BLASTING TECHNOLOGY IN 21st CENTURY

A. K. Mishra*

ABSTRACT
This paper describes the new developments in the explosives and the blasting techniques.
Developments in the explosives include low cost, high energy, flexible and pumpable emulsions.
The advancements of initiation systems consist of electronic detonators, shock tube in hole delay
detonators and low grammage detonating cords and Sliding delay primer inserts. The pre-blast
and post-blast evaluation of blasting is no more a guess. Every millisecond of blasting process
can be evaluated in terms of face movement or the health of explosive during detonation of
explosive in terms of continuous VOD. Post blast evaluation in terms of fragmentation analysis
or throw is very easy with the automatic image processing software. Computer aided blast design
software and the improved explosive energy generation and utilization has provided the mine
operator a wide range for optimization of blast results. Now blasting has become a strong
discipline of engineering, which used to be an art. The blasting techniques have been developed
to conduct the blasting in environmentally sensitive areas with control over ground vibration, air
over pressure and fly rock.

INTRODUCTION
Ever growing demand of coal and mineral has compelled the mining industry for increase in
development of open pit mines. The buzzword today in opencast technology is bigger and bigger
sizes of mines with bigger and bigger earth moving equipment. This trend has called for usage of
large amount of explosives coupled with sprawl of urbanisation and increased public
environmental consciousness. This has called for much greater control over blast induced ground
vibrations, noise and flyrocks. With extensive demand of coal, majority of opencast mining
projects of Coal India Ltd. are becoming closer to habitation, which has called for identification
of a system of blasting which can give desired results in the most economic way without
damaging nearby structures and raising public litigation cases. To control ground vibration, fly

*Associate Professor, Department of Mining Engineering, Indian School of Mines University,

Dhanbad

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rocks, noise and fragmentation due to blasting, the basic mechanism for the rock breakage should
be clearly understood. The global competition being faced by the Indian mineral producing
companies is becoming tough, which demands to operate more efficiently. In search of better
technology and enhancement of productivity every mine operator is trying to adopt the latest
technology available globally. Every research and development effort has been put by the
explosive and initiation system manufacturers to provide the best to the industry and to a large
extent they have succeeded as well.

AREAS OF DEVELOPMENT IN BLASTING

The major areas of concern in blasting, which has received the attention includes
• Explosives (packaged and bulk)
• Primers and boosters
• Initiation systems
• Stemming controls
• Evaluation techniques of blasting (pre blast, post blast and during blasting)

DEVELOPMENTS IN EXPLOSIVES

NG based explosives: In the development of explosives, nitro-glycerine based explosives have

played a vital role. NG based explosives have been the first explosive which had been developed
a century back but still used in some of the countries. Since last three decades their use has
declined globally. In India as well, the leading explosive manufacturers have stopped producing
NG-based explosives. This all has taken place due to the safety hazards associated with them
while manufacturing, storage, transportation, and handling.

ANFO: Prilled ammonium nitrate (AN) and fuel oil mixture known as ANFO, were introduced
for blasting operations in mid 1950’s. It gives a tough competition to new explosives developed
due to the low cost. It is the cheapest explosive available globally. It is very safe and both the
components of explosive i.e., Ammonium Nitrate and diesel oil are non explosive in nature
hence very safe and possibility of pilferage is not there. The only disadvantage of it is its poor
water resistance and low density.
Various researchers have tried and succeeded in formulating low density ANFO (0.40-0.50
gm/cc) by replacing diesel oil with rice husk/ saw dust/ crushed rubber / polystyrene blends.
Also, another variant of ANFO came with the development of emulsion popularly known as
Heavy ANFO, which has high density and high energy and fairly water resistant.

Aluminised ANFO (ALANFO): The addition of aluminium powder to ANFO increases the
energy output quite considerably. The higher heat of explosion is due to the high heat Kcal/kg of
formation of Al2O3. The increased density and increased energy per unit weight of an aluminised
blasting agent must be weighted against its higher cost.

