas that are typical for them. In the same way product-typical off-flavours
develop in the case of spoilage or quality defects. Both typical value-adding flavourings and typical off-flavours should
be taken into account in product-specific odour training in order to build up an odour memory. However, it is notable
here that as a result of the dependence of the olfactory notes on the flavouring concentration present, differing odour
qualities can arise. This is not really noticeable in everyday life, as we always only smell the odour in accordance with
the concentration in the food. For training purposes it should be noted that odour substances in lower concentration
can display another, often more pleasant odour note than the same substance in higher concentration.
Alongside human sensory testing, instrumental methods of flavour analysis in particular play a significant role in
identifying flavourings (see DLG Expert Knowledge Report 2/2015: Instrumental sensory analysis in the food industry
– electronic noses).

3.2.3 Unambiguous designation of flavouring substances: IUPAC name and CAS numbers
Flavouring substances can be described unambiguously for instance via molecular formulae, CAS numbers and
IUPAC names.
In chemistry, molecular formulae are used to show the nature and number of the atoms in a chemical compound
(e.g. acetone: C3H6O). No definite substance allocation is possible with molecular formulae, as generally a very large

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 DLG Expert report 1/2017

number of substances display the same molecular formula, but have different structures. Even “trivial names” for
substances are frequently not unambiguous. That is why standardised IUPAC names and CAS numbers are used to
describe a substance unequivocally, even though this may frequently appear unusual for non-chemists.
The task of the IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) since it was established in 1919 has been
to specify international standards for chemical nomenclature in order to thus achieve standardisation in the designation
of chemical substances and ultimately to simplify and foster communication between chemists (from industry and ac-
ademia) worldwide. The designations in other languages are correspondingly translated by the national associations
of chemists, e.g. in the German-speaking region by the Gesellschaft Deutscher Chemiker (GDCh). One example of
an IUPAC name is: trivial name “Acetone” – IUPAC name: “Propan-2-one”.
The CAS number (Chemical Abstracts Service-Registry Number) is an international designation standard for chem-
ical substances. Since 1965, the Chemical Abstracts Service, an institution of the American Chemical Society, Ohio,
USA, has allocated a distinct number to each chemical substance (including substance isomers or isomer mixtures
such as racemates) and stored these in a database. Use of this comprehensive database that refers to every chemical
structure on the basis of the CAS number is subject to a fee. CAS numbers are made up of three digits that are sepa-
rated by two hyphens, for example: water – CAS No. 7732-18-5; ethanol – CAS No. 64-17-5.

Analytical characteristics
Substances and substance mixtures that are gaseous or that are vaporizable without decomposing can be sepa-
rated chemo-analytically, for instance via gas chromatography (GC) and be detected using a flame ionisation detector
(FID), mass spectrometry or olfactometry at an “olfactory detection port” (ODP). Depending on the detector, the odour
description (at the ODP), the mass spectrum or the retention index can be used to identify the flavouring substances.
The retention index (Kovats index, Kovats retention indices), is based on the relation between the retention times of
n-alkanes and the retention time of a substance on a specific column material. It is thus characteristic for a sample
substance on a specific GC column material (e.g. Ihexane: 600). Kovats retention indices of flavouring substances are
partly available free of charge in databases on the internet (see http://www.flavornet.org).

3.3 Flavour categories

(Individual) flavouring substances are chemical compounds that can be allocated to different substance categories or
flavour categories depending on their molecular structure. These include for instance aldehydes and ketones, alcohols,
acids, esters (and lactones), terpenes, pyrazines, phenylpropanoids, phenols and various sulphur compounds. Another
way of classifying them is on the basis of their origin, e.g. as metabolic products, or formed by microbial fermentation
in the foods (constitutive flavouring substances), as well as by the influence of heat (process flavourings). (Legrum,
W., p. 103 ff.)

3.3.1 Constitutively formed flavouring substances

The constitutive or native flavouring substances are essentially described as those that occur in fruit, vegetables,
spices and herbs through the plant metabolism or that are formed during harvesting, storage, drying or (e.g. enzy-
matically) after chopping/grinding/hacking. They can occur both as flavouring substances experienced as pleasant,
or as (untypical) flavouring defects. Constitutively formed flavouring substances can be grouped on the basis of their
structures. Some of the substances groups are set out below:

• Carbonyls (aldehydes and ketones)

• Esters
• Lactones
• Sulphur compounds
• Pyrazines
• Terpenes
• Phenylpropanoids

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 Panel training on odour and aroma perception for sensory analysis

Chemical designation of the odour Odour impression Structural formula,

substance molecular structure
acetaldehyde (ethanal) fruity, of orange, pungent

E,E-2.4-decadienal fatty, deep-frying fat

Z-4-heptenal rancid, fishy, “cold store”

(E,E)-2,4-nonadienal fatty, rancid, deep-frying fat

(E,Z)-2,6-nonadienal cucumber, green, fresh

(Z)-3-nonenal of paperboard or cardboard, cucumber

trans-4,5-epoxy-2-(E)-decenal metallic, vegetative

1-octen-3-one fungal-like, forest floor

Tab. 2: Overview of a few odour substances from the carbonyls group (own presentation modified after
Legrum 2015)

Chemical designation of the odour Odour impression Structural formula,

substance molecular structure
hexyl acetate apple
(acetic acid hexyl ester)

ethyl butyrate pineapple

(butyric acid ethyl ester)

isoamyl acetate banana

Tab. 3: Overview of a few odour substances from the esters group (own presentation modified after Legrum 2015)

