Rock

Fragmentation
2023 UZ
 Introduction
 Impacts of drilling on blasting
 Explosives and blasting
 Theory of detonation
 Classification of explosives
 Initiation Systems
 Blasting Theory
 Explosive Selection
 Rock fragmentation
 Bench Blasting
 Specialised Blasting
 Environmental Effects of Blasting
 Mechanical Rock Breaking
Course Outline
INTRODUCTION
DRILLING
-Introduction to drilling
-Types of drilling machines
-Drilling Quality
-Importance of accurate drilling
EXPLOSIVES
-Defination
-Components
-Classification
-Properties
-Zero oxygen balance
-Explosive selection
-Theory of detonation
BLASTING
-Purpose of blasting
-Blasting theory
-Underground blasting
-Specialized blasting
-Line drilling
-Cushion blasting
-Smooth blasting
-Pre-splitting
-Enviromental effects of blasting
ROCK FRAGMENTATION
- Introduction
-Factors influencing rock fragmentation
-Quantifying and predicting rock fragmentation
-Mechanical fragmentation
INTRODUCTION
 The processes of rock breaking is mainly achieved through blasting which is
the activity in which in-situ rock is broken by drilling holes in the rock,
charging them with explosives and detonating the holes in a planned sequence.
 Two very important aspects of rock breaking are drilling and charging. Both
are field operations that need good controls to make sure that the end result of
a blast is good.
 The process of rock breaking iinvolves two basic processes:
1. Radial cracking
2. Flexural rupture

 Rock is stronger in compression than in tension. Therefore, the easiest way to

break rock is to subject it to a tensile stress greater than its ultimate strength in
tension.
Rock Breaking Proccess
Drilling +
Explosives
Blasting

Rock Fragmentation
Insitu Rock (End result-
fragmentated rock)

Mechanical breaking
(fragmentation)
Drilling and or
induced
physical
tensile stress
DRILLING
Introduction to drilling

 Apart from the rock, drilling quality has the largest influence on rock
fragmentation final results.
 The drilling section emphasizes on:
a) Drill types and the best to use in each environment
b) Drilling Quality
c) The importance of accurate drilling
a) Types of drilling machines
 The drilling system consists of the drill; the drill steel or rod and the bit.
The drill bit is the part that penetrates the rock by imposing a force on the
rock.. Bits are designed to penetrate using percussive motion, rotary motion,
or both.

 There are three types of drill namely;

1. Top Hammer Drills

2. Down-The-Hole Drills

3. Rotary Drills
1.Top Hammer Drills
Top hammer drills include:
1. Jackhammers - Used mainly in confined underground workings.
2. Jumbo type drill rigs - Mechanical drill rigs used in tunnels and large stopes
underground. Modern jumbo rigs are usually electro-hydraulically operated
with water flushing for drill cuttings.
3. Crawler rigs - These tow their own compressors. Modern units use hydraulic
hammers, but depend on compressed air for hole flushing and track
motivation.
4. Complex drilling rigs – These come with built-in compressors. These may
either be diesel or electrically powered. These modern units have hydraulic
hammers but use compressed air to flush the drill chippings.
Examples of Top Hammer Drills

JACK HAMMER CRAWLER DRILL RIG

JUMBO DRILL RIG

2.Down-The-Hole Drills
 These drills have the hammer at the hole bottom and the drill string transfers
only the rotary and pull down forces.
 With the hammer being at the hole bottom and the more rigid drill string,
hole deflection in a DTH drill is minimal.
 DTH drills use a large volume of compressed air to operate the hammer and
flush the blastholes of drill chippings.
3.Rotary Drills
 Rotary drills do not have any impact component and rely on tri-cone bits that
rotate on bearings.
 Modern bearing and button technology result in rotary drills being able to drill
in very hard rock.
b) Drilling quality
DRILLING PARTERN
 For good quality constant fragmentation throughout a blast, it is very
important to have a drill pattern that is accurately laid out and drilled.
 Where holes are drilled too close together, the following problems occur:
1. Rock fragmentation will tend to be over-fine. This may not suite the
requirement for the sales of the product and therefore result in lost revenue
(example, fines in coal).
2. Explosive in nearby unfired holes may become desensitized and fail to
detonate properly or it may detonate sympathetically. In either case poor
fragmentation results can be expected, especially in the toe region of a blast.
DRILL HOLE ANGLE ERRORS
 There are two types of angle errors that can occur:
1. The hole deflects off line. This is more common in smaller diameter holes
drilled using top-hammer drills. It is caused by too much pull down force or
by dipping rock strata of variable strength. Hole deflection can be limited,
but requires an experienced driller.
2. The drill rig is set-up with the boom at a different angle to the desired hole
angle. This is a control problem that can be made worse by inadequate or
uncalibrated level checking devices on the drill rig.
Hole Depth
 Short holes or holes that are too deep are both undesirable.

Short Holes:
 Short holes will always result in high floors or capping being left behind. The
explosion pressure at the bottom of a blast hole is much lower than it is at
the sides of a hole.

Too deep holes:

 Holes that are drilled deeper than their design depth cause damage to the
rock below.
 The drilling problems that are most common are hole blockages caused by
loose material falling into the hole.
Hole Diameter
 The hole diameter has great influence on charge mass. A blasthole diameter
is usually not the same as the diameter for which you designed the blast.
This is because of two factors:
1. Bit wear in hard rock will result in holes with smaller diameters than
expected.
2. Soft rock or partially damaged rock will result in a hole that is slightly bigger
than the expected diameter.
 Hole diameters that are smaller than expected lead to explosive energy
starvation at the hole bottoms and a risk of over-filling.
 Hole diameters that are larger than expected lead to excessive energy and
rock damage and a risk of under-filling. An under-filled blasthole will
normally lead to large boulders forming at the top of a blast.
EXPLOSIVES
Defination of explosives
 An explosive is a chemical compound or mixture of chemical compounds that
undergoes a very rapid decomposition when initiated by energy in the form of
heat, impact, friction or shock. This decomposition produces more stable
substances, mostly gases and large amount of heat.

 The very hot gases produce extremely high pressures within the drill holes
and this breaks the rock.

 If the reaction speed of the explosive is faster than the speed of sound in the
explosive, the reaction is called detonation.

 If the reaction of the explosive is slower than the speed of the sound in the
explosive then the reaction is called deflagration.
Explosives Components
 There are basically two main components that make up explosives that is
fuels and oxidizers.

 Common fuels are Fuel oil, Carbon, Al, TNT (Trinitrotoluene)

 Common oxidizers are NH4NO3, and CaNO3 , and NaNO3

 Sensitizers and other additives are also added in their manufactering process
and some common sensitizers include nitroglycerin, nitro-starch, TNT, micro-
balloons and aerating agents.

 Common additives added include gums, thickeners, emulsifiers, stabilizers,

absorbents and flame retardants.

 Most explosives are composed of elements such as N 2, O2, H2 and carbon in

addition to metallic elements such as Al.
CLASSIFICATION OF EXPLOSIVES
 Explosives have wide applications in mining and tunnelling operations to
carryout rock fragmentation for the differing conditions; hence, a wide range
of this product is available.

 One of the general classifications commonly used for explosives is defining

them as either military or commercial.

 Military explosives are characterized by generally very high detonation

velocities and shattering power or brisance.