Slurry: These were developed as a result of attempts to improve water resistance, density and
strength of ANFO. Slurry is a mixture of nitrates such as ammonium nitrate and sodium nitrate, a

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fuel sensitiser, either explosive or non-explosive and varying amounts of water. Although they
contain large amounts of ammonium nitrate, slurries are made water resistant through the use of
gums, waxes, and cross linking agents. Most commonly used fuel sensitizers are carbonaceous
fuels, aluminium and amine nitrates. They are sensitised by air bubbles, which are entrapped by
churning the mixture. Even when none of the ingredients are in themselves explosive substances
and it is only in the final stage of production that the compositions acquire explosive
characteristics.

Emulsion Explosives: An emulsion explosive a two phased system in which an inner or

dispersed phase is distributed in an outer or continuous phase. In simpler term an emulsion is a
mixture of two liquids that do not dissolve in one another. This unique feature couples with the
fact that minute size of the nitrate solution droplets are tightly compacted within the continuous
fuel phase results in good intimacy between oxidiser and fuel and increased reaction efficiency
compared to other systems. The emulsion matrix is obtained by emulsification of two immiscible
liquids in blenders at a high rpm (approx. 1500). The emulsion explosive are used in three
different forms : (1) Packaged explosives in the form of cartridges (manufactured and packaged
at factory) (2) Site mixed emulsion used as bulk in open pit mines. (3) Re-pumpable emulsion,
which is, designed for small and intermediate diameter blast holes. The emulsion matrix is being
prepared at the support plant near or away from mine and being carried by the bulk delivery
pump trucks. The AN Prills and gassing agent are mixed with the matrix and then pumped into
the hole by bulk delivery trucks at the site of mines. The product acquires the explosive property
after approx. 20-30 minutes of its placement in the blast hole. This gives the system a great
safety feature to work with in mine. The bulk explosive in India has been introduced by IBP Co
Limited in the year 1980. With more than two decades of experience we are self sufficient in
know how and many new variations have been developed and tested. Now, we are exporting the
technology to other developing countries.

Liquid Oxygen Explosive: When a combustible ingredient, made in the form of cartridge is
soaked in liquid oxygen and then subjected to combustion reaction, the rate of reaction is
extremely high and a large volume of gas is instantaneously released at high temperature and
pressure. The VOD under suitable confinement can be 5000 m/s. It’s use has been stopped
globally due to inherited safety hazards.

EXPLOSIVES FOR SPECIALISED BLASTING OPERATIONS

The special explosives are required for control blasting, under water blasting, blasting in hot
area. The following are special explosives used for specialised jobs:

Pipe charges : Pipe charges in rigid plastic tubes are used which can be screwed together by
means of extension sleeves. These are suitable for u/g work and pre-splitting in opencast/surface
excavations. These explosives very in diameter from 25 to 50 mm and length 600 to 700 mm.
The advantages of these explosives are providing more decoupling and less damage to the
surrounding rock.

Shaped charges: The term shaped charged is applied to cylindrical charges of high explosive
with a cavity formed at the end opposite to the point of initiation. The effect of the cavity is to

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produce an intensified pressure, which is projected as a jet in the direction of initiation. If the
cavity is lined by metal, then this is fragmented by the detonation to produce a high velocity jet.
Shaped charges have been applied to penetrate the casing of oil & gas well, to tap furnaces, to
break rock underwater without carrying out drilling operations, and for penetration of frozen
ground.

Heat Resistant Explosives (HRE): These explosives are of slurry type and have been specially
developed to carry out blasting in fiery zone of opencast workings along with RDX detonating
cord, where the temperature is below 1500C.

Seismic Explosives: For seismic prospecting a special range of explosives are manufactured.
These are compact, flexible and high energy explosives used in seismic reflection and refraction
survey work.