The first group, the carbonyl compounds, is made up of the degradation products of fatty acids formed microbi-
ologically or enzymatically, the aldehydes and ketones. They result from autoxidation of unsaturated fatty acids with
the involvement of the enzymes lipoxygenase and hydroperoxide lyase. In this way a large number of carbonyls result
in fruit and vegetables from oleic, linoleic and linolenic acid. These display a low odour threshold and an enormous
variety. Carbonyl compounds are formed increasingly under the introduction of oxygen, e.g. by cutting up fruits, which
also promotes release of the lipoxygenases from cell compartments and development of the flavour.
Certain carbonyl compounds are described with descriptors that are more typical of off-aromas, such as rancid,
fishy (Z-4-heptenal), metallic (trans-4,5-epoxy-2-(E)-decenal), cardboard-like (E-2-nonenal) or old. 1-octen-3-ol and
1-octen-3-one on the other hand are perceptible with a mushroom-like, earthy aroma already at low recognition thresh-
olds (< 1 ppb). Acetaldehyde is one of the best-known representatives of the aldehydes and is important for the fresh,
fruity note in orange juices. The odour of the pure substance is described as artificially fruity and/or pungent. Further
known representatives are the short-chain aldehydes hexanal and (Z)-3-hexanal. They are formed by degradation of
the linolenic acid and are responsible for green odour notes. These and further known flavouring substances from the
group of carbonyls can be seen in Table 2.
Esters belong to the second substance group. They are formed from organic acids and alcohols with removal
of water. The functional group formed from the reaction of the carboxyl group of a carbonic acid (-COOH) and the
hydroxyl group of an alcohol (-OH) is characteristic of esters and is described by the general form R – COO– R´. In
many fruits esters belong to the determining flavouring substances. They are formed in cellular manner in the plant

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from various alcohols and from activated (fatty) acids (Acyl-CoA). Apart from a few exceptions, the odour thresholds
of the esters are frequently not particularly low (Legrum, W. p.105ff.). A well-known ester is the acetic acid hexyl ester
(=hexyl acetate) which contributes substantially to the flavour of apples. A further well-known ester is the butyric acid
ethyl ester (ethyl butyrate) that is co-responsible for the flavour of pineapples (see Table 3).
In chemical terms, lactones are intramolecular esters of hydroxycarboxylic acids (hydroxy fatty acids) and form the
third group. Like the open-chain esters they occur in many types of fruit.
Oleic and linoleic acid, which are specifically oxidised and converted into hydroxy acids, serve as the source sub-
stances for lactone formation. Through the β-oxidation, rings of different sizes form after the shortening of the fatty
acids. Most frequently five-membered rings, the γ-(gamma) lactones, or six-membered rings, the δ-(delta) lactones
result. Examples of this include the γ-undecalactone (lactone of γ-hydroxy undecanoic acid) and the δ-dodecalactone,
which smell fruity, like peach or coconut respectively (see Table 4).
Sulphur compounds play a crucial role as flavouring substances, above all in vegetables, and form the fourth
substance group.
Mustard oil glycosides (glucosinolates) are compounds containing sulphur and nitrogen that are formed above
all by cruciferous plants (Brassicaceae). These include the cabbage varieties (e.g. cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, white
cabbage, broccoli), rucola, garden cress, radish and horseradish. The mustard oil glycosides as undecomposed com-
pounds are mainly responsible for the bitter taste of these vegetables. During the disintegration process the mustard oil
glucosides are, however, partly split by released enzymes (thioglucosidase, myrosinase) into sugar (glucose) and the
corresponding mustard oil (isothiocyanate). These mustard oils are either non-volatile and are perceived orally-trigemi-
nally as spicy, or they are volatile and then a pungent impression is added via the nasal trigeminal avenue. For example
black mustard contains the glucosinolate Sinigrin, which is hydrolysed during chopping, chewing or boiling the mustard
seeds to allyl mustard oil (allyl isothiocyanate).
Amino acids containing sulphur and their degradation products characterise the flavour of plants in the leek family
(Allicaceae), which include leek, garlic and onions. For example, after chopping garlic the amino acid alliin containing
sulphur is degraded by the enzyme alliinase to form allylsulfenic acid, from which among other products diallyl disulfide

Chemical designation of the Odour impression Structural formula,

odour substance molecular structure
δ-Dodecalactone flowery, artificial

γ-Undecalactone peach, fruity

γ-Nonalactone coconut, fruity

Tab. 4: Overview of a few odour substances from the lactones group (modified after Legrum 2015)

Chemical designation of the Odour impression Structural formula,

odour substance molecular structure
allyl mustard oil hot, pungent, of mustard
(allyl isothiocyanate)
3-(methylthio)propyl isothiocyanate earthy, of horseradish

diallyl disulfide garlic

propanethial oxide tear-triggering

4-methoxy-2-methyl-2-butanethiol blackcurrants

Tab. 5: Overview of a few odour substances from the sulphur compounds group

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 Panel training on odour and aroma perception for sensory analysis

Chemical designation of the Odour impression Structural formula,

odour substance molecular structure
2-isopropyl-3-methoxypyrazine raw potato, green, peas, earthy

2-isobutyl-3-methoxypyrazine capsicum, peas

Tab. 6: Overview of a few odour substances from the pyrazines group

Chemical designation of the Odour impression Structural formula,

odour substance molecular structure
(±)-linalool flowery, rose

(±)-camphor aromatic, cooling, eucalyptus

R- (-)-carvone spearmint (chewing gum)

S-(+)-carvone caraway

β-ionone flowery, violet

(-)-menthol mint, cooling, fresh

Tab. 7: Overview of a few odour substances from the terpenes group

smelling of garlic results via the intermediate stage of allicin. In onions, the tear-triggering propanethial oxide first de-
velops from isoalliin through alliinase, which is further degraded to form dipropyl disulfide. (See Table 5)
In addition there are sulfurous flavouring substances with extremely low recognition thresholds, such as the 4-meth-
oxy-2-methyl-2-butanethiol, which as blackcurrant can already be perceived as of 0.02 ng/l, but in higher concentrations
then smells of cat urine.
Pyrazines also occur constitutively above all in vegetable varieties. A characteristic of this fifth substance group,
which belongs to the heteroaromatics, is a ring scaffold with two nitrogen atoms. Pyrazines are responsible for the
characteristic, green, vegetative odour notes in sweet peppers, chillies and carrots (see Table 6). Pyrazines play a major
role as roasting flavours when foods are heated (see processively formed flavouring substances).