 Although some of these military explosives may be incorporated into

commercial products, they are restricted in the levels of use.

 Only PETN, TNT and pentolite are commonly used commercially as boosters
for initiating insensitive products.
TYPES OF EXPLOSIVES
Types of explosives
 Commercial explosives can be separated into five main types: initiating
explosives; high explosives; low explosives; and blasting agents.

PRIMARY OR INITATING EXPLOSIVES

 These are also known as primary explosives and can be detonated by a
relatively weak mechanical shock or spark.
 They have high brisance and a high detonation velocity.
 They are primarily used in blasting caps to initiate the main explosive charge.
 The most important are mercury fulminate, lead azide and tetrazene.
 Their cost and sensitivity make them unsuitable for uses other than initiation.
Types of explosives
HIGH EXPLOSIVES
 These are the explosive substances, which cannot be initiated easily by the
stimulus such as impact, friction or flame but with the application of a shock
pressure or a detonation wave.

 They are characterised by high velocity of detonation (VOD), high pressure

shock wave, high density and by being cap sensitive.

 Example: Tri-Nitro-Toluene (TNT), Nitroglycerin (NG) and slurry explosives.

Types of explosives
LOW EXPLOSIVES
 The earliest known explosives belong to this class.

 Explosives which are characterized by deflagration or a low rate of reaction

and the development of low pressure.

 These are commercially known as gunpowder or black powder.

 It is a mechanical mixture of ingredients such as charcoal (15%), sulphur (10%)

and potassium nitrate, KNO3, (75%). It is initiated by ignition(deflagration)
and decomposition is slow
Types of explosives
BLASTING AGENTS
 Blasting agents are mixtures consisting of an oxidizer and a fuel which cannot
be detonated with a No. 8 blasting cap.
 The oxidizer consists primarily of inorganic nitrates to which a carbonaceous
fuel, such as fuel oil, is added.
 A blasting agent requires a high explosive booster of PETN or pentolite to be
reliably detonated.
 ANFO is the most widely used blasting agent but this category of explosives
also includes slurries and emulsions, both with and without the addition of
aluminium.
Types of explosives
PYROTECHNIC EXPLOSIVES
 Pyrotechnic compositions are used as delay elements in the manufacturing of
the detonators and also as electric explosive devices (E.E.D), known as fuse-
head or ‘match-head’ or Squibb.

 Metals like zirconium or cerium, oxidizing agents like lead peroxide, red lead,
chlorate of potassium, peroxides of barium and lead, and fuels like silicon,
charcoal are used in delay element and EEDs
HIGH EXPLOSIVES
 Development of high explosives has undergone four generations.
 First generation – dynamites sensitized by nitroglycerin (NG)
 Second generation – watergels sensitized by TNT, Methylamin nitrate
(MAN)
 Third generation – emulsions sensitized by plastic/glass micro spheres.
 Fourth generation – emulsions sensitized by gassing agents.
 Sensitization is the most critical part in the manufacture of explosives
because it influences the handling of the final product.
 NG and MAN had serious accidents because they are explosives themselves
 Invention of micro-spheres by Atlas Powder USA was a big step.
Explosive Components of High Explosives

explosives

Sensitizing Inert Combustible Oxidizing

components components components components

Nitroglycerin
Wood meal
Micro balloon Salt Ammonium nitrate
Fuel oil
TNT Sodium nitrate Calcium nitrate
Aluminum
PETN Barium sulphate
TNT
Gassing agents
H.E - NG based explosives
 Dynamite invented by Alfred Nobel in 1866 and he invented gelatine in 1875.
 Nitroglycerine is a highly adaptable type of explosive which can give excellent
results in small blast holes.
 However, with new generation of explosives, the general trend has been to
move away from N.G based explosives due to cost and ability to become
unsafe as a result of severe environmental conditions and lengthy storage.
 Examples are Amon Gelatine, Dynagel amon, Dynamite Shaft trim.
 Today, Dynamex contains 20% NG which is flegmatized.
H.E - Watergels
 Watergels are sometimes known asslurriess and they have a gel like consistency

Composition
1. Consists of oxidizing salts, fuels and sensitizers dissolved or dispersed in a
continuous liquid phase.
2. Thickened and made water resistant by addition of gellants and cross-linking
agents.
3. Sensitization is by chemicals such as nitrate salts of organic amines, nitrate
esters of alcohols, perchlorate salts, particles of aluminium, TNT.
4. Physical sensitization is by air bubbles
5. Oxidizing salts usually being NH4NO3, CaNO3 NaNO3
 Due to some of the additives like aluminium, they have a high velocity of
detonation and produce less nitrous fumes.
 Examples are Explogel, Tovex and Energex
Watergels
Energy
• Watergel explosives energies vary from 700cal/g to 1460cal/g.
Density
• Range from 0.8g/cc to 1.60g/cc or even 1.10g/cc to 1.35g/cc.
• They tamp easily in small diameter holes and slump in larger diameter holes,
so they can be loaded at higher borehole density.
• They can be used to pull a tough toe or extend drill patterns.
Velocity
• The detonation velocity increases with their diameter and degree of
confinement.
Watergels
Sensitivity
• Their advantage is that they are reliably sensitive to priming and more
resistant to accidental initiation than dynamite.
• Highly affected by temperature – high temps increase sensitivity and vice
versa.

Water resistance
• Generally excellent
H.E - Emulsions
 The most common explosive in use today.
 Composed of separate, small drops of AN solution and other oxidizers, densely
dispersed in a continuous phase composed of a mixture of mineral oil and
wax.
Emulsions

 The oil and wax mixture constitute the fuel.

 Fuel around the AN solution droplets give a large contact surface area to the
oxidizer
 Emulsions can be sensitized by micro- balloons which are not explosives
themselves. Micro-balloons collapse under the shockwave from the initiator
creating a multitude of local hot spots where the temperature is high enough
to start a fast explosive combustion of the explosive.
 The density of an explosive and its capacity of initiation can be adjusted with
the amount of micro balloons in the emulsion.
Emulsions
 Micro balloons are replaced by gassing agents in modern explosives. The
aerating agents are added to the matrix just before pumping into a blast
hole.
 The strength of the explosive is regulated by the amount of additives such as
aluminum.
 Consistency to suite different purposes is achieved through adjustment of
oil/wax mixture. High wax content results in a margarine-like consistency.
More oil results in a grease like consistency which may be pumpable.
 Emulsion retain their consistency from -200c to 350c
 The VOD remains constant for over 12 months
SMEs & SSEs
 SME – site mixed explosives – for surface application. A production unit with
raw materials stock. Raw materials are mixed at site to form an explosive
matrix and gassing agents are added during charging.
 The composition of the explosive can be varied.
 The density can be varied from 0.8g/cc to 1.3g/cc. High density at the
bottom.
 SSE – site sensitized explosives
 The matrix is made at the factory and sensitized during charging.
 Mainly used for underground operations.
SME - ANFO

 A low cost, high power, high safety explosive made from porous prilled
Ammonium Nitrate and Fuel Oil at a ratio of 7.5litres F.O. to 100kg AN.
 Once mixed it is usually charged pneumatically into blast hole. It has a
density of 0.85 and is not water resistant.
 Fuel shortage will create excess oxygen condition.
 Nitrogen from AN combines with oxygen to form nitrous fumes.
 Excess fuel increases carbon monoxide formed.
 Optimum mixture of ANFO is given by the formula below:

