Nunan 1988 Syllabus Design

.�.
Language Teaching:
A Scheme for Teacher Education
Editors: C N Candlin and H G Widdowson
Syllabus Design
David Nunan
Oxford University Press

1988
Oxford Uni\'ersity Press
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Contents
The author and series editors VI
Introduction vu
Section One: Defining syllabus design. 1

1 The scope of syllabus design 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1 . 2 A general curriculum model 4
1.3 Defining 'syllabus' 5
1.4 The role of the classroom teacher 7
1 . 5 Conclusion 8
2 Points of deparrure 10
2.1 Introduction 10
2.2 Basic orientations 11
2.3 Learning purpose 13
2.4 Learning goals 24
2.5 Conclusion 25
3 Product-oriented syllabuses 27
3.1 Introduction 27
3.2 Analytic and synthetic syllabus planning 27
3.3 Grammatical syllabuses 28
3.4 Criticizing grammatical syllabuses 30
3.5 Functional-nOtional syllabuses 35
3.6 Criticizing functional-nOtional syllabuses 36
3 . 7 Analytic syllabuses 37
3.8 Conclusion 39
4 Process-oriented syllabuses 40
4.1 Introduction 40
4.2 Procedural syllabuses 42
4.3 Task-based syllabuses 44
4.4 Content syllabuses 48
4.5 The natural approach 51
4.6 Syllabus design and methodology -)
)-
4 . 7 Grading tasks 54
4.8 Conclusion 60
5 Objectives 61
5.1 Introduction 61
5 . 2 Types o f objective 61
5.3 Performance objectives in language tcaching 63
5.4 Criticizing performance objectives 67
5.5 Process and product objectives 69
5 . 6 Conclusion 71
Section Two: Demonstrating syllabus design 73

6 Needs and goals 75
6.1 Introduction 75
6.2 Needs analysis 75
6.3 From needs ro goals 79
6.4 Conclusion 84
7 Selecting and grading conrenr 85

7.1 Introduction 85
7.2 Selecting grammatical components 86
7.3 Selecting functional and notional components 87
7.4 Relating grammatical, functional, and notional
components 87
7.5 Grading content 92
7.6 Conclusion 95
8 Selecting and grading learning tasks 96

8.1 Introduction 96
8.2 Goals, objectives, and tasks 96
8.3 Procedural syllabuses 98
8.4 The natural approach 102
8.5 Content- based syllabuses 104
8.6 Levels of difficulty ]07
8.7 Teaching gr3mmar as process 118
8 . 8 Conclusion 121
9 Selecting and grading objectives 122
9.1 Introduction 122
9.2 Product-oriented objectives 122
9.3 Process-oriented objectives 131
9.4 Conclusion 133
Section Three: Exploring syllabus design 135

10 General principles 137
10.1 Curriculum and syllabus models 137
10.2 Purposes and goals 140
1 0 .3 Syllabus products 144
10.4 Experiential content 147
10.5 Tasks and activities 149
10.6 Objectives 153
Glossary 159
Further reading 161
Bibliography 1 62
Acknowledgements 166
The author and senes editors
David Nunan is currently Director of the National Curriculum Resource