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Chemical designation of the Odour impression Structural formula,

odour substance molecular structure
eugenol cloves

trans-anethole trans-1-Methoxy-4-(1- aniseed

propenyl)benzene

trans-cinnamaldehyde cinnamon (oil)

4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzaldehyde vanilla

benzaldehyde bitter almond

Tab. 8: Overview of a few odour substances from the phenylpropanoids group

Terpenes are secondary metabolic products of plants and a principal component of the essential oils formed by
these. They are frequently key flavours in fruit, vegetables and spices. In their chemical structure they are derived
from isoprene (C5-rule) and are characterised by a large variety of carbon scaffolds and a lower number of functional
groups. Depending on the number of the isoprene units joined together, we distinguish between hemiterpenes (C5),
monoterpenes (C10) and sesquiterpenes (C15). So far over 8,000 terpenes are known. They occur in nature chiefly
as hydrocarbon, alcohol, glycoside, ether, aldehyde, ketone, carbonic acid and ester terpenes. (See Table 7).
Phenylpropanoids are formed from microorganisms and plants via the shikimic acid path as secondary metabol-
ic products with the amino acid phenylalanine as an intermediate product. The chemical basic body of this seventh
substance group is phenylpropane, which can occur frequently substituted and modified. Alongside terpenes, phenyl-
propanoids are the main constituents of essential oils and can be key aromas above all in spices. Well-known repre-
sentatives of the phenylpropanoid flavouring substances are vanillin, anethole, eugenol and coumarin. (See Table 8)

3.3.2 Processively formed flavouring substances

Processively formed flavouring substances are formed in the processing of foods and are also called process aro-
mas. They are generally formed in thermal processes such as steaming, stewing, boiling, baking, roasting, deep frying
or grilling. The influencing of the overall flavour/aroma by the process flavourings depends on their concentration and
their odour threshold. The aromas can generally be perceived clearly during the above cooking processes. Alongside
these substances with active odours, browning products also occur – the melanoidins that are crucial for the visual
acceptance of foods (golden brown, burned-black).
The process flavourings can be divided roughly on the basis of their formation reactions, but these may also overlap
with each other:
• Maillard reaction
• Strecker degradation
• Caramelisation

The Maillard reaction, a non-enzymatic browning reaction, is the most important of these. The source substances
of this reaction are amino acids and reducing sugars (chiefly glucose, fructose, maltose and lactose), that react with

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 Panel training on odour and aroma perception for sensory analysis

Chemical designation of the Odour impression Structural formula,

odour substance molecular structure
furaneol caramel, stewed strawberries

2-acetylthiazole popcorn

2,3,5-trimethylpyrazine earthy, roasted

Tab. 9: Odour substances from Maillard reactions

Chemical designation of the Odour impression Structural formula,

odour substance molecular structure
methional boiled potatoes

2-phenylethanal honey-like, flowery

acetaldehyde artificially fruity

3-methylbutanal malty

Tab. 10: Example of Strecker aldehydes

Chemical designation of the Odour impression Structural formula,

odour substance molecular structure
maltol malty, roasted

furfural sweetish, caramel-like, bread-like

5-methyl furfural caramel-like, sweetish, maple

Tab. 11: Examples of odour substances from caramelisation

each other under the influence of heat (as of around 120°C). A large number of reactions take place at the same time
and after each other here, leading to browning and flavour formation. The material diversity of the resulting flavouring
substances is very large, for example furanones, thiazoles, pyrroles and pyridines occur. Examples of these are shown
in Table 9.
In the case of Strecker degradation of amino acids, a further important reaction in the formation of process fla-
vourings, amino acids are desamined and decarboxylated under oxidative conditions. The products α-amino ketones
and Strecker-aldehydes result from this, including for example the flavouring substances ethanal (acetaldehyde),
3-methylbutanal and methional (see Table 10).
Caramelisation is the third type of reaction leading to the formation of process aromas. Here monosaccharides
or disaccharides (e.g. glucose, fructose, sucrose) are heated dry or under acid conditions until they dehydrate while
browning. Flavour-active substances resulting from this are furane, pyrone and pyrane derivatives. Caramel is a typical
product obtained by caramelising (see Table 11).

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The volatile, flavour-active compounds are leading components of a flavour. It is not important whether they are
formed constitutively or processively. They lend the food its characteristic flavour.

3.3.3. Aroma/Flavour wheels

Aroma and flavour wheels are standardised systems for sensory classification of flavouring substances, mainly
with a reference to individual food groups. They aim to support the testers and analysts in perceiving, recognising and
describing flavours. For this purpose overarching flavour groups (e.g. fruity) are linked with various sub-descriptors
beneath them for specific flavours in this group (e.g. unripe apple). In this way they help a panel to find a common lan-
guage regarding the verbal description of flavours. Odour references for the most important of these descriptors should
be made available for training. Aroma and flavour wheels are available in standardised form for different product groups
in the food sector, e.g. wine, bread, cheese, beer, coffee or tea. However they can also be tailored individually to the
language of a panel for a product group. Recognised aroma and flavour wheels of a product group can be considered
as standard for describing and identifying aromas and flavours and serve for comparability of sensory descriptions,
thus making sensory analyses objective. The structure of the wheels, generally consisting of three concentric circles
of sensory descriptors and references, follows a largely uniform principle.