Fuel Oil (l) = [6/94* Mass of AN] / 0.85

INITIATORS
History
 William Bickford invented safety fuse in 1831. Before that blasting was
dangerous.
 1867 Alfred Nobel invented the fulminate of mercury blasting cap making
initiation of all explosives safer.
 All detonators in civil use have been developed from Nobel’s basic ideas.
 Firing methods can be divided into 3 main groups:-
i. Non-electric:- capped fuses, detonating cord, NONEL shock
tubes
ii. Electric detonators
iii. Electronic detonators.
Types of Initiators
Capped Fuse
 Most common in Zimbabwe and the simplest to use.
 The fuse consists of black powder core tightly wrapped with coverings of
tape, textile and water proofing material such as asphalt and plastics
 Functions of the coverings:.
1) Insulation against moisture, oil and other materials that can change the
burning speed or desensitize it.
2) Protect the core against abrasion while maintaining flexibility
3) Minimize the chance of setting fire to the charge of explosives by sparks
through the side of the fuse before it has reached the cap
4) To prevent intercommunication of firing between adjacent links of fuses.
Capped Fuse
Capped Fuse
 Safety fuse will burn faster if it is confined or is pressurized.
 The safety fuses are connected to a blasting cap (detonators)
 The detonators are rated 6D (#6) or 8D (#8) depending on the strength.
 8D detonators contain of 0,78g high explosives (PETN) and 6D contains 0.35g
 The caps consists of aluminium caps loaded with 3 charges:
1. Base charge of high explosive in the bottom
2. Primer charge in the middle
3. Ignition powder at the top
 The primary charge in the detonator is sensitive to heat, friction and shock.
Capped Fuse

 Capped fuses can be ignited efficiently by igniter cords in conjunction with

igniter cord connectors.
 These igniter cords are lit by either match sticks or eletrical shur-starters.
Capped Fuse

Base charge
(Hexytol, tetry)

Primary
Charge
(Lead azide)
Detonating Cord
 Very common in Zimbabwe. Non- electric and therefore not affected by
weather conditions.
 Consists of PETN core wrapped in covering of textile water-proof materials
and plastic.
 Initiated with a 6D detonator and detonates along its entire length.
 Instantaneous detonation with VOD of 7000m/s. Used in pre-splitting and cast
blasting.
 Core loads vary from 3g/m to 80g/m
 The most common core load is 8g/m (Powercord)
Detonating Cord
 Well suited for:
• Operators who prefer a non electric blasting system because potentially
hazardous stray currents may be present
• Firing multiple charges of explosives without significant delay between
charges.
• Multiple priming or decking in deep, large diameter holes
• Firing coyote or large blasts e.g. to fracture low grade ore bodies for in-situ
leaching
• Submarine blasting where it is difficult to insinuate the electrical connections
Electric Initiators
 Give control to blasters. Can be checked
 An electric blasting cap has a cylindrical metal shell containing several
powder charges.
 Electrical energy is delivered into the cap by two plastic insulated metal
wires called leg wire.
 The plug securely crimped in the open forms a water resistant closure.
 The leg wires are joined together inside the cap by a high resistant wire
called the bridge wire.
 When sufficient electrical energy passes the bridge wire becomes hot enough
to ignite the ignition mixture.
Electric Detonators
 Electric detonators can be divided into 3 groups based on the timing.
Instantaneous detonators:-
o this is a development of the plain detonator with the safety fuse being
replaced by lead wires
o Used for stone quarries (Mutoko & MT Darwin), secondary blasting and pre-
split blasting
Millisecond detonators
o Millisecond delay elements are in built within the detonator and these delay
detonation for a pre-determined time.
o The time delay between intervals is not more than 100ms
o Used mainly for bench, ring, and trench blasting.
Half- second delay detonators
o 500ms (0.5ms) delay between consecutive intervals. Sometimes called LPs
(long periods)
o Used in tunnel blasting
Electric Detonators
CONNECTIONS OF ELECTRIC DETORNATORS
 There are 3 main connection types namely, the parallel circuit, the series
circuit and the series parallel circuit.
Series circuit
o All caps connected consecutively and is simple.
o Same current flows through all the detonators.
o 40 – 50 detonators can be connected per blast
o Risk of current leakage high in this set up
Parallel circuit
o It calls for high amperage and low voltage and is powered from the mains.
o Not possible to test complete circuit, each detonator must be tested
separately
o Used if more than 40 to 50 detonators are to be blasted at once.
Electric Detonators
o Less desirable because it can not be checked.
o Broken wires and faulty connection can not be detected
o Available current is divided amongst the detonators and therefore heavy
currents are required for blasting.
o Less chance of current leakage.

Parallel Series circuits

o Considered when blast requirement exceeds 50caps with longer leg wires.
CIRCUIT RESISTANCE

Series circuit
Rt = nRc + Rb where Rt – total resistance
n – number of detonators
Rc – resistance of a
detonator
Rb – resistance of blasting
cable
ns - number of series
circuits
Parallel circuit
Rt = (Rc/n) + Rb
Parallel series circuit
 Rt = nRC/ns + Rb
Electric Detonators
CIRCUIT TESTING

1. Ohmmeter – checks the resistance

2. Multi-meter – checks resistance, voltage, stray currents and current leakage.
3. Continuity tester – tests continuity.
Electric Detonators
ADVANTAGES OF USING ELECTRIC INITIATION SYSTEMS

1. Accurate delays and therefore ground vibrations are minimized

2. Improved fragmentation
3. Increased round size
4. Can be tested and therefore reduction in number of misfires
5. In-hole detonators which do not affect column charge
6. Safe and dependable
7. Less air blast
8. Control of blasting time
Electric Detonators

DISADVANTAGES OF USING ELECTRIC INITIATION SYSTEMS

1. Affected by weather conditions

2. Risk of earth leakages resulting in misfires
3. Electrical equipment use not possible in conjunction with electric detonators
4. Risk from radio .and radar transmitters
5. Risk of static electricity when charging with ANFO
Shock Tubes
HISTORY

o First introduced on the market in 1973 by Nitro Nobel.

o Completely immune to electric hazards
o Consists of a shock tube through which a shockwave is
transmitted at 2100m/s.
o The tube is 3mm in diameter and is coated with a reactive
material
o The plastic tube is not affected by the shockwave and
therefore will not initiate an explosives column or other tubes
in contact with it.
o The detonator is an NPED (Non – primary explosive detonator)
Shock Tubes - NONELs
 Nonels are divided into 3 groups namely, ms, unidets and LP
Millisecond delay
o Delay time of 25ms between each interval
o Used for small bench blasting or underground ring blasting.
o Nonel ms, Stope master, primadet ms
Unidets
o Employs uniform in hole detonator.
o Surface delays give the timing and they range from 17ms to 176ms
o Used for surface blasting and it provides unlimited blasting.
LPs
o Intended for underground tunnel blasting.
o Longer delays between intervals to give enough time for blasted material to
be pulled out.
Shock Tubes - NONELs
Advantages of shock tube/ Nonel system
o Not susceptible to extraneous electricity
o No air-blast
o Does not disrupt column charge in the blast hole
o Accurate delays
o Does not cause dead pressing when used with products such as ANFO or
slurries.