Centre, which is the tcaching, research, and materials development centre
for Australia's Adult Migrant Education Program. H e has also worked as
an ESUEFL teacher, lecturer, researcher, and consultant in a wide varief)'
of teaching institutions in Australia, Oman, Singapore, Thailand, and the
UK. He has published books on language teaching course design, discourse
comprehension, learner-centred curriculum development, and the
teacher's role as a curriculum developer.
Christopher N. Candlin is Professor of Linguistics in the School of English
and Linguistics at Macquarie University, Sydney, having previously been
Professor of Applied Linguistics and Direcror of the Centre for Language in
Social Life at the University of Lancaster. He also co-founded and directed
rhe Insrirute for English Language Educarion at Lancaster, where h e
worked o n issues in in-service education for tcachers.
Henry Widdowson is Professor of English for Speakers of Orher Languages
at the University of London Institute of Education, having previousl)' been
Lecturer in Applied Linguistics at the University of Edinburgh. Before that,
he worked on materials development and teacher education as a British
Council English Language Officer in Sri Lanka and Bangladesh.
Through work with The British Council, The Council of Europe, and other
agencies, both Editors have had extensive and varied experience of
language teaching, teacher education, and curriculum development
overseas, and both contribute to seminars, conferences, and professional
journals.
----
Introduction
Syllabus Design
The purpose of this book is to provide teachers with rools and techniques
for analysing and subjecting to critical scrutiny the syllabuses with which
they are working. It is also intended to provide concepts and procedures for
those teachers who are in a position to take part in the development of their
own syllabuses.
Section One begins with an examination of the concepts of 'syllabus' and
'curriculum'. The rest of the section is concerned with central issues
relating to the selection and grading of input in language syllabus design.
Concepts and procedures which are examined include needs analysis, goal
and objective setting, the selection and grading of content, and the selection
and grading of learning tasks.
Section Two closely parallels Section One. Here we shall look at the ways in
which the concepts and principles presented in Section One have been
applied in practice. Samples of syllabuses and course materials from a
range of resources are presented and criticized. The aims of Section Two
are as follows:
1 to examine the ways in which the principles set our in Section One have
been utilized in syllabus design
2 to provide examples of syllabus design tools, outlines, and planning
procedures
3 ro provide readers with the opportunity to analyse and assess critically a
range of syllabus planning tools, designs, and.procedures·.
In Section Three, readers are encouraged to apply the ideas developed in
Sections One and Two to their own teaching situation. The general aim of
the section is to encourage readers to deepen their understanding of the
teaching context in which they work. In particular, it is hoped that the tasks
will help readers develop a critical attitude towards the syllabus or
syllabuses which shape their teaching programmes, and to help them
identify ways in which they might modify, adapt, or improve the syllabus
or syllabuses with which they work.
Although this book is principally concerned with the selecrion and grading
of input, it is important for syllabus design to be seen as an integral part of
the total curriculum. In the course of the book we shall see that syllabus
designers are currently facing a dilemma over the relationship berween
Vlll IntroductioN
syllabus design 'and methodology. We shall see that the traditional

distinction between syllabus design and methodology becomes difficult ro
sustain if it is accepted that syllabus design should include the specification
of learning tasks and activities.
In attempting to deepen our understanding of language learning and
teaching, we may take as our point of departure an analysis of linguistic
description at one or more of the levels of pronunciation, vocabulary,
grammar, or discourse. Alrernatively, we may begin with one or more of
the macroskills of listeni ng, speaking, reading, Ot writing. Finally, we may
begin with one or more aspects of teaching, including syllabus design,
methodology, task design, content teaching, or evaluation. It is difficult ro
proceed in any of these areas, however, without taking into consideration
the other areas ro which it is related. For this reason, this book has been
extensively cross-referenced to other volumes in the Scheme. The single
most important message in this book is that the effective planning,
implementation, and evaluation of language learning and teaching requi res
an integrated approach in which all the aspects covered i n the series are
interrelated.
I should like ro thank the series edirors, Chris Candlin and Henry
Widdowson, for the great deal of assistance, guidance, and advice they
provided during the writing of this book. Needless to say, the views
expressed and the conclusions reached are my own and should not
necessarily be attributed to the series edirors. Any shortcomings in the book
are also mine.
David Nunan
Language Teaching:
A Scheme for Teacher Education
The purpose of this scheme of books is to engage language teachers in a
process of continual professional development. We have designed ir so as ro
guide reachers rowards rhe critical appraisal of ideas and rhe informed
applicarion of these ideas in rheir own classrooms. The scheme provides the
means for teachers ro take the initiative themselves in pedagogic planning.
The emphasis is on ctitical enquiry as a basis for effective action.
We believe that advances in language reaching stem from the independent
efforts 01 teachers in their own classrooms. This independence is nor
brought about by imposing fixed ideas and promoting fashionable
formulas. It can only occur where teachers, individually or collectively,
explore principles and experiment with rechniques. Our purpose is to offer
guidance on how this might be achieved.
Introduction IX
The scheme consists of three sub-series of books covering areas of enquiry