Fig. 6: Example of an aroma wheel of cross-product aromas for training analysis panels, taken from
DLG Basic Vocabulary and DIN EN ISO 8586: 2014-05

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 Panel training on odour and aroma perception for sensory analysis

• The various odour substances are first divided into aroma/flavour families or odour classes, which generally
form the inner circle. Examples of these are flowery, microbiological, chemical, earthy, vegetal - vegetable, spicy,
fruity.
• The middle – optional circle subdivides the aroma/flavour families into sub-families. Examples of these include
flowery blossoms; vegetable; fruity – citrus fruit, berry fruits
• the outer circle contains the matching individual descriptors or attributes for the families or sub-families in the
inner rings and a note concerning the matching references (e.g. fruity – berry fruit – raspberries, strawberries)

The panellist can then refine the description of sensory terms from the overarching classification right through to the
outer circle and at the same time identify references for training. Figure 6 shows a cross-product aroma wheel from the
DLG Basic Vocabulary which is oriented to the specifications of DIN EN ISO 8586:2014-05 “Sensory analysis: general
guidance for selection, training and monitoring of assessors” and is suitable for basic odour training.

4. Flavours in odour training

By getting to know the different odour substances and training our sense of smell, we successively achieve improvement
of the odour memory so that panellists are better able to identify and describe the odours perceived in words. Defined odour
standards and sensory odour descriptions building on these can support this training measure. First of all the recognition
threshold for an active odour substance is exceeded. By means of the memories stored in the odour memory it is possible
to recognise and name the odour impression. With corresponding practice the intensity can also be assessed. Together
with the memories odours trigger feelings too, so that they are subconsciously categorised hedonically as well. Odours
in the context of experience and learning situations can be remembered particularly well with emotional participation.

In professional sensory assessment of foods, the odour is best registered by sniffing several times. In this way far more
respiratory air passes through the nose to the olfactory epithelium than in the case of normal breathing. Furthermore, after
each odour test the nose and the olfactory system need to be neutralised so that after this it is then possible to perceive the
next odour by sniffing. Neutralisation can be carried out by brief smelling of a lemon juice solution (provided the analysts
are not testing citrus products and fragrances), by smelling a small glass container filled with coffee beans, or by sniffing the
analyst’s own body smell, e.g. in the elbow joint. Furthermore, “sniffing” of the odour substance should not take too long,
because in the case of certain substances the olfactory system adapts relatively quickly, or if the small glass containers
are open for too long the odour substance dissipates (drop in concentration), which makes odour recognition more difficult.

Generally the composition of the food flavours is very complex and only real foods can be used in training in order to
cover their interaction with other substances comprehensively, so that at an advanced stage of odour training we frequently
work with food samples. However, at the start of analyst training and also to get ready for a test we use flavours or key
flavours that are available as isolated individual substances or substance mixtures and are thus easy to recognise and
describe in words. The odour memory and verbal powers of expression can be trained with the help of standardised odour
references with set concentrations, the typical odour quality of which should ideally be clearly recognisable for all analysts.

4.1. Examples of individual flavours for odour training

The following overview lists individual flavours that are suitable for odour training. They are based on proposals of
DIN EN ISO 8586:2014-05 and in addition include key flavours and off-flavours occurring in many food groups taken
from the DLG Basic Vocabulary.

Food flavours
The training substances listed in the following Table 12 with their respective odour characteristics fall under the
category of food flavours for training purposes. Each flavouring substance possesses specific properties. These include
e.g. their occurrence in foods and the description of the odour impression.

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Odour characteristic Substance CAS number

aniseed trans-anethole 4180-23-8
aromatic, cooling, eucalyptus-like (±)-camphor 76-22-2
bitter almond, marzipan benzaldehyde 100-52-7
flowery, honey phenyl acetate 122-79-2
flowery, jasmine benzyl acetate 140-11-4
flowery, artificial-fruity δ-dodecalactone 713-95-1
flowery, rose (±)-linalool 78-70-6
flowery, violets β-ionone 79-77-6
butter, buttery diacetyl 431-03-8
champignon, mushroom-like 1-octen-3-ol 3391-86-4
vinegar, pungent, acrid acetic acid 64-19-7
fruity, of strawberries natural strawberry aroma
Givaudan L-047551
fruity, of cherries natural cherry aroma
Givaudan 10787-33
fruity, of orange natural orange aroma
Givaudan QL34700
fruity, of peach γ-undecalactone 104-67-6
fruity, of lemon citral (mixture of geranial und neral) 5392-40-5
fruity, banana, ice candy isoamyl acetate 123-92-2
fruity, coconut γ-nonalactone 104-61-0
grilled onion 2,5-dimethylthiophene 638-02-8
clove, spicy eugenol 97-53-0
cucumber, raw, green, fresh (E,Z)-2,6-nonadienal 557-48-2
hazelnut, roasted (±)-filbertone 102322-83-8
yoghurt acetoin 513-86-0
caramel, roasted furaneol 3658-77-3
potato, boiled methional 3268-49-3
garlic diallyl sulfide 121-33-5
caraway S-(+)-carvone 2244-16-8
lime blossom, acacia blossom, o-aminoacetophenone 551-93-9
untypical ageing flavour (UTA) in wine,
beeswax-like
mint R- (-)-carvone 6485-40-1
nutty, roasted, earthy 2,3,5-trimethyl pyrazine 14667-55-1
peppermint, cooling, fresh (-)-menthol 2216-51-5
smoky, smoking smoke mesquite smoke aroma concentrate
smoky, sweetish guaiacol 90-05-1
thyme, green, spicy, cooling thymol 89-83-8
vanilla vanillin 121-33-5
cinnamon, spicy, sweetish cinnamaldehyde (cis/trans) 104-55-2

Tab. 12: Food flavourings with odour characteristic for odour training

Off-flavours
Possible substances in the category of off-flavours that frequently give foods the impression of quality defects are
listed with their odour characteristics in Table 13.

4.2. Forms of offering and presenting odour substances

The offering of aromatic substances depends on the nature of the flavour training session or test. Generally, the
intensity of the odour references should lie well above the odour identification threshold of the analysts. However,
the intensity should not be chosen too high, as with some flavouring substances the aroma impression changes with
increasing intensity and can influence other analysts sitting close by.