CAST BOOSTERS
Cast boosters are explosive units designed to act as primers. Comprising a mixture of PETN,
TNT and other minor ingredients. Their high strength, high density and very high velocity of
detonation (7000 m/s) make them suitable for priming ANFO mixture, slurries and emulsions.
Recently developed emulsions based cast booster provides less safety hazards than the
conventional cast boosters. This priming system contains high density physically
gassed/sensitised emulsion of very high VOD (5100 m/s). Emulsion based cast booster is
packaged in high strength plastic pellets, which can withstand normal wear and tear encountered
in the field. Further, R&D is going on to improve the energy content and detonation pressure of
the product.
ELECTRONIC DELAY DETONATORS
The conventional delay detonators are pyrotechnic based, which suffers the disadvantage of cap
scattering. The cap scattering causes inefficient blasting, poor fragmentation, more of ground
vibrations and other associated problems. The electronic detonator provides the accurate delay to
the order of 1 ms. Usually the electronic detonator system consists of three key components :
digital detonator, logger, and blaster (Kay, 2000). The programmable digital detonator contains a
microchip energy storage capacitor, safety structures and conventional explosive components.
The microchip circuitry includes an oscillator for timing, memory for retaining its programmed
delay, and communication functions to receive and deliver digital messages to and from the
control equipment. The capacitor can store sufficient energy to run the microchip independent of
external power for 8 seconds with enough energy remaining after this time period has elapsed to
fire the fuse head. Each detonator is 1 to 8000 milliseconds. The accuracy is less than one
millisecond. Logger is used to communicate with the Detonators during hookup. Operating at an
inherently safe voltage, the Logger recognizes and tests each detonator as it is clipped onto the
harness wire. Each Detonator ‘responds upon connect’, giving the operator reassurance of
knowing the connection is good, and that the Detonator has responded. The required delay time
for each Detonator is entered and writing into the Logger memory. This information is stored in
non-volatile memory, (hard memory) of the Logger and used to program each Detonator only
during the firing sequence. At any stage the Logger can be used to test the hoop-up and response
fro every Detonator. Blaster is used to fire the blast and only deployed from the firing position

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once the operation is clear of personnel. It is the only piece of equipment that contains the
required voltages and codes capable of firing the detonators. The Blaster communicates to each
Detonator in turn via the Logger. Each Blaster can handle 8 loggers and each logger can take 200
Detonators, giving a system capability of 1600 Detonators per blast. At any time, connected
detonator can be tested and there is a full two-way communication between Detonators and
control equipment.

INITIATION SYSTEM
Conventional System:
Detonating fuse consists of a core of high explosive (PETN) enclosed in layers of jute and cotton
yarn with a strong plastic outer covering. It employs 10 grams of a high explosive PETN per
metre of detonating fuse. It is initiated by no.6 detonator. Once initiated, a line of cordtex will
detonate cap sensitive explosive with which it is in contact. It has high resistance to abrasion,
high tensile strength and it is destructive type of initiation system. In D-Cord initiation system
cord relays are used to provide surface delays between holes.

Shock Type Initiation System:

Shock tube initiation system is also known as NONEL system. The main component of a non-
electric initiation system is shock tube that is a hollow tube made with advanced materials
designed to withstand field conditions. The tube comprises of two layers, the inner layer, made
of a special material "Surlyn" coated with a very fine layer of a reactive mixture. The reactive
mixture (HMX and fine aluminium powder) used is in the range of 14 to 16 milligrams per meter
of tube. This coating is done at the time of tube extrusion and thereby good adhesion is ensured.
Velocity of detonation of the inner reactive mixture is generally of the order of 2200 m/sec.
When an initiation shock signal is introduced at one end of this tube, the reactive mixture
propagates the signal all along the tube even through knots and kinks, thus making it a viable
means of carrying explosive initiation signal in down lines as well as trunk lines.
The outer layer is designed to withstand the stresses from day to day use in terms of abrasion and
tension. A delay detonator is factory assembled at one end of the tube and other end is sealed to
prevent ingress of moisture and other foreign matter.
Down the hole non-electric millisecond delay detonator are manufactured by IDL, Hyderabad
with trade name 'Raydet' and by IEL, India with trade name 'Exel'. With the help of non-electric
millisecond delay detonators for down the hole initiation, two or three explosive decks in the
same drill hole can be detonated on different delays. This reduces the maximum charge per delay
thus controlling ground vibrations and can be very effectively used for carrying out
cautious/controlled blasting operations. Use of NTD (Noiseless trunk line surface delay system)
on the surface hook up, in place of detonating cord significantly reduces air blast/noise in view
of the non-destructive nature of the tube. NTD or TLD (Trunk line delay) is a non-electric
millisecond delay detonator for surface initiation of down line detonators. Combination of DTH
and NTD give hole by hole initiation as well as sufficient 'burning front' thereby eliminating cut-
off and misfires. Shock tube NONEL system provides a high level of safety against initiation by
static electricity, stray electrical currents and radio frequency transmissions.