Disadvantage
o Can not be checked for functionality
Electronic Detonators
BACKGROUND
 The pyrotechnical delay element has been replaced by a programmable
electronic chip.
 Development of EDs started in 1982 due to demands for:-
o highly safe product against all kinds electric current, static electricity, radio
frequency.
o More periods. At least 60 (Det-Net 1ms to 16000ms)
o High accuracy. The longest delay should not have an error above 0.1%
o Simple connections as electric detonators
o Possibility of testing the circuit

 Mostly used in contour blasting, areas with ground vibration problems, and for
fragmentation control.
Electronic Detonators
 Can be supplied in 3 categories:- pre-programmed, auto-programmed and
fully programmable
Pre- programmed EDs
o Produced for ease use and limited user interaction.
o Preset time delays in the det and hook – up chains
o Flexibility and user error are removed
o Designed for narrow reef mining.
Auto- programmed EDs
o Designed to closely replicate shock tube in application but with increased
precision and timing flexibility
o Auto detection functionality enables control equipment to automatically
detect location of the detonators. User does not have to log the position of
each detonator
Electronic Detonators
Fully programmable
o Allow each detonator to be individually programmed and cater for large
deployment patterns.
o Ideal for complex or large scale blasts.
o Any blasting pattern can be created.
Electronic Detonators
Advantages
1. Improved fragmentation resulting in improved diggability, reduced wear and
tear of machinery, increased loading rate and reduced crushing costs.
2. Flexibility in timing allowing several permutations in different geological
conditions.
3. Increased cast
4. Reduced ground vibrations
5. Improved safety
6. Improved contour blasting.
PROPERTIES OF EXPLOSIVES

 Explosives are manufactured to conditions they are intended to work under therefore
their characteristics vary with the type of conditions they will be used for. For
example wet conditions require sophisticated products.

 Basic properties of explosives are:

1. Detonation velocity (VOD)

2. Strength

3. Detonation stability
4. Propagation ability

5. Density

6. Water resistance

7. Sensitivity

8. Safety in handling

9. Environmental properties

10. Shelf life

1.Detonation Velocity
 Is the speed at which the detonation wave travels through the explosive

 Hard rocks require high VOD e.g. Emulite is suitable for granite, basalt whilst
ANFO is suitable for softer rocks like sandstone.

 High VOD gives a powerful impact at detonation required to cause the tensile
stresses which break the rock.

 It is important to understand that VOD does not tell you how much energy is
delivered, but it does tell you how the energy is delivered.
V.O.D

 This speed will depend on a number of factors:

1. Density of the explosive. The more dense the explosive the higher the VOD.
However, there is a point known as the critical density. Above this density,
the explosive will not detonate.

2. Formulation. Explosive that contains more inert material such as water will
detonate more slowly than a similar explosive with less water.

3. Confinement of the explosive.

4. Particle size of the oxidizer. The smaller the particle size, the more
intimate the mix with oil and the higher the VOD.

Typical Particle Sizes

ANFO: 1.5 to 2.5 mm
Watergel: 0.1 to 0.3 mm
V.O.D

5000

4500
VOD (m/s)

4000

3500

3000
ANFO Blended Emulsion
Explosive (HEF 100)
(HEF 207)
2.Strength
 Is a measure of it’s ability to break rock

 Explosives strength is expressed in terms of weight or volume:

 Absolute weight strength is the measure of the absolute amount of

energy available in each unit weight of explosive. It is generally expressed
in terms of calories per gram (cal/g).

 Absolute bulk strength is the absolute amount of energy available per

unit volume of explosive and is generally expressed as calories per cubic
centimetre (cal/cc). It is calculated by multiplying the AWS (measured in
cal/g) by the density of the explosive (measured in g/cc).
Strength
 Explosive strength is also expressed as a percentage of the strength of ANFO.

 The relative weight strength (RWS) and relative bulk strength (RBS)
compare explosive energy to that of ANFO.

 RWS is the energy per unit weight for the explosive compared to the energy
of ANFO for the same weight.

 RBS is the energy per unit volume for the explosive compared to the energy
of ANFO for the same volume.
Strength

 Why is it useful to know the relative weight strength of an explosive?

 Most blasts are designed in terms of Powder Factor. In other words, blasts
are designed in terms of kg of explosive per cubic metre of rock.

 If you design to a fixed powder factor (say 0.5 kg/m3) then you can quickly
check which explosive will give you more energy.
Strength-Example
 Eg, HEF 100 has a RWS of 0.84 and ANFO has a RWS of 1. You calculate the
energy factor by multiplying the powder factor by the RWS.

So in our example,

Energy Factor for ANFO = 0.5 x 1 = 0.5

Energy Factor for HEF100 = 0.5 x 0.84 = 0.42

 This shows that, for the same powder factor of 0.5 kg/m3, HEF 100 will have
less energy (about 16%) than ANFO
Strength Tests

i) The Lead Block Test

 A small amount of explosive is detonated in a hole in a lead block.

 The volume of the cavity produced by the detonation becomes an indication

of the blasting effect.

ii) The Ballistic Motor Test

 A small amount of explosive is detonated in a steel cylinder which is fixed to
a pendulum.

 The pendulum will swing away from the detonation and the deflection angle
indicates the blasting effect.
Strength Test

iii) The Bubble energy Test

 Used for comparing the relative strength of different explosives

 Detonating an amount of explosive under water and measuring the shock

energy, the strength of the explosive can be calculated.

iv) Nitrodyn (Calculated energy)

 Is a theoretical evaluation of the available energy in an explosive to obtain an
indication of the strength.
3.Detonation Stability

 Means that the detonation goes through the entire explosives column.

 Depends on the type of explosive and diameter of the explosive string.

 NG based explosives are stable down to 11mm.

 Emulsions are stable down to 20mm while ANFO needs a string diameter of
about 35mm confined.
4.Propagation ability (sensitiveness)
 Length of the air gap over which a donor cartridge of an explosive will
detonate a receptor cartridge under unconfined conditions.

 Low sensitiveness – if there are interruptions in the charge column (due to

obstacles) the charge will fail.

 High sensitiveness can cause unintended propagation between adjacent holes.

Sensitiveness

Sympathetic Detonation
 Sympathetic detonation occurs when the shockwave from a nearby detonation
is sufficient to initiate an explosive without a booster. This normally occurs
when explosives are too sensitive or when timing problems occur in a blast.

Dynamic Desensitization
 Sometimes an explosive may be desensitized by the shockwave from a nearby
detonation. This happens when the air bubbles are compressed and the void
volume is temporarily reduced below critical levels by the shock wave.
5.Density

 Is its specific weight expressed as g/cm3

 It determines the possible charge concentration in the blast hole.

 High density – widely spaced drilling pattern.

 Explosive with density less than 1 will float in water.

 If the water has very fine clay particles floating in it, its density will be higher
than 1 g/cm3 and some explosive types may not sink through it.
Density

The influence of hydrostatic pressure on density

 The density of emulsion explosives and Heavy ANFO’s having high emulsion
content can be adjusted by increasing or reducing the number of small
sensitizing bubbles.