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 Panel training on odour and aroma perception for sensory analysis

Odour characteristic Substance CAS number

lime blossom, acacia blossom, o-aminoacetophenone 551-93-9
untypical ageing flavour (UTA) in wine,
beeswax-like
ammoniacal, caustic, pungent ammonia 7664-41-7
boar, sweaty, urine-like androstenone 18339-16-7
earthy, musty, mouldy geosmin 19700-21-1
foul, sulfurous dimethyl sulfide 75-18-3
foul, spoiled / rotten vegetables methyl mercaptan 74-93-1
fatty, of chicken E,E-2,4-decadienal 25152-84-5
fatty, rancid, deep-frying fat (E,E)-2,4-nonadienal 5910-87-2
fishy trimethylamine 75-50-3
grassy, green, freshly cut grass 3-cis-hexenol 928-96-1
hay-like, straw-like, dried herbs 3-methyl-2.4-nonadione 113486-29-6
potato (raw), earthy 2-isopropyl-3-methoxypyrazine 25773-40-4
cheesy, sweaty valeric acid 109-52-4
glue, nail varnish remover ethyl acetate 141-78-6
cork, musty 2,4,6-trichloronisole 87-40-1
medicinal, chemical 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 25167-82-2
of paperboard or cardboard (Z)-3-nonenal 31823-43-5
mushroom-like, forest floor 1-octen-3-one 4312-99-6
rancid, fishy, “cold store” cis-4-heptenal 6728-31-0
rancid butter butyric acid 107-92-6
pigsty, faecal skatole 83-34-1
sweaty, cheesy isovaleric acid 503-74-2
Tab. 13: Relevant cross-product off-aromas for odour training

Depending on the objective, we distinguish between two methods of preparing samples. In the retronasal test
the odours are assessed via oral intake of an aqueous solution. In the case of a direct orthonasal odour test via the
nose, carriers such as e.g. small glass vessels, smelling strips or capsules as well as sniffing sticks that contain
the odour substance are used. The odour substance must have been prepared beforehand in a stock solution.
Ideally, industrially produced flavouring substances that are suitable for preparing defined odour samples with high
reproducibility on the grounds of their standardised quality are used to prepare the stock solutions and the odour
standards. Generally ethanol (undenatured alcohol), propylene glycol, triacetin or glycerine are used as solvents
for flavouring substances. The stock solutions made in this way can be kept cooled and protected against light for
around six months before they gradually lose their intensity and their odour impression. In the case of ethanol, its
inherent odour must be taken into account, so that generally this solvent is not used for handing out in small glass
vessels or as sniffing sticks.

According to DIN EN ISO 8586:2014-05, “the most-used method […] for training the sense of smell is still the
presentation of odour-active substances in glass vessels.” For training odour recognition of standardised
flavouring substances, odourless brown (colour-masking), sealable glass containers are accordingly first provided
with odourless paraffin wax or odourless cotton wool, to which the odour solution is then applied so that the carrier
substances is saturated with the aromatic substance and this then evaporates into the gas headspace of the sealed
glass vessel. To test the smell the lid is then opened and the odour substance that has “evaporated” in the headspace
can be registered in sensory terms by careful brief sniffing. Furthermore, food products such as e.g. apples or spices,
extracts or infusions covered by odourless cotton wool or paraffin wax in a suitable, vision-proof and sealable glass
vessel can also be used.

A further possibility is the uptake of the aromatic substance via a paper strip that is dipped into the odour solution
for the odour test.

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If industrially produced flavour capsules that con-

tain the standardised odour reference are used, powdery,
nano-encapsulated flavourings can be integrated directly
Stick shaft
into the product matrix or “processed” to form stock solu-
tions for odour training sessions. No special laboratory
skills or equipment are necessary for this. (See www.
aroxa.com)
Cap
Sniffing sticks are another very convenient solution
Mouthpiece with
Filter made from
for odour training. In principle, sniffing sticks are fibre sticks fibre material
fibre tip

filled with flavour/aroma solutions (comparable with the

well-known “Edding®” pens). The solutions of the odour Fig. 7: Structure of a sniffing stick
substances are injected in a standardised concentration
into the fibre material of the filter, so that these are completely saturated. The filter is then inserted into the shaft and
screwed together with the mouthpiece (see Fig. 7). The fibre stick in the mouthpiece is pressed into the saturated filter
as it is screwed and thus conveys the aromatic solution to the external tip. To protect this against drying out, the stick
is closed with a cap. To sniff the odour sample, the cap is drawn off carefully (DO NOT unscrew!!!), and the stick is
held with the fibre tip directly under the nose so that the aroma impression can be absorbed carefully by sniffing. The
stability of the sticks depends on the frequency of use, proper handling and proper storage. Highly volatile aromas (e.g.
ammonia, acetaldehyde) or aromas subject to oxidation (e.g. benzaldehyde) are less stable. Generally, however, a
stability period of at least six months can be assumed. Experience acquired to date has shown that keeping the sticks
in a cool (approx. 5°C) and dark environment (e.g. refrigerator) is optimal for maintaining quality. Furthermore, after
each use it should be ensured that sticks have not been unscrewed at the shaft by mistake.

5. Possible uses of odour substances for panel training

The European standard DIN EN ISO 8586:2014-05 represents a guide for selecting, training and monitoring selected
testers and sensory analysts. This standard describes the goal of panel training as follows:
“[…] equipping test persons with fundamental knowledge of the methods used in sensory analysis and developing
their ability to perceive, identify, describe and distinguish sensory stimuli.” [p. 15ff.]
Various methods and processes can be used to train perception and identification of flavours and off-flavours. As
already described, all training measures for aroma recognition by panellists focus on developing a long-term sensory
memory which is then able within the context of sensory testing to connect the odours being registered with what has
been learned or with earlier experiences and to finally supply plausible, reliable test results.
Before the test persons for the targeted test (sensory analysis project) can be trained in accordance with the rec-
ommendations of this guide, it is first necessary to recruit potential panellists, above all persons interested in objective
assessment of foods. This is followed by preselection with examination of the sensory capabilities of the recruits.
Furthermore, the candidates are familiarised with the methods of sensory analysis and the products and materials to
be tested. The selection of the tests and the material depends on the planned field of application of the panel and the
properties to be evaluated.
Generally these sensory tests are divided into three different sectors. The first sector determines deficits and weak-
nesses of odour perception on the grounds of physiological limits/impairments (anosmia – impairment of the sense of
smell) and the sensory sensitivity of the sense organs. Accordingly this establishes general suitability of a person for
conducting sensory tests.
In the second sector the capabilities of the individuals for identifying odours, differentiating odours and qualities
and describing odours are examined. The latter is particularly relevant for descriptive panels who have to be trained
regarding their linguistic ability to describe odours.
In the third sector odour sensitivity for selected substances or substance mixtures is tested. This is relevant for
panels who have to identify an off-flavour or certain value-adding flavourings as sensitively as possible. Furthermore,

