Nicolaus Copernicus

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) shattered the long-

held notion that the Earth was the center of the solar Isaac Newton
system, proposing a heliocentric (sun-centered) model
instead. Isaac Newton (1642–1727) often commands
respect as the most influential figure in all of
science. He invented calculus, as well as
investigating optics, mechanics, experimental
Copernicus, of Poland, felt the Ptolemaic view of the chemistry, alchemy, and theology. His creation
planets traveling in circular orbits around the Earth was of the three universal laws of motion plus the
over-complicated with many smaller circles, epicycles, invention of the theory of universal gravity
needed to explain the intermittent retrograde motion of permanently altered the field of science.
the planets (in which they appear to move in the
opposite direction of the the stars). Copernicus The well-known Newtonian laws of motion are:
published his book, De Revolutionibus Orbium 1) an object at rest tends to stay at rest and an
Coelestium ("On the Revolutions of the Heavenly object in uniform motion tends to stay in uniform
Spheres") when he was 70 and lay dying. motion unless acted upon by a net external
force. 2) The net force on an object is equal to
the rate of change of its linear momentum in an
His ideas took almost a hundred years to gain inertial reference frame, or if a body is
credence, but Galileo's 1632 assertions that the Earth accelerating, there a force is acting on it. 3) For
orbited the sun built upon the Polish astronomer's every action there is an equal and opposite
work, cementing the Copernican revolution. action.

In a story that has long since gone into the

public consciousness, Newton supposedly
found inspiration for his theory of gravitation
Johannes Kepler upon seeing an apple fall from a tree. From this
he conjectured that gravity's pull could extend
outwards from the earth, even as far as the
moon and further.

Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) defended and modified

the Copernican view of the solar system with a radical
reformation that established him as one of the great
lights of the Scientific Revolution of the 16th-17th
centuries.

Kepler deduced that the planets do not travel in perfect

circles around the Sun, as Copernicus had thought, but Galileo Galilei
rather possess elliptical orbits, with the sun at one of
the foci. This insight formed his first planetary law,
which he published in 1609 with the second law which Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) stood as the central figure of the
stated that planets do not travel at the same rate scientific revolution of the 17th century, with his work in
throughout their orbits. physics, astronomy, and scientific methodology.

Kepler's third law, published a decade later, posited Galileo, born in Pisa, Italy, made numerous scientific
discoveries. He famously proved that all falling bodies fall at
that the relationship between the lengths of two
the same rate, regardless of mass. Further he developed the
planets' orbits is related to their distances from the sun.
first pendulum clock.
Though he made other contributions to mathematics
and optics, Kepler's three laws made him a giant of Galileo experimented with and refined telescopes (though he
astronomy. did not invent them, as is often incorrectly thought). He is
perhaps best known for discovering the four most massive
moons of Jupiter, now known as the Galilean moons.

Based on his telescope research, Galileo supported the

Copernican heliocentric model of the solar system, publishing
his arguments in "Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World
Systems," during 1632. The ruling Catholic church forced
Galileo to recant these theories, and was kept under house
arrest for the remaining nine years of his life. Today his legacy
lived on in the Galileo spacecraft which probed Jupiter. [Read
more about Galileo
The Big Dipper (US) or the Plough (UK, Ireland)[ is a large
asterism consisting of seven bright stars of the constellation
Ursa Major; six of them are of second magnitude and one,
Megrez , of third magnitude. Four define a "bowl" or "body"
and three define a "handle" or "head". It is recognized as a
distinct grouping in many cultures.

The North Star (Polaris), the current northern pole star and
the tip of the handle of the Little Dipper (Little Bear), can be
located by extending an imaginary line through the front two
stars of the asterism, Merak (β) and Dubhe (α). This makes it
useful in celestial navigation.

Big Dipper

Cassiopeia is a constellation in the

northern sky, named after the vain queen
Cassiopeia in Greek mythology, who
boasted about her unrivaled beauty.
Cassiopeia was one of the 48 constellations
listed by the 2nd-century Greek
astronomer Ptolemy, and it remains one of
the 88 modern constellations today. It is
easily recognizable due to its distinctive
'W' shape, formed by five bright stars. It is
opposite Ursa Major. In northern locations
above latitude 34ºN it is visible year-round
and in the (sub) tropics it can be seen at it’s
clearest from September to early
November. Even in low southern latitudes
below 25ºS it can be seen low in the North.
 Waxing Gibbous - The Moon
appears to be more than one-
half but not fully illuminated by
direct sunlight. The fraction of the Moon's disk
New Moon - The Moon's that is illuminated is increasing.
unilluminated side is facing the
Earth. The Moon is not visible (except during
a solar eclipse).

Full Moon - The Moon's

illuminated side is facing the
Earth. The Moon appears to be
Waxing Crescent - The Moon completely illuminated by direct sunlight.
appears to be partly but less
than one-half illuminated by
direct sunlight. The fraction of the Moon's disk
that is illuminated is increasing.
Waning Gibbous - The Moon
appears to be more than one-
half but not fully illuminated by
direct sunlight. The fraction of the Moon's disk
First Quarter - One-half of the that is illuminated is decreasing.
Moon appears to be illuminated
by direct sunlight. The fraction
of the Moon's disk that is illuminated is
increasing.
Last Quarter - One-half of the
Moon appears to be illuminated
by direct sunlight. The fraction
of the Moon's disk that is illuminated is
decreasing.
 Waning Crescent - The
Moon appears to be partly
but less than one-half
illuminated by direct sunlight.
The fraction of the Moon's
disk that is illuminated is decreasing.