 In a column of explosive, the weight of the explosive at the top of the hole
places pressure on the explosive at the bottom of the hole.

 This pressure causes the little air bubbles to be compressed so that there is
less void volume.

 This means that the explosive density at the bottom of a hole will be higher
than the density at the top of the hole.
Density
 If a hole is very deep or the initial density is
too high, there is a risk that the explosive at
Hydrostatic Pressure

the bottom of the hole will dead press and

will not detonate.
Depth

 Dead pressing occurs when an explosive is

densified to a point that no free oxygen is
available to ensure the start or progression of
detonation.

Density
6.Water Resistance

 Ability to withstand water penetration and is expressed as the time the

product (explosive) can be underwater and still detonate reliably.

 It depends on packaging and ability to repel water.

 Salts can dissolve and leak at the explosive and water pressure can reduce
the size and amount of air bubbles resulting in desensitization.

 Emulsions are good in water conditions whereas ANFO deteriorates in

presence of water.
7.Sensitivity

 Is the minimum energy needed to initiate the explosive.

- Explosives can be cap sensitive or non-cap sensitive.

 Cap sensitive explosives can be initiated by a 6D or 8D blasting cap.

 Non-cap sensitive explosives need to be primed with an amount of high

explosive in order to obtain initiation and stable detonation.
8.Safety in handling
 Important as transportation and usage of an explosive should be done without
risk to humans.

Tests on safety

i) Drop Hammer Test – determine the height from which a weight must fall on
the explosive in order to create a detonation.

ii) Friction Test – is a test in which friction under increased pressure is applied
to a small amount of explosive. When a reaction occurs the pressure is
recorded.

iii) The Projectile Impact Test – determines the bullet velocity needed to create
a reaction in the explosive.

iv) Heat Test – determines how much heat an explosive can withstand before
reaction starts.
9.Enviromental Properties(Fumes)

 Air to minimise toxic fumes and gases such as CO, nitrates and nitro-glycerine
vapours.

 It is a cause for concern in underground mines.

 Incomplete explosion increase noxious fumes.

 Water based explosives like Emulite have very good fume characteristics
10.Shelf Life

 It is important since explosives have to be stored for a long time before use,
often under unfavorable conditions.

 Plastic nitroglycerine – air bubbles in the explosive disappear partly wholly

thus decreasing sensitivity to initiation and propagation ability. In high
temperatures they tend to soften and salts leak out thus deforming them

 Powder type explosives are sensitive to moisture. In humid environments the

salt tend to form deposits thus hardening it.

 ANFO is also sensitive to humidity and cakes easily when stored under such
conditions.
11.Detonation Pressure

 Sometimes called explosion pressure.

 The pressure exerted on the walls of the drill hole by the expanding gases.

 It is a function of confinement, quantity and temperature of the gases of

detonation.
ZERO OXYGEN BALANCE
 Definition – the point at which an explosive mixture has sufficient oxygen to
completely oxidize all the fuel it contains but there is no excess oxygen to
react with nitrogen in the mixture to form nitrous oxides.

 Theoretically, at zero oxygen balance, the gaseous products of detonation are

H2O, CO2 and N2 although in reality small amounts of NxOy , CO, NH4, CH4 and
other gases.
Zero oxygen balance

AT ZERO OXYGEN BALANCE 94.5% AN

 Nitrogen is released which is a free element.

 Optimum energy is released.

 3NH4NO3 + CH2 = 7H2O + CO2 + 3N2 + 0.93Kcal/g

Zero oxygen balance

Excess fuel (8%)

 Results in partial oxidation of carbon to carbon monoxide

 Releases less heat than complete combustion

 If there is too much fuel, the mixture is said to be Oxygen Negative. This
means that there is not enough Oxygen in the explosive to combine with all
the Carbon and Hydrogen

 2NH4NO3 + CH2 = 5H20 + CO + 2N2 + 0.81Kcal/g the carbon monoxide

produced is extremely toxic.
Zero Oxygen Balance

Excess oxygen (96.6% AN)

 Excess oxygen reacts with Nitrogen to produce oxides of nitrogen, an
endothermic reaction.

 If there is too little fuel, the mixture is said to be Oxygen Positive. This
means there is not enough Carbon and Hydrogen to combine with all the
oxygen.

 5NH4NO3 + CH2 = 11H2O + CO2 + 4NO + 0,60Kcal/g

 Oxides of nitrogen are toxic.

Zero Oxygen Balance

2300
2200
2100
Energy (kJ/kg)

2000
1900
1800
1700
1600
1500
0 2 4 6 8 10
Percent Fuel Oil
EXPLOSIVE SELECTION
SELECTION CRITERIA
o Explosive selection is dictated by economic and field conditions
o A product that gives the lowest cost/ton of broken and adequately
fragmented and displaced rock is selected.
o Factors to be taken into account when selecting explosives are cost, charge
diameter, cost of drilling, fragmentation difficulties, water conditions,
adequacy of ventilation, storage conditions and explosive atmospheres.
 Explosive Cost
 ANFO is the cheapest explosive product and is the most widely used explosive
in the country about 6700 tonnes per year.
 The product is generally 2.5 cheaper than fracture explosives.
 However, it has no water resistance and a low density of 0.85 when
pneumatically charged.

Charge Diameter
 All explosives have a critical diameter below which they cannot detonate.
 Emulsions have 17mm CD, ANFO 25mm NG 11mm
 ANFO’s VOD increases with diameter to 4500m/s above 65mm
 Cost of drilling
 Blaster should select the lowest cost explosive that will give adequate and dependable
fragmentation
 If drilling is expensive, increase the energy and density of the explosive.
Fragmentation difficulties
 High VOD helps in fragmenting hard and massive rocks
 Generally the VOD should be within the range of the seismic shock wave velocity
through the rock.
Water conditions
 ANFO has no water resistance and low relative density.
 The relative density of the product should be greater than one if it is going to be used in
wet holes.
 Adequacy of ventilation
 Most emulsions are oxygen balanced and therefore produce less toxic gases. Where
ventilation is poor, use emulsion to lower re-entry time.
 A graph below shows the quantities of measured gases per blast of 1Kg of explosives.
Generally 700-1000 litres of gaseous products are formed per kg of blast.

90
80
70
60
50 Co
40 Nitrogen oxides
30
20
10
0
gurit Dynamex Dynamex Emulite Emulite ANFO SSE/SME
PP PF PP PF
 Storage conditions
 In Zimbabwe, proximity to habited areas is a hindrance to the storage of
explosives. (old Nick, Pomona).
 May consider SSE and SME,

Shelf life
 Explosives deteriorate with time. VODs of some products deteriorate with
time. Therefore consumption rate should determine the levels of stock.
THEORY OF DETONATION
Introduction

 An explosion is a chemical phenomenon in which energy is released in a very

short time usually accompanied by formation and vigorous expansion of large
amounts of hot gases.

 Chemical explosions are caused by the decomposition or very rapid reaction

of chemical products or a mixture.

 The reaction must be exothermic.

 Detonation is characterized by a shockwave which initiates chemical reaction

as it propagates through the explosive charge.
Id e a ld e to n a tio n

 A shockwave initiates a chemical reaction as it propagates through the

explosive charge

 The shockwave and the reaction zone have the same supersonic velocity

 A fraction of the chemical energy is used to support the shock.