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 Panel training on odour and aroma perception for sensory analysis

the ability to distinguish between slight intensity differences of an odour is tested, as this represents the requirement
for evaluating the intensity of an odour.
Building on the above specifications, the following sections aim to provide an insight into various possible ways of
providing odour training and orthonasal flavour training. Alongside the selection of test persons, these sensory tests
can also be used to train/prepare them for test tasks and to monitor the quality of the analysts. Each panel leader must
specify the nature and number of tests individually, rather like a modular system. Beyond this, further details of the
methods discussed here can be taken from the respective DIN EN ISO standards.

5.1. Registering physiological impairments and weaknesses in the sensitivity of odour perception
(screening test)

Screening tests based on odour substances are used to identify specific anosmia (inability to perceive odours, e.g.
non-smellers of androstenone) or reduced odour perception, for instance due to ageing or as a result of disorders of
the olfactory system. These are generally conducted during the preselection of test persons and aim to contribute to
“screening out” persons with sensory-physiological deficits, so that incorrect assessments due to non-recognition of the
stimuli can be ruled out in the analyst panel. The screening generally relates both to the qualitative flavour identification
and to perception of flavours in a low intensity close to the identification threshold. This suitability test mainly consists
of a number of tests that can partly also be combined with one another.

5.2 Tests of the ability to recognise and describe odours

As already mentioned, building up an odour memory is relevant above all for members of a descriptive panel, as is
the ability to describe unknown odours in words. The odour memory enables analysts to recognise important aromas
reliably, to describe them verbally and to allocate odour samples (see Matching Test).

5.2.1 Odour recognition test with standardised or non-standardised flavourings

The odour recognition test is used to determine whether an analyst can allocate a description correctly to odour
samples (supported test). For screening, an odour recognition test is frequently conducted with standardised flavours.
Here standardised odours are presented to the analysts at the same time in the form of isolated individual aromas for
sniffing and odour recognition. The number of samples should not exceed seven to nine in order not to over-stress the
olfactory system. The samples are placed together on the table and tasted in parallel. After sniffing them, the analysts
mark the appropriate aroma description on a standardised test sheet which contains the relevant odour attributes.
(See Fig. 8)

Code fishy grassy, green hay-like, straw-like earthy, mouldy cork, musty

690

480

446

655

332

194

Fig. 8: Sample table in the test sheet for the odour identification test (supported test)

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Odour identification tests can be carried out not only with defined individual substances or defined substance mix-
tures, but also with non-standardised flavours. Here the non-standardised flavours are generally produced with spices
or foods or parts of foods in which the flavours to be identified occur not in isolated form, but integrated in a matrix.
In some cases this type of odour recognition is easier for the persons being tested, as e.g. the complex mixture of all
typical flavour-active substances is present in the food and not just one key flavouring substance.

5.2.2 Matching-Test
A further, relatively simple variant of the identification test is the matching test, of which there are many variants.
For instance the test persons can first be presented with various samples of odour references for training and “familiar-
isation”. They are then given a series of coded samples that have to be allocated to the odour references in the original
set. In a further simple variant, the analysts are given six to ten coded samples, of which two to three in each case
contain the same flavouring substance. The analysts first have to sort and group these and then if required describe the
odour.

5.2.3 Descriptive test

The descriptive test is used to practice verbal descriptions of unknown odours. By contrast with the recognition test
(see 5.2.1, Fig. 8), no odour attributes are provided for selection. A descriptive test is also a component of a profiling
test. Precise recognition of the chemical substances presented is not so important here, but instead the most objec-
tifiable description possible of the sensory impression, so that in this case the method of the “simple descriptive test”
can generally be used. Here the power to express sensory perceptions is required in order to develop a descriptive
vocabulary for describing the flavour profile of the product samples presented. This type of test also allows a large
number of other variations. For instance the analysts can be given an aroma/flavour wheel as an aid, or else lists of
attributes with possible descriptors can be made available.

Code Odour impression

690

480

446

655

332

194

Fig. 9: Sample table in the test sheet for the simple descriptive test for odour description

5.3 Odour sensitivity and intensity assessment

In practice it may be desirable to detect off-flavours as sensitively as possible with the help of a panel. In this case
it is interesting to determine the odour sensitivity with respect to selected substances in the form of stimulus/perception
and recognition thresholds. For intensity assessment the analyst must be able to reliably recognise slight differences
in intensity. This can be achieved for instance with the help of discrimination tests and by determining the difference
threshold.

5.3.1 Odour sensitivity

The stimulus threshold and the recognition threshold of an analyst for an odour substance can be determined
in order to describe the odour sensitivity. These threshold values can vary widely depending on the medium used.

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 Panel training on odour and aroma perception for sensory analysis

Test task to determine the threshold value:

Test each sample in the row, one after the other from left to right, and describe your impression with the following
notation symbols and, if you have recognised the flavour, describe it in words:

0= no odour impression perceived;

?= a change was ascertained, but cannot be defined (stimulus/perception threshold);
X= odour impression recognised; please name it (identification threshold);
XX = odour impression has become stronger by comparison with the preceding sample (difference threshold)
XXX = odour impression has become stronger again. Mark each of the following samples to which this applies
with a cross.