and practice of immediate relevance to language teaching and learning.
Sub-series 1 focuses on areas of lal1gllage knowledge, with books linked to
the conventional levels of li nguistic description: pronunciation, vocabu
lary, grammar, and discourse. Sub-series 2 focuses on different modes of
behaviollr which tealize this knowledge. It is concerned with the pedagogic
skills of speaking, listening, reading, and wtiting. Sub-seties 3 focuses on a
variety of modes of action which ate needed if this knowledge and
behaviour is to be acquired in the operation of language teaching. The
books in this sub-series have to do with such topics as syllabus design, the
content of language coutses, and aspects of methodology, and evaluation.
This sub-division of the field is not meant to suggest that different topics
can be dealt with in isolation. On the contrary, the concept of a scheme
implies making coherent links between all these different areas of enquiry
and activity. We wish to emphasize how their integration fotmalizes the
complex factors present in any teaching ptocess. Each book, then,
highlights a particular topic, bur also deals contingently with other issues,
themselves tteated as focal in other books in the seties. Clearly, an enquiry
into a mode of behaviout like speaking, for example, must also tefet to
aspects of language knowledge which it tealizes. It must also connect to
modes of action which can be directed at developing this behaviour in
learners. As elements of the whole scheme, thetefote, books cross-tefer
both within and across the diffetent sub-seties.
This principle of cross-tefetence which links the elements of the scheme is

also applied to the internal design of the different intettelated books within
it. Thus, each book contains three sections, which, by a combination of text
and task, engage the reader in a principled enquity into ideas and practices.
The first section of each book makes explicit those theoretical ideas which
beat on the topic in question. It provides a conceptual framework for those
sections which follow. Here the text has a mainly explanatory function,
and the tasks setve to c1atify and consolidate the points raised. The second
section shifts the focus of attention to how the ideas from Section One
relate to activities in the classroom. Here the text is concerned with
demonstration, and the tasks are designed to get readers to evaluate
suggestions for teaching in reference both to the ideas from Section One
and also to theit own teaching experience. [n the third section this
experience is projected into future work. Here the set of tasks, modelled on
those in Section Two, are designed to be catried our by the reader as a
combination of teaching techniques and action research in the actual
classroom. It is this section that renews the reader's contact with reality: the
ideas expounded in Section One and [inked to pedagogic practice in Section
Two are now to be systematically tested alit in the process of classroom
teaching.
If language teaching is to be a genuinely ptofessional enterprise, it requires

continual experimentation and evaluation on [he part of practitioners
x Introduction
whereby in seeking to be more effective in their pedagogy they provide at

the same tirhe - and as a corollary - for their own continuing education.
It is our aim in this scheme to promote this dual purpose.
Christopher N. Candlin
J-Ienry Widdowson
SECTION ONE
Defining syllabus design

1 The scope of s yllabus des ign
1.1 Introduction
We will starr by outlining the scope of syllabus design and relating'it to the
broader field of curriculum development. Later, in 1.4, we shall also look at
the role of the teacher in syllabus design.
Withi n the literature, there is some confusion over the terms 'syllabus' and
'curriculum'. It would, therefore, be as well to give some indication at the
outser o f what is meant here by syllabus, and also how syllabus design is
related to curriculum development.
� TASK 1
As a preliminary actlvlrv, wrire a shorr definirion of rhe terms
'syllabus' and 'curriculum'.
[n language teaching, there has been a compararive neglect of sysremaric