Detonation - Chapman and Jouquet

 The self-sustained shock wave is produced by a chemical.

 A space of negligible thickness is bounded by two infinite planes – on one side

of the wave is the un-reacted explosive and on the other, the exploded gases
as shown in the diagram above.

 There are three distinct zones:

a. the undisturbed medium ahead of the shock wave

b. a rapid pressure at Y leading to a zone in which chemical reaction is

generated by the shock, and completed

c. a steady state wave where pressure and temperature are maintained.

Detonation

 This condition of stability exists at hypothetical X, which is commonly

referred to the Chapman-Jouquet (C-J) plane.

 Between the two planes X and Y there is conservation of mass, momentum

and energy.

 However, during the 2nd world war, Zeldovich, Doring and Von Neumann (ZND)
improved the C-J model by taking into account the reaction rate.

 The ZND theory describes the detonation wave as a shockwave, immediately

followed by a reaction zone (flame)

 The thickness of the reaction zone is given by the rate of reaction.

 ZND theory gives the same detonation velocities and pressures as the CJ
theory, the only difference between the two models is the thickness of the
wave
Parameters affecting performance of
mining explosives
1.Structure

 Fine or course physical structure changes the detonation velocity.

 For a constant diameter, finer structure increases the velocity the reason
being that reacting particles have a finite reaction time. Course particles
have longer reaction time. Remember Detonation Head cone is equal to the
charge diameter, this leads to incomplete reaction within the head i.e. less
energy liberated to support the shockwave and lower velocity
2.Charge Diameter

 Decreased charge diameter gives lower detonation velocity in non-ideal

explosives.

 Consider the same explosives, same structure but remember cone length =
charge diameter. Small diameter means shorter cone length, lower extent of
reaction of particles, and therefore less energy liberated for shockwave.
3.Confinement

 Confinement increases detonation velocity for non- ideal explosives.

 The reason is that confinement lowers the rate of the sideways gas
expansion and by doing this, it changes the release wave giving a longer
detonation head cone.

 For particles with a specific reaction time, confinement means more time
to react (longer cone) and thus more energy liberated giving higher
detonation velocity.

 A confined charge is equivalent to a charge having a larger diameter

Confinement continues….

 However, two anomalous should be noted. If the velocity of sound in the

confinement exceeds the detonation velocity for a given diameter, a
foreshock is propagated ahead of the shockwave. This foreshock can
accelerate the shockwave by increasing the density of the explosive or
desensitize a porous explosive by compaction.

 If there is an air gap between the explosive and drill hole, the expanding
reaction products can adiabatically compress porous explosive and desensitize
it.
4.Explosive density….

 Higher density increases detonation velocity because it means more

explosives within the same volume and therefore more energy is released to
drive the shockwave.

 Military explosives such as PETN and RDX can detonate at crystal density
while mining explosives have practical maximum density to accommodate hot
spots.
BLASTING
Purpose of blasting

 One solid piece → smaller pieces (fragmentation)

→ to be moved or excavated
(movement).

 Underground blasting, for example, requires greater fragmentation than

surface blasting because of the size of the equipment that can be used and
the difficulty of access.

 Get the desired results with a minimum cost

BLASTING THEORY

 Two phases that cause rock fragmentation in blasting,

a) Shock wave propagation and
b)Gas pressure expansion
 The rapid detonation process gives rise to the shockwave which later decays
into P and S waves and the rapid energy release from the explosive is then
followed by gas pressure which is applied to the borehole wall.
 The degree of coupling between the explosive and the borehole wall will have
an effect on how efficiently the shockwave is transmitted into the rock, this
means that pumped or poured explosives will result in better transmission of
energy than cartridge products with an annular space between the cartridge
and the borehole wall.
Blasting Theory

1st stage, the blasthole expands by crushing the blasthole walls. This is due to
high pressure upon detonation.
 2nd stage, compressive stress waves emanate in all directions from the
blasthole with a velocity equal to the sonic wave velocity in the rock.
 when compressive stress waves reflect against a free rock face , they cause
tensile stresses in the rock mass between the blasthole and the free face.
Ifthe tensile strength of the rock is exceeded, the rock breaks in the burden
area.
 3rd stage, the released gas enters the crack formation under high pressure,
expanding the cracks.
 if the distance between the blasthole and the free face is correctly calculated,
the rock mass between the blasthole and the free face will yield and be thrown
forward.
B la stin g th e o ry

 Rock fragmentation begins when the shock wave reaches the borehole wall.
 This shock wave, which starts out at the velocity of the explosive, decreases
quite rapidly once it enters the rock and in a short distance is reduced to the
sonic velocity of that particular rock.
Blasting Theory
Blasting Theory

 Different theories exist that try to explain how rocks break during blasting. These
are reflection theory, gas expansion theory, flexural rupture theory and the stress
wave theory.

1- crushed zone
2- severely fractured zone
1 2 3 4 5 3- moderately fractured zone
4- least fractured zone
5- undamaged zone
Zone One

CRUSHED ZONE
 Detonation pressure in the shock front exceeds the compressive strength of
the rock and produces a zone of fines.
 The size of this zone depends on the rock properties, hole diameter and
explosive properties
 Low compressive strength means larger zone of fines
 High VOD and high density of an explosive gives higher detonation pressure
giving a larger zone of fines than low VOD and density.
 Bigger hole diameter results in a bigger crushing zone because of more
explosives per unit area.
 Consider an explosive density of 1.18g/cm3.
 surface area/cm height = 2R
 volume/cm height = R2
 Mass of explosives/cm height = R2 x density
 Explosives g/cm2 = R x density/2
Example
Diameter mm explosive g/cm2
54 1.5
64 1.9
76 2.3
89 2.7
102 3.1
Zone Two to Five
SEVERELY FRACTURED ZONE
o When the borehole pressure drops below rock compressive strength, it creates a lot of
small fractures in the solid rock.
o When many fractures try to develop in the small area around the drill hole, the stress
fields around each fracture end influence each other. As a result, only a small number
of fractures are allowed to grow.
MODERATELY FRACTURED ZONE
o A fracture developing in a rock mass has a theoretical velocity which varies with the
rock properties but lies within 1500 – 2000m/s.
o As the energy to drive fracturing drops, the fractures fork or divide into smaller
fractures
LEAST FACTURED AND UNDAMAGED ZONE
o The energy driving fractures drops to zero
Gass pressure

 The gases from the blast enter the crack formation under high pressure,
expanding the cracks. If the distance between the blast hole and the free
face is correctly calculated, the rock mass between the blast hole and the
free face will yield and be thrown forward.
Volume time graph for blast holes
o 1 is the initiation of shock wave in rock crushing. Blasthole expands to double
its original volume 2V0
 The blasthole will stay at this volume for relatively long time before radial
cracks start to open.
o 2 Cracks are formed due to reflection and stress interaction. Reaction
products expand (volume quadrupled) from blast hole into cracks.
Fragmentation starts.
o 3 Gas expands further and accelerates rock mass. Explosive is considered
completed when the blasthole volume has expanded to 10 times its original
volume which takes approx 5ms.
Underground blasting

Reasons for going underground:-

1. excavated space usage, storage, transport.
2. use of excavated material
Cut

 The rock in underground tunnels is constricted thus a second free face must
be created towards which the rock can break and this is produced by a cut.
 A cut may be located anywhere on the face but this influences the throw,
explosive consumption and number of holes in a round.
 There are various types of cuts in use and their applications vary depending
on the type of rock mass being worked.