Re-tasting is not allowed.

Sequence of samples Basic sample 121 122 123 124 125 126

Notation symbol

Odour impression

Fig. 10: Excerpt from a table from the test sheet of a threshold test

Accordingly several powers of ten can lie between the recognition thresholds of a flavouring substance in air, water
and beer. There are also differences between orthonasal (sniffing of a solution) and retronasal (tasting) perception
of a flavouring substance.
To determine the recognition threshold, a test substance is presented in rising concentrations for sniffing or tasting.
Re-tasting is not allowed. This test first finds out as of what concentration an odour impression is perceived (stimulus/
perception threshold). Then with rising concentration, the analysts smell and taste further and in each case state when
a difference in concentration is perceived. Provided that the odour is identified clearly, the analyst notes what odour this
is (recognition threshold) and tests the sequence up to the end. Experience has shown that when this test is repeated
there is frequently a risk of the analysts guessing and not concentrating on the actual test. Alternatively the stimulus or
recognition threshold can be additionally secured or verified with a discrimination test, such as the Duo Test or Triangle
Test. Recommendations on the individual concentrations of the solutions with the identification thresholds and evaluation
options are listed in DIN 10959. (See Fig. 10)

5.3.2 Recognition of differences in intensity

Alongside the qualitative recognition of odours, recognition of intensity differences in standardised odours is
also important within the context of screening and monitoring analysts. This ability is a prerequisite for assessing
the intensity of flavours.
In principle all discrimination tests (difference or comparison tests) can be used in order to examine the ability to
recognise differences in intensity. (For further information on this contact [email protected]).
Pairwise comparison tests and triangle tests with a standardised aroma in two concentrations are particularly
suitable. If more than two concentrations are to be compared, the ranking test can be used. In this test at least
three samples of a flavouring substance with different concentration levels are produced and handed out together
to the panellists for testing. The test task consists of arranging the samples in the sequence of rising concentration
of odour intensity perceived (ranking) and noting this intensity sequence using the sample numbers (see Fig. 11).
The flavouring substances selected for the difference test should be important for the product that is subsequently
to be tested (see Table 12). Further information can be taken from DIN ISO 8587: 2010-08 Sensory Analysis – Test
Methods – Ranking Test.

21
 DLG Expert report 1/2017

Please arrange the test samples handed out (code numbers) in the order of intensity in the table.

Odour intensity

Code No. of
the sample

low/weak high/strong

Fig. 11: Excerpt from the test sheet of a ranking test to record the odour intensity (line scale)

5.3.3 Intensity evaluation

The intensity of an odour substance is evaluated with the help of a scale prescribed by the test leader. Both or-
dinal scales (verbal description of the extent of the attribute, for instance low – high (e.g. Fig. 11) and metric scales
(extent of the attribute defined in figures, e.g. 0 to 5, see Fig. 12) are applied. Using the intensity scale is the subject
of an analyst training session. Intensity evaluations are part of the profile tests and the tests of building products or
materials entering into contact with food for unwanted odour substances. In addition to a verbal description of the
intensity, reference materials for certain intensity stages or a whole series of intensity stages with a selected aroma
are helpful.
Product-specific training is carried out after the intensity training for individual flavouring substances. Depending
on the objective and the possible assignments of the panel, different product variants are offered for testing here.
It should be noted that ideally the test sequence is evaluated in triple repetition, as a final selection of the chosen
panellists is possible by looking through the data gained in this way and comparing the panel performance charac-
teristics.
Those analysts who display a high standard deviation between the repetitions in the test results or who cannot
discriminate well between the products are not suitable for a quantitative panel. Panellists who display only a low level
of difficulty in this connection can be qualified appropriately via further product-specific training units.

Please enter the test samples (code numbers) handed out to you in order of their intensity in the
following scale.

Odour intensity

0 1 2 3 4 5

Explanation:
0 = not perceptible
1 = weakly/not perceptible
2 = moderately perceptible
3 = clearly perceptible
4 = strongly perceptible
5 = very strongly perceptible

Fig. 12: Excerpt from the test report for intensity assessment: specimen scale for registering the odour intensity of
a defined aroma

22
 Panel training on odour and aroma perception for sensory analysis

Conclusion

The objective of this Expert Knowledge Report was to provide an insight into the olfactory perception and general
fundamentals of characterising flavours, as well as to supply an overview of the key methods of odour training for pan-
ellists. The report makes it clear that in addition to regular training and examining of knowledge about the basic taste
types, aroma/flavour training especially should play a significant role in qualifying sensory analysis panellists. The report
presents various odour training modules that can be used for both selection and training and also within the context of
a monitoring programme. After starting with the use of isolated odour references, as the level of knowledge increases
and in line with sensory experience, it is possible to move on successively to training work with flavourings in the food
matrix. This generally proves to be more complex and thus more difficult. Depending on the tasks to be performed by the
panel and on the basis of the defined performance factors and requirements made of the panellists, it is thus possible
to design a focused training plan and with the help of continuous performance monitoring to adapt this steadily to the
level of sensory knowledge of the panellists and successively increase the panel’s performance capability. The field
of aroma/flavour theory and training is extremely complex and offers much potential for development and further food
for discussion in future, not only in human sensory analysis, but also in the field of “Instrumental Sensory Analysis”.