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STEMMING PLUGS
To obtain the maximum energy utilisation in rock fragmentation and throw the stemming plugs
have been developed and are gaining popularity. Stemming plugs are usually cone shaped device
constructed of high impact polystyrene with a 15,000-psi compressive strength. This is
commonly known as Funnel. Placed within the stemming material at an optimal distance above
the explosive column, the plug actively seals the borehole collar upon detonation to confine
explosive energy at the typical path of least resistance (Bhandari, 2002). Max plug is a flexible
plastic moulded plug and used in similar manner as stem plug.
These stemming plug have been used in other countries and proved reduction in stemming
ejection, which resulted in better fragmentation, throw and expansion of blast pattern. The over
all productivity entries.

AIR DECKING
Air decks have been provided using gas bags as well as wooden spacers. These have resulted in
improvement of fragmentation and reduction in explosives consumption. The air gap provided
by air deck reduces the pressure of explosion gases and increases the span of action of shock
waves, which results in better fragmentation.

DEVELOPMENT IN BLAST EVALUATION

The developments in the blast design software and computer codes have provided a significant
improvement in understanding the phenomenon/process of blasting and an insight into the
process before it occurs and thus allowing blast to be simulated first on a computer before an
expensive blast is attempted to. The models are developed with frequent comparison of computer
simulations and field data. Some of the models are listed in Table 1. Use of these models in
many real problems has shown many strengths and weakness (ISRM, 1992). Among these
computer models, SABREX has been used in India (Bhusan and Srihari, 1990).

Table 1: Computer programs for blast design and analysis

Program Developed by

3 x 3o – PRO JKMRC, Australia (Cameron et al., 1991)

SABREX ICI Explosive Group (Kirby et al., 1987)

BLASPA Favreau (1980)

DMC Sandia National laboratory, USA (Taylor and Preece,

1989)

SOROBLAST Lulea University, Sweden (Kou and Rustan, 1993)

DYNOVIEW & BLASTEC Dyno Nobel, Inc. (Hopler, 1994)

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Due to complexity of rock structure, difficulty in collecting all data and a lack of understanding
of the dynamic response of rock to the explosive action, any prediction made by the model
should be treated as a guideline instead of an accurate prediction (Sarma, 1994).
Expert Systems
Knowledge based systems or expert systems are sophisticated and interactive computer
programs, which use all forms of knowledge (thumb rules, empirical formulae, engineering
judgement and past experience) in some narrow problem domain to solve a complex problem in
that domain. Problems can be solved by means of an information containing rules and data from
which inferences are drawn on the basis of experiences and problems encountered previously
(Schech et al., 1987, Cheimanoff et al., 1990 and Jiang and Little, 1990).
A group of researchers (Schech et al., 1987) have developed blast design and consultant system
for surface mines to help in blast design and blast vibration analysis. The software consists of
two modules: one used for theoretical and empirical formulae and procedures to design a blast
based on user supplied geological and geo-mechanical data, while the other is an expert system
that analyses the blast vibration problems and recommends remedial action using knowledge-
based rules.
BLAST OPTIMISATION
The primary objective of blasting in a mine is to properly fragment the rock mass so that the
fragmented rock mass can be handled properly by the excavating equipment.
The primary steps in blasting are to design, implement and observe the outcome of a blast.
Presently developed techniques have enhanced and streamlined the process for the optimisation
of a blast. The blast optimisation process has been described by the blast optimisation pyramid
(Singh, 1999). Three main stages of the pyramid are planning, execution and output of a blast
(Figure 1).

Blast Output
and
Results Productivity

Blast Design
Compliance
and
Explosive
Execution Execution
Performance

Conditions at
the Blasting
Planning Rock Mass Site
Drilling
Characterisation Pattern and
Blast Design
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Figure 1:Blast Optimisation Pyramid

PRE-BLAST SURVEY
Further in practice the pre blast survey has to be conducted to know the actual condition at the
face. The various parameters must be measured to know the actual face condition, namely, blast
hole collar location and the crest burden; blast hole depth and inclination, blast geometry and
face angle.
The laser profiler is an innovative instrument, which is used for knowing the profile of the face
and crest burden for the front row. It operates on the principle that a laser beam is directed
towards the rock face and on its reflection, returns to the laser profiler, which in turn is being
analysed by the microprocessor and gives the profile/section of the face and also gives a plan
indicating hole position, depth and the angle is being monitored by using bore track blast hole
logger which operates with laser profiler. The result obtained by the system enables an operator
to rethink before firing the patch for re-drilling/ taking precautionary measures for fly rock/
fragmentation.