curriculum development. In particular, there have been few attempts to
apply, in any systematic fashion, principles of curriculum development to
rhe planning, implementation, and evaluarion of language programmes.
Language curriculum specialisrs have tended to focus on only parr of the
toral picture - some specializing in syllabus design, others in methodolo
gy, and yet arhers in assessment and evaluation. [n recent years this rarher
fragmented approach has been criricized, and there have been calls for a
more comprehensive approach to language curriculum design (see, for
example, Breen and Candlin 1980; Richards 1984; Nunan 1 985). The
present' book is intended to provide reachers with the skills they need to
address, in a sysrematic fashion, the problems and tasks which confront
rhem in their programme planning.
Candlin ( 1984) suggests thar curricula are concerned with making general
srarements abour language learning, learning purpose and experience,
evaluarion, and the role relarionships of teachers and learners. According
to Candlin, rhey will also contain banks of learning items and suggestions
about how these mighr be used in class. Syllabuses, on the orher hand, are
more localized and are based on accounts and records of what actually
happens at the classroom level as teachers and learners apply a given
curriculum to their own situation. These accounts can be used to make
subsequent modifications to the curriculum, so that the developmental
process is ongoing and cyclical.
4 Definillg syllabus design
1.2 A general curriculum model
� TASK 2
Examine the following planning tasks and decide on the order in
which they might be carried OUI.
monitoring and assessing student progress
selecting suitable materials
stating the objectives of the course
evaluating the course
listing grammatical and functional componellls
designing learning activities and tasks
instructing students
identifying topics, themes, and situations
It is possible to srudy 'the curriculum' of an educational institution from a

number of different perspectives. In the first instance we can look at
curriculum planning, that is at decision making, in relation to identifying
learners' needs and purposes; establishing goals and objectives; selecting
and grading content; organizing appropriate learning arrangements and
learner groupings; selecting, adapting, or developing appropriate mate
rials, learning tasks,. and assessment and evaluation tools.
Alternatively, we can srudy the curriculum 'in action' as it were. This
second perspective takes us into the classroom itself. Here we can observe
the teachingllearning process and study the ways in which the intenrions of
the curriculum planners, which were developed during the planning phase,
arc translated into action.
Yet another perspective relates to assessment and evaluation. From this
perspective, we would try and find out what students had learned and what
they had failed to learn in relation to what had been planned. Additionally,
we might want to find out whether they had learned anything which had
not been planned. \'(Ie would also want to account for our findings, to make
judgements about why some things had succeeded and others had failed,
and perhaps to make recommendations abour whar changes might be made
to improve things in the future.
Finally, we might want to study the management of the teaching
institution, looking at the resources available and how these are utilized,
how the institution relates to and responds to the wider community, how
constraints imposed by l imited resources and the decisions of administra
tors affect what happens in the classroom, and so on.
All of these perspectives taken together represent the field of curriculum
study. As we can see, the field is a large and complex one.
It is i mportant that, in the planning, implementation, and evaluation of a
given curriculum, all elements be integrated, so that decisions made at one
The scope of syllabus design 5
level are not in conflict with those made at another.For instance, in courses
based on principles of communicative language teaching, it is important
that these principles are reflected, not only in curriculum documents and
syllabus plans, but also in classroom activities, patterns of classroom
interaction, and in tests of communicative performance.
1.3 Defining 's yllabus '

There are several conflicting views on just what it is that distinguishes
syllabus design from curriculum development. There is also some
disagreement about the nature of 'the syllabus'.In books and papers on the
subject, it is possible to distingeish a broad and a narrow approach to
syllabus design.
The narrow view draws a clear distinction between syllabus design and
methodology.Syllabus design is seen as being concerned essentially with
the selection and grading of content, while methodology is concerned with
the selection of learning tasks and activities. Those who adopt a broader
view question this strict separation, arguing that with the advent of
communicative language teaching the distinction between content and
tasks is difficult to sustain.
The following quotes have been taken from Brumfit (1984) which provides
an excellent overview of the range and diversity of opinion on syllabus
design.The broad and narrow views are both represented in the book, as
you will see from the quotes.
� TASK 3
As you read the quotes, see whether you can identify which writers
are advocating a broad approach and which a narrow approach.
1 ... I would like to draw attention to a distinction ...between