1. Burn cut:- Widely used in Zimbabwe. Variations include 5hole, 7hole and
9hole burn cut. All holes are of the same diameter.
 Burn cuts result in less advance for rounds > 2.2m. Suitable for small rounds.
C u t

2. Large hole cuts/ Cylinder cuts

 Have 1 to 3 large holes drilled as breaking face.
Cut
3. V- Cut
 Achieves an advance of 45% to 50%
Cut design

 Influenced by the diameter of air holes, burden and charge concentration.

 The larger the air hole, the deeper the hole.
 If several air holes are used, an equivalent diameter has to be used.
 D=d n
where D = equivalent diameter (fictitious empty large hole diameter)
d = diameter of empty large
holes
n= number of holes
Cut Design

 a should not be greater than 1.5 Ø for the opening

to be clean blasted.
 Longer distance results in mere breakage; shorter
distance pose a risk of air hole and blasthole
converging.
 Position of blasthole in 1st square is expressed as:
a = 1.5 Ø
where a = C – C distance between large hole and the
blasthole.
Ø = diameter of the large hole
 In the case of several large air holes
a = 1.5D
where a = C – C distance between the center point
of the air hole and the blasthole
D = fictitious diameter
First Square
Where a = distance between large hole and blasthole
Ø = diameter of air hole
Second square

 Normally the burden B for remaining squares is equal to the width W of the
opening created by first holes.
 B1 = W1
 C-C = B1 + W1/2 = W1+W1/2 = 1.5W1
 W2 = sqrt ((1.5W1)2+ (1.5W1))2 = 1.5W1 sqrt 2
Third Square

• The same is done to get to the third square. Stop the iteration when
the width is equal to the burden of the stoping holes.
• The firing pattern should be designed such that each hole has free
breakage.
• Use sequential firing at the cut.
Cut location
Position A
Advantages:
 good forward movement
 muck pile centering
 less throw
 less explosive consumption because of more stoping downwards
 Less effect on roof and sidewalls
 Less drilling
Position B

Advantages
 Less drilling
 Less explosives consumption
 Less throw
 But difficult to drill
 Difficult to lash due to compaction
Position C
Advantages
 Gives extended and easily loaded muck pile.
Disadvantages
 Higher explosive consumption due to upward stoping.
 Higher drilling
 May affect roof due to higher charge concentration.
Position D
Advantages
 Less drilling
 Can be alternated during the chances of drilling into sockets
The disadvantages are that:-
 The sidewall will be extremely damaged
 The material will pile into a corner and therefore difficult to lash
 Compaction of blasted material.
SPECIALISED BLASTING
 To reduce over break and maintain high quality roof
 Line drilling, cushion blasting, smoothwall blasting and pre-splitting
Line Drilling
 A line of closely spaced holes is drilled to create a plane of weakness.
 Their spacing is usually 2-4times the hole diameter.
 Drill holes close to the line drill holes are closely spaced and lightly charged
 The advantage is that its applicable where even light charges may cause
damage beyond excavation line
 The disadvantages:
 Unpredictable results except in very homogeneous rocks
 High drilling costs due to close spacing
 Time consuming due to extensive drilling
 Slightest deviation in drilling can cause poor result
Cushion Blasting

 Mainly used for surface excavations

 A single row is drilled along the perimeter of excavation.
 Holes are charged with small well distributed charges in completely stemmed
holes which are fired after the main blast
 The stemming cushions the shock from the explosive to the rock to remain,
minimizing cracking and tension.
 Instantaneous firing of holes is required thus the use of a detonating cord is
most viable.
 The advantage is that the spacing between holes is increased and therefore
less drilling is done. It also functions well in incompetent rock formations
 The disadvantage is that it is necessary to excavate the main blast before
firing the cushion blast
Advantages
 The spacing between holes is increased and therefore less drilling is done.
 It also functions well in incompetent rock formations.

Disadvantages
 It is necessary to excavate the main blast before firing the cushion blast.
Smoothwall blasting
 Applied in both surface and underground blasting
 The principle is similar to cushion blasting, however holes are fired together
with the main round with higher delay numbers.
 There is no need for excavation of main blast beforehand.
 Small diameter, low VOD and low gas content explosives are used
 Holes adjacent to the perimeter holes are lightly charged
Advantages
 Increased spacing and therefore reduced drilling cost
 Better results in incompetent rock formation.
 No excavation needed before smooth blasting is executed.
 Special charges give light and well distributed charging of the perimeter
holes.
Pre-splitting

 Isolates the blasting area from the remaining rock by

forming a crack along the theoretical excavation
 Holes range from 30-64mm
 Fired before the main blast
 Shock waves from detonating adjoining holes collide
creating tension in the rock and thus forming a crack in the
web between the holes
 Shock waves from the main blast are reflected against pre-
split plane
 High precision is required
Advantages
 Excellent results in homogenous rock
 Better results than any other method in incompetent rock

Disadvantages
 High ground vibrations, air blast and noise
 More drilling than in smooth blasting is required
Post Splitting

 Used normally in large excavations and considered by many as the best way.
 In post splitting the periphery is carried 2 rounds behind the inside of the
face, and is blasted simultaneously with the rest of the round.
 The advantage is that the spacing between holes is increased and therefore
less drilling is done.
 The disadvantage is that it is necessary to excavate the main blast before
firing the cushion blast
Enviromental Effects of Blasting

 Fly Rock
 Ground Vibrations
 Air blast
 Dust and gases
Fly Rock
 Dfn: Any undesirable throw of material
 Associated with surface blasting and has most hazardous effect
 Mainly caused by improperly designed or improperly charged blasts. A
burden less than 25 times the charge diameter causes fly rock
 Maximum distance of fly rock is calculated as
L =260(d/25)2/3
 Too large a burden can cause fly rock if gases vent through the collar
because they cant move the burden
 Poor timing
 Too short timing and too long timing both cause fly rock
 Delay time between adjacent blast holes must not exceed 100ms if the
burden is less than 2m
 Top priming causes fly rock – crater effect – detcod has the same effect
 Incompetent rock where gases may break through easily
D ia g ra m a ticre p re se n ta tio n
Mitigating Fly Rock

 Avoid stemming shorter than burden.