Bore hole camera is another piece of equipment used for evaluating the condition of bore hole
walls in terms of obstructions, bridging effects, back break, slough off, structural geological
mapping etc.

WHILE BLASTING
The following parameters can be evaluated while the blasting is in progress:

Continuous velocity of detonation of explosive in the blast holes

Bore hole pressure measurement

Blast monitoring with the help of high speed video camera (Burden velocity, burden
response time, stemming ejection velocity, fly rock velocity, escaping gases, etc.)

Ground vibration, air overpressure and fly rock monitoring Fragmentation assessment
In recent years high-speed motion picture photography has become a powerful diagnostic
technique to study, analyse and evaluate the blast for improving the design. Production blasting,
typically lasting less than two seconds, requires an extended time base for observation and
clarification of short lived phenomena. Information obtained from high-speed photographic
analysis is categorised into two main groups (Chiappetta, 1998, Mishra, 2002) quantitative and
qualitative.

Qualitative aspects
• First rock movement
• Firing sequence of holes in blast
• Confinement and blow-out of stemming
• Shape or form of primary rock movement
• Confirming function of explosive accessories

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Quantitative aspects.

• Firing time of initiators

• Time and duration of escaping gases
• Direction and velocity of rock projectiles
• Initial time of detonation
• Ground swelling velocity
• Stemming ejection velocity
• Total flight time of a rock projectile
• Casting range of fragmented material
• Confinement time of stemming and explosion gases after hole detonation
• Initial time of burden movement and bench top movement.

A comprehensive collection of the data along with pertinent information on the blast design and
drilling-loading-mucking operation can be used for determining cause of misfire; poor loading
practices; poor firing practices; effects of redrills; water; gas venting; buffers; proper delay
interval between holes and row of holes to obtain adequate forward burden relief; optimum
initiating system; massive ground movement; source of oversize; optimum cast range of
fragmented material; optimum explosive-rock-burden combination and final muckpile geometry.

Presently the continuous VOD of explosives cab be obtained in the field using measuring
instruments. These instruments give a very clear picture of the detonic property of explosive
during detonation, which indicates the health and consistency of explosive as well as the
performance of primer/boosters.

Ground vibration and air over pressure can be measured by advanced digital seismographs. This
is helpful in finding the threshold PPV for the given site as well as to control the air over
pressure, which helps in maintaining harmonious relation with the nearby inhabitants.

POST BLAST EVALUATION

The post blast evaluation includes the following factors:

Fragmentation analysis

Muck profile

Evaluation of wall damage (Back break/side break)

Formation of toe, etc

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Fragmentation assessment can be done by various methods:

Visual inspection

Oversize counts

Time study of excavating equipments

Volume/frequency of secondary blasting

Bridging delays at crusher

Partial screening

Crusher output study

Sieving

Standard photographic techniques

Photographic and digital image processing

Mathematical model
In the digital image processing technique a digital photograph of a blasted muckpile is being
taken and the image is transferred to the computer using software developed for the purpose. The
software scans the photograph and generates fragment contour on the basis of defined
parameters. Afterwards a manual editing of the contour net can be done to get more precise
results. Further within fraction of a second it gives the fragment count as well as the sieve
analysis of the muckpile. Many digital photographs of a muckpile can be taken and
simultaneously analysis can be done to get the average fragmentation analysis.

CONCLUSION
The recent developments in the explosives industry and the advancements in the evaluating
systems have made the blasting engineering a subject of more scientific in nature which used to
be more of art. Now it is possible to design and execute a perfect blast without any adverse
effects to the environment and the nearby inhabitants. With the developed systems it is very easy
to know the detonation process of explosive during blasting as well as the dynamic rock mass
response to the explosive stimulus with the accuracy of one ms or even less, which provides an
effective tool to the blasting engineer for designing fully controlled and precise blast even in the
adverse conditions.

The mine operators may see in future self-programmable electronic detonators and many more
developments. These will be of benefit to the society only if mine operators will evaluate and use
these techniques in view of the total spectrum of cost analysis.

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