curriculum or syllabus, that is its content, structure, parts and
organisation, and, ...what in curriculum theory is often called
curriculum processes, that is curriculum development, imple
mentation, dissemination and evaluation. The former is con
cerned with the WHAT of curriculum: what the curriculum is like
or should be like; the latter is concerned with the WHO and
HOW of establishing the curriculum.
(Stem 1 984: 10-11)
2 [The syllabus] replaces the concept of 'method', and the syllabus

is now seen as an instrument by which the teacher, with the help
of the syllabus designer, can achieve a degree of 'fit' between the
needs and aims of the learner (as social being and as individual)
and the activities which will take place in the classroom.
(Yalden 1 984: 1 4)
6 Defil1ing syllabus design
3 . ..the. syllabus is simply a framework within which activities can

be carried out: a teaching device to facilitate learning. It only
becomes a threat to pedagogy when it is regarded as absolute rules
for determining what is to be learned rather than points of
reference from ",hich bearings can be taken.
(Widdo/Uson 1984: 26 )
4 We might ... ask whether it is possible to separate so easily what

we have been calling content from ",hat we have been calling
method or procedure, or indeed whether we can avoid bringing
evaluation into the debate?
(Calldlil1 1984: 32)
J
5 Any syllabus will express-however indirectly-certain assump
tions about language, about the psychological process of learn
ing, and about the pedagogic and social processes within a
classroom.
(Breen 1984: 49)
6 . . . curriculum is a very general concept which involves

consideration of the whole complex of philosophical, social and
administrative factors which contribute to the planning of an
educational program. Syllabus, on the other hand, refers to that
subpart of curriculum which is concerned with a specification of
what units will be taught (as distinct from how they will be
taught, which is a matter for methodology).
(Allell 1984: 6 1 )
7 Since language is highly complex and cannot be taught all at the

same time, successful teaching requires that there should be a
selection of material depending on the prior definition of
objecrives, proficiency level, and duration of course. This
selection rakes place at the syllabus planning stage.
(op. cit.: 65)
As you can see, some language specialists believe that syllabus (the selection
and grading of conrenr) and methodology should be kept separate; others
think otherwise. One of rhe issues you will have to decide on as you work
through this book is whether you think syllabuses should be defined solely
in terms of the selection and grading of content, or whether they should
also arrempt to specify and grade learning tasks and activities.
Here, we shall take as our point of departure the rather traditional notion
that a syllabus is a statement of content which is llsed as the basis for
planning COllrses of va' rious kinds, and that the task of the syllabus designer
is to select and grade this Content. To begin with, then, we shall distinguish
between syllabus design, which is concerned wirh rhe 'whar' of a language
The scope of syllabus design 7
programme, and methodology, which is concerned with the 'how'. (Later,

we shall look at proposals for 'procedural' syllabuses in which the
distinction between the 'what' and the 'how' becomes difficult to sustain.)
One document which gives a detailed account of the various syllabus
components which need to be considered in developing language courses is
Threshold Level English (van Ek 1975). van Ek lists the following as
necessary components of a language syllabus:
1 the situations in which the foreign language will be used, includ-
ing the topics which will be dealt with;
2 the language activities in which the learner will engage;
3 the language functions which the learner will fulfil;
4 what the learner will be able to do with respect to each topic;
5 the general notions which the learner will be able to handle;
6 the specific (topic-related) notions which the learner will be able
to handle;
7 the language forms which the learner will be able to use;
8 the degree· of skill with which the learner will be able to perform.
(van Ek 1975: 8-9)
� TASK 4
Do you think that van Ek subscribes to a 'broad' or 'narrow' view of
syllabus design?
Which, if any, of the above components do you think are beyond the
scope of syllabus design?
1.4 The role of the classroom teacher