 Use correct drill patterns and hole inclination
 Use adequate firing burden
 Charge first row carefully
 Leave rock from previous blast in face front up to 1/3 bench height.
 Cover blast when blasting in built areas
Dust and Gases
 Dust produced by blasting is insignificant compared to that produced by other
operations such as crashing, loading, and hauling
 However muck piles especially underground should be watered down
thoroughly to suppress the dust
 Most common toxic gases produced by blasting are CO and NO
 Mining regulations require that CO < 100ppm and NO < 5ppm
 Efficient ventilation dilutes these gases
 Reentry time to be observed
Air Blast
 Much of the air blast produced by blasting has a frequency below 20Hz which
is not audible to humans
 Air blast can cause structural vibrations
 Research has shown that air blasts have less potential to cause damage to
structures than ground vibrations but it is however the cause of complaints
 Air shock waves are pressure waves which radiate from point of detonation
 Intensity of the pressure depends on the size of charge and its degree of
confinement
Causes of air blasts

 Energy release from unconfined explosives such as uncovered trunk lines of

detonating code or uncovered mud blast
 Release of explosives energy from inadequately confined drill holes charges –
un-stemmed holes, inadequate burden or mud seams
 Movement of the burden and ground surface. Most blasts are designed to
displace the burden. When the face moves out it acts as a piston to form air
compression wave. That is why locations in front of free face receive higher
air blasts levels than those behind the free face
Reducing air blasts
 Use confined explosives
 Sufficient burden and stemming
 Geological conditions that cause blow-outs should be stemmed e.g. mud
seams and voids
 Accurate drilling to maintain designed burdens
 Avoid collar priming
 Avoid early morning, or late afternoon, or night firing when temperature
inversions are most likely
 Check wind direction before blasting
 Use longer delays between rows than between holes
Ground vibrations
 All blasts create ground vibrations. When an explosive is detonated in a drill
hole it creates a shock wave that crushes the material around the borehole
and creates many of initial cracks required for fragmentation
 As the wave travels outwards it becomes a seismic or vibration wave causing
ground it passes through to vibrate
 Ground vibrations are measured in terms of amplitude (size of vibrations)
and frequency ( number of times ground moves back and forth in a given time
period)
 In blasting, amplitude is usually measured in terms of velocity mm/s and
frequency in hertz Hz
 Distance dampens seismic waves starting with high frequencies
Ground vibrations depend on:
 Quantity of co-operating charges
 Constriction of the blast
 Rock characteristics
 Distance from blasting site
 Geology of the surrounding ground
Causes of ground vibration

 Too many cooperating charges from poor firing designs

 Poor blast designs
 Over confinement. Too large burdens and excessive sub-drilling
Reducing ground vibrations
 Properly designed burden to spacing ratio
 Reduce the charge weight of explosives per delay (co-opetaing charge)
 Single hole firing
 Use electronic detonators
 Blast during period of high activity
ROCK FRAGMENTATION
Introduction
o What is good fragmentation?
o It depends on the end use of the rock, type and size of equipment used in
subsequent operations. But remember that large equipment is meant for
large volume of material not large size material.
o Ideally fragmented rock is rock that needs no further treatment.
o If the rock is meant for crushing, the size of the largest boulders should not
exceed 75% of the length of the shortest side of the opening of the primary
crusher.
Factors influencing rock fragmentation

1.Geology
o Affects fragmentation more than the explosives used.
o Geological properties that affect fragmentation are tensile strength, strength of
compression, density, propagation velocity, hardness and structure.
Tensile strength
 Most rocks have tensile strength 8% -10% of the compression strength. The rock’s tensile
strength has to be exceeded for it to break.
b) Density of rock
 Higher rock density are harder to blast because heavier rock mass requires more
explosives for displacement.
c) Propagation velocity
 Field tests have shown that hard rocks with high propagation velocity are best
fragmented by explosives with high VOD
d) Hardness or brittleness
 If soft rock is undercharged, it can still break and if it is overcharged, it’s
rarely overthrown.
 If hard rock is undercharged, blocky muck pile that is tough to lash is
obtained. If it is overcharged, it causes fly rock and air blasts.
 (reffer to table on the next slide)
e) Rock Structure
 If the rock is faulted and contain voids and incompetent zones, explosive
energy is lost in faults resulting in blocky fragmentation.
Rock Strength
2. Specific Drilling
o The blast hole diameter determines the burden, spacing and hole depth.
o Drilling cost decreases with increase in diameter. Large diameter enable use
of cheaper blasting agents. However, it gives blocky material thus increasing
mucking, transport, crushing and secondary blasting costs.
o Higher specific drilling with smaller diameter blast holes distributes the
explosives better resulting in better rock fragmentation.
3. Specific Charge
o Drilling pattern maintained, increased specific charge means increased
fragmentation but also increased forward movement and fly rock.

4. Drilling Pattern
o There are three commonly used drill patterns, namely the square, the
rectangular and the staggered.
o In the square, equal burden and spacing is maintained. Easy to drill
o In the rectangular, S>B. Easy to drill. Common pattern. S=1.25B
o The staggered pattern can be either square or rectangular and is normally
used for row-on-row firing. Gives a better fragmentation.
FRAGMENTATION
5. Firing pattern

o Normally SPD firing is practiced in bench blasting.

o Bernt Larsson studied the effect of delay time on multiple row blasting and
concluded that the rock mass must move 1/3 of burden before next row is
allowed to detonate.
o The delay time in hard rock should be at least 10ms/m of burden and in soft
rock it should be at most 30ms/m. Take 15ms/m for good fragmentation.
o If the delay between rows is too short, the rock from back rows take an
upward direction causing fly rock.
o If it is too long, it may cause air blast, boulders and fly rock.
V- PATTERNS
 The open V halves the drilled burden and increases the spacing
 Fragmentation is better than the row by row firing.
 The closed V gives a powerful collision effect and compact rock pile.

6. Hole Inclination
o Constriction of rock at the bottom decreases if the hole is inclined and the
shock wave energy is better exploited
o The breakage angle is increased such that the shock wave reflects against a
longer free face
7. Hole Deviation
o Poor drilling will cause boulders due to irregular burdens and spacing
o Top-hammer drills give poorer precision than down the hole hammers
o Faults and cracks can change the hole direction
o Under burdening can cause fly rock
o Excessive burdens cause ground vibrations and boulders

8. Size Of Round
Most boulders come from the front row. Multiple row blasts give fewer boulders
than single row blasts
QUANTIFYING AND PREDICTION OF FRAGMENTATION

o The mean fragment size K50 represents the screen size through which
50% of the loosened rock would pass if screened
o Low value then represents a fine fragmentation and vise-versa
o K50 does not give the entire distribution
o A K50 value can mean that
 Very fine and very coarse with nothing in between
 One fraction only where the size corresponds to K50
 The same amounts of all fractions from fine to coarse

Another way to measure fragmentation is by oversize content as a

percentage of broken material
Predicting Fragmentation

Lundborg – Larsson formular.

o K50=S*f(h/H)* exp(0.29*In(V2sqr(E/V)/1.25)-1.18In(q/c)-0.82) where

f(h/H)=1+4.67*(ho/H)2.5

o S=blastibility constant. Normal value 0.5. Homogeneous rock 0.4. Very jointy
rock 0.6

o h0=uncharged part (m), H=hole depth (m), V=burden (m) E=hole spacing (m),
q= specific charge (kg/m3 ) c= rock constant
Cunningham Formula

K50= Aq-0.8 x Q1/6 x (115/E)19/20

o Where A=rock factor
q=specific charge
Q=amount of explosive per hole
E= relative strength of explosive
o To predict the complete fragmentation distribution curve, a distribution
according to Rosin- Rammler has been found to give a satisfactory result.
o Y=100*(1-exp(-(x/xc)n)) where Y=weight % passing the actual screen, x=actual
screen size, xc=characteristic size,
o n=index of uniformity.
o xc is calculated with regard to the mean size fragmentation and the n value
o The n value is dependent on drilling pattern, hole deviation, hole depth,
charge length and varies between 0.8 and 1.5