Literature (selection):
- Mleczko, M., HS Anhalt: Panelschulung: Einsatz von standardisierten Geruchsproben zur Schulung der
Geruchserkennung im Lebensmittelbereich (Bachelorarbeit 2015)
- Uhl, M., HS Geisenheim: Erstellen eines Leitfadens für das Fachvokabular von Getränken (Bachelorarbeit 2015)
- Legrum, W., Riechstoffe zwischen Gestank und Duft, Springer Verlag 2015
- Hans-Dieter Belitz, Werner Grosch: Lehrbuch der Lebensmittelchemie, Springer, Berlin, 3. Aufl. 1987, S. 274
- Vilgris, T.; Vierich, T., Aroma: Die Kunst des Würzens, Stiftung Warentest, 2013
- Busch-Stockfisch, M., Kapitel 2: Prüferauswahl und Schulung in Praxishandbuch Sensorik, Behrs Verlag GmbH &
Co.KG, Hamburg
- DIN EN ISO 8586: 2014-05 „Sensorische Analyse – Allgemeiner Leitfaden für die Auswahl, Schulung und
Überprüfung ausgewählter Prüfer und Sensoriker“
- Derndorfer, Eva, Lebensmittelsensorik, Facultas Verlags- und Buchhandels AG, Wien, 2010
- DLG-Expertenwissen „Sensorische Analyse“, www.DLG.org/expertenwissen_sensorik.html
- Bargs-Stahl, E.; Luck-Haller, Dr. E., - https://www.planet-schule.de/wissenspool/total-phaenomenal-sinne/inhalt/
hintergrund/der-geruchssinn/mensch.html (retrieved: 25.05.2016)
- https//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riechschleimhaut, retrieved: 19.07.2016
- https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riechkolben, retrieved: 19.07.2016

Authors:

Prof. Dr. Thomas Simat, Chair of Food Science and Food and Skin Contact Materials,
Technical University Dresden, Dresden

Bianca Schneider-Häder, DLG e.V., Frankfurt/M.

Marco Uhl, Bachelor graduate 2015, HS Geisenheim University, Institute of Wine Analysis and Beverage Research,
Geisenheim, Supervisor: Dr. C.-D. Patz

Martina Mleczko, Bachelor graduate 2015, Anhalt University of Applied Sciences, Department of Agriculture,
Ecotrophology and Landscape Development, Bernburg; Supervisor: Prof. Dr. D. Hanrieder

© 2017
All information and references are provided without any guarantee or liability. Any reproduction and transmission of individual text sections,
drawings or pictures – even for educational purposes – requires the prior consent of DLG e.V., Service Department Communication,
Eschborner Landstrasse 122, 60489 Frankfurt am Main.

23
 Set 3: TOP 10 Lebensmittelfehlaromen
Set 2: Auswahlprüfung nach DIN EN ISO 8586 – röstig-tierisch-würzig
Set 1: Auswahlprüfung nach DIN EN ISO 8586 – blumig-fruchtig-pflanzlich
Sensorik-Stifte-Sets

relevant. Aromen- und Fehlaromen-Erkennung und

Profil-Prüfungen in der Produktentwicklung te turnusmäßige Schulung unterstützt die
Methoden, wie einfach beschreibende oder und DIN ISO 22935-1). Eine standardisier-

DLG Expert report 1/2017

litätskontrolle als auch bei beschreibenden sentliches Element (Vgl. DIN EN ISO 8586
oder In-Out-Tests v.a. im Bereich der Qua- standardisierter Geruchsreferenzen ein we-
Unterschiedsprüfungen, wie Dreieckstests ning des Geruchsgedächtnisses mittels
tifizierten Geruchsnote. Dies ist sowohl bei nels (Experten) ist das regelmäßige Trai-
die verbale Beschreibung der jeweils iden- Zur Qualifizierung sensorischer Prüferpa-

Sensorik-Stifte zur Aromaschulung

How to order sensory pens and training sets for food & beverages

Sensory pen sets (each with 10 flavour references)

SENSORIK-STIFTE
zur Aromaschulung
Set 1: Selection test according to DIN EN ISO 8586 -

SENSORIK-STIFTE

SENSORIK-STIFTE
flowery-fruity-vegetable

A teruein (UTTTAA)
A)
Bien ngsnote

Veilchen
Jasmin
Set 2: Selection test according to DIN EN ISO 8586 -

e, Li s,
nde,

Honig
Rose
Akazienwach
zur Aromaschulung

zur Aromaschulung
bei W
am

kü
Ess
roasted-animal-spicy

mo

At
ig
me mu

nia
diz ffig

kal
in

isc
pa

-herb
süßlich
isc
pp
Set 3: TOP 10 food off-flavours

h
h
ig,

stec
K

Ka

streng
Na lebs

hen
rt o
g t

De
en ella off,

d, b
sin
tfe ck

Set 4: Selection test for dairy products to DIN ISO 22935-1

fek

eiße
rne -

Pa

tion ppe
r

pi

nd
Kart

er,
Lö

sm
off

blumig
su

Pa
roh el,

ittttte
ng

l
Set 5: Flavour references animal-spicy, pungent, hearty
pilza sm
itt
Wald rtig, el
boden

ch
Hum

em

c
Erde,

fru
u

Set 6: Flavour references animal – boar taint, faecal

modr s

i sc
ig

h
KKork muffig erdig

Set 7: Flavour references animal – off-flavours verdorbenes

Gemüse
faulig
schwefelig

DLG-Verlag GmbH
Sensory
Diese pens
Bücher undfrom
vielethe field ofinteressante
weitere consumer articles
Titel erhalten Sie bei: Eschborner Landstrasse 122
60489 Frankfurt
Technical University Dresden -
Tel: 069 24 788 451
Chair of Food Science and Food and Skin Contact Materials
Fax: 069 24 788 484
Prof. Dr. Thomas Simat
[email protected]
https://www.chm.tu-dresden.de/lc2/index-die.shtml (Order form)
www.dlg-verlag.de/shop/
[email protected]

DLG Expert report: concise information on topical issues in the food industry
Expertise, trends and strategies first-hand. The DLG produces numerous publi-
cations informing readers about current issues and developments in the fields of Colours and their influences on
DLG Expert report 3/2017
Reduction Strategies for
DLG Expert report 8/2017

Fat, Sugar and Salt

food technology, quality management, sensory analysis and food quality. sensory perception of products Part 1

In the “DLG Expert report” series, experts tackle current issues and provide con-
cise information and assistance.
Reformulation
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2017_8_EW_Reductionsstrategien_e.indd 1 26.09.17 14:43

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