In a recent book dealing, among other things, with syllabus design issues,
Bell ( 1 983) claims that teachers are, in the main, consumers of other
people's syllabuses; in other words, that their role is to implement the plans
of applied linguists, government agencies, and so on. While some teachers
have a relatively free hand in designing the syllabuses on which their
teaching programmes are based, most are likely to be, as Bell suggests,
consumers of other people's syllabuses.
� TAS K S
Study the following list of planning tasks.
In your experience, for which of these tasks do you see the classroom
teacher as having primary responsibility?
Rate each task on a scale from 0 (no responsibility) to 5 (total
responsibility).
8 Defining syllabus design
identifying learners' communicative needs 0 12345

selecting and grading syllabus content 0 12345
grouping learners into different classes
or learning arrangements 0 12345
- selecting/creating materials and learning
- activities 0 123'45
monitoring and assessing learner progress 0 12345
- course evaluation 0 12345
In a recent study of an educational system where classroom teachers are

expected to design, implement, and evaluate their own curriculum, one
group of teachers, when asked the above question, stated that they saw
themselves as having primary responsibility for all of the above tasks
except for the third one (grouping learners). Some of the teachers in the
system felt quite comfortable with an expanded. professional role. Others
felt that syllabus development should be carried out by people with specific
expertise, and believed that they were being asked to undertake tasks for
which they were not adequately trained (Nunan 1987).
� TASK 6
What might be the advantages and/or disadvantages of teachers in
your system designing their own syllabuses?
Can you think of any reasons why teachers might be discouraged
from designing, �r. might not want to design their own syllabuses?
Are these reasons principally pedagogic, political, or administra
tive?
1.5 Conclusion
In 1, I have tried to provide some idea of the scope of syllabus design. I have
suggested that traditionally syllabus design has been seen as a subsidiary
component of curriculum design. 'Curriculum' is concerned with the
planning, implementation, evaluation, management, and administration
of education programmes. 'Syllabus', on the other hand, focuses more
narrowly on the selection and grading of content.
While it is realized that few teachers are in the position of being able to
design their own syllabuses, it is hoped that most are in a position to
interpret and modify their syllabuses in the process of translating them into
action. The purpose of this book is therefore to present the central issues
and options available for syllabus design in order to provide teachers with
the necessary knowledge and skills for evaluating, and, where feasible,
modifying and adapting the syllabuses with which they work. At the very
least, this book should help you understand (and therefore more effectively
exploit) the syllabuses and course materials on which your programmes are
based.
\.
The scope of syllablls desigll 9
.. TASK 7
Look back at the definitions vou wrote in Task I and rewrite these in
the light of the infotmation presented in 1.
In what ways, if any, do your revised definitions differ from the ones
you wrote at the beginning?
In 2, we shall look at some of the starring points in syllabus design. The next
central question to be addressed is, 'Where does syllabus content come
from" In seeking answers ro this questi n, we shall look at techniques for
obtaining information from and about learners for use in svllabus design.
We shall examine the controversy which exists over the very nature of
language itself and how this influences the making of decisions about what
ro include in the syllabus. We shall also look at the distinction between
product-oriented and process-oriented approaches to syllabus design.
These two orientations are studied in detail in 3 and 4. The final parr of
Section One draws on the content of the preceding parrs and relates this
cOntent to the issue of objectives.You will be asked to consider whether or
nor we need objectives, and if so, how these should be formulated.
2 Points of departure
2 . 1 Introduction
In 1 it was argued that syllabus design was essentially concerned with the
selection and grading of content. As such, it formed a sub-component of the
planning phase of curriculum development. (You will recall that the
curriculum has at least three phases: a planning phase, an implementation
phase, and an evaluation phase.)
The first question to confront the syllabus designer is where the content is
to come from in the first place. We shall now look at the options available to
syllabus designers in their search for starting points in syllabus design.
� TASK 8
Can you think of any ways in which our beliefs about the nature of
language and learning might influence our decision-making on what
to put into the syllabus and how to grade it?
If we had consensus on just what it was that we were supposed to teach in

order for learners to develop proficiency in a second or foreign language; if
we knew a great deal more than we do about language learning; if it were
possible to teach the totality of a given language, and if we had complete
descriptions of the target language, problems associated with selecting and
sequencing content and learning experiences would be relatively straight
forward. As it happens, there is not a great deal of agreement within the
teaching profession on the nature of language and language learning. As a
consequence, we must make judgements in selecting syllabus components
from all the options which are available to us. As Breen (1984) points out,
these judgements are not value-free, but reflect our beliefs about the nature
of language and learning. In this and the other parts in this section, we shall
see how value judgements affect decision-making in syllabus design.
The need to make value judgements and choices in deciding what to include
in (or omit from) spe' cifications of content and which elements are to be the
basic building blocks of the syllabus, presents syllabus designers with
constant problems. The issue of content selection becomes particularly
pressing if the syllabus is intended to underpin short courses. (It could be
argued that the shorter the course, the greater the need for precision in
content specification.)
Points of departure 11
2.2 Basic orientations

Until fairly recently, most syllabus designers started out by drawing up lists
of grammatical, phonological, and vocabulary items which were then
graded according to difficulty and usefulness. The task for the learner was
seen as gaining mastery over these grammatical, phonological, and
vocabulary items.
Learning a language, it was assumed, entails mastering the elements

or building blocks of the language and learning the rules by which
these elements are combined, from phoneme to morpheme to word
to phrase to sentence.
(Richards and Rodgers 1 986: 49)
During the 1970s, communicative views of language teaching began to be

incorporated into syllabus design. The central question for proponents of
this new view was, 'What does the learner want/need to do with the target
language?' rather than, 'What are the linguistic elements which the learner
needs to master?' Syllabuses began to appear in which content was
specified, not only in terms of the grammatical elements which the learners
were expected to master, but also in terms of the functional skills they
would need to master in order to communicate successfully.
This movement led in part to the development of English for Specific
Purposes (ESP). Here, syllabus designers focused, not only on language
functions, but also on experiential content (that is, the subject matter
through which the language is taught).
Traditionally, linguistically-oriented syllabuses, along with many so-called
communicative syllabuses, shared one thing in common: they tended to
focus on the things that learners should know or be able to do as a result of
instruction. In the rest of this book we shall refer to syllabuses in which
content is stated in terms of the outcomes of instruction as 'product
oriented'.
As we have already seen, a distinction is traditionally drawn between
syllabus design, which is concerned with outcomes, and methodology,
which is concerned with the process through which these outcomes are to
be brought about. Recently, however, some syllabus designers have
suggested that syllabus content might be specified in terms of learning tasks
and activities. They justify this suggestion on the grounds that communica
tion is a process rather than a set of products.
In evaluating syllabus proposals, we have to decide whether this view
represents a fundamental change in perspective, or whether those
advocating process syllabuses have made a category error; whether, in fact,
they are really addressing methodological rather than syllabus issues. This
is something which you will have to decide for yourself as you work
through this book.
� TAS K 9
At this stage, what is your view on the legitimacy of defining
syllabuses in terms of learning processes? Do you think that
syllabuses should list and grade learning tasks and activities as well
as linguistic content?
A given syllabus will specify all or some of the following: grammatical

structures, functions, notions, topics, themes, situations, activities, and
tasks. Each of these elements is either product or process oriented, and the
inclusion of each will be justified according to beliefs about the nature of
.language, the needs of the learner, or the nature of learning.
In the rest of this book, we shall be making constant references to and

comparisons between process and product. What we mean when we refer
to 'process' is a series of actions directed toward some end. The 'product' is
the end itself. This may be clearer if we consider some examples. A list of
grammatical structures is a product. Classroom drilling undertaken by
learners in order to learn the structures is a process. The interaction of two
speakers as they communicate with each other is a process. A tape
recording of their conversation is a product.
� TASK 1 0
Complete the following table, to indicate whether each of the
syllabus elements is product or process oriented. Under the heading
'reference', indicate whether this particular element would be
selected by the syllabus designer with reference to the learner, the
target language, or to some theory of learning. (The first one has
been done for you.)
Element Orientation Reference
Structures Product Language
Functions
Notions
Topics
Themes
Subjects
Activities
Tasks
Table 1
Did you find that some elements could be assigned to more than one
orientation or point of reference? Which were these?
2.3 Learning purpose

In recent years, a major trend in language syllabus design has been the use
of information from and about learners in curriculum decision-making. In
this section, we shall look at some of the ways in which learner data have
been used to inform decision-making in syllabus design. In the course of the
discussion we shall l�ok at the controversy over general and specific
purpose syllabus design.
Assumptions about the learner's purpose in undertaking a language course,

as well as the syllabus designer's beliefs about the nature of language and
learning can have a marked influence on the shape of the syllabus on which
the course is based. Learners' purposes will vary according to how specific
they are, and how immediately learners wish to employ their developing
language skills.
� TASK 1 1
Which of the following statements represent specific language needs
and which are more general?
'I want to be able to talk to my neighbours in English.'

'I want to study microbiology in an English-speaking university.'
'I want to develop an appreciation of German culture by studying
the language.'
'I want to be able to communicate in Greek.'
'I want my daughter to study French at school so she can matriculate
and read French at university.'
'I want to read newspapers in Indonesian.'
'I want to understand Thai radio broadcasts.'
'I need "survival" English.'
'I want to be able to read and appreciate French l.iterature.'
'I want to get a better job at the factory.'
'I want to speak English.'
'I want to learn English for nursing.'
For which of the above would it be relatively easy to predict the

grammar and topics to be listed in the syllabus?
For which would it be difficult to predict the grammar and topics?
Techniques and procedures for collecting information to be used in

syllabus design are referred to as needs analysis. These techniques have
been borrowed and adapted from other areas of training and development,
particularly those associated with industry and technology.
� TASK 1 2
One general weakness of most of the literature on needs analysis is
the tendency to think only in terms of learner needs. Can you think
of any other groups whose needs should be considered?
Information will need to be collected, not only on why learners want to

learn the target language, but also about such things as societal
expectations and constraints and the resources available for implementing
the syllabus.
Broadly speaking, there are two different types of needs analysis used by
language syllabus designers. The first of these is learner analysis, while the
second is task analysis.
Learner analysis is based on information about the learner. The central

question of concern to the syllabus designer is: 'For what purpose or
purposes is the learner learning the language?' There are many other
subsidiary questions, indeed it is possible to collect a wide range of
information as can be seen from the following data collection forms.
Appendix A
Sample needs analysis survey form.

This form was developed for use at the Pennington Migrant
Education Centre, South Australia. Students complete the form
with assistance from bilingual information officers.
Date: ASLPR _ _ _______
L S R \YJ
Naille: Address:
_________
Age: Country of Origin:

_________
Family: M.S.\X'.D. No. of Children: ___ Ages:_ _ _ _ __
Other relatives in Ausrralia:

______________
Elsewhere: ____________________
Education: No. of years:

_____ Qualifications:
___
Why study finished:___________
English study:
_____________
Employment: Main occuparion: ____________
Other jobs held:____________
In Australia:
______________
Type of work sought: __________
Interests: e.g. hobbies, spons, leisure activities:

_____
Skills:
_______________
First language: ______ Orhers spoken: ___
Others srudied:___
Language learnmg:
A. Do you like to learn English by READING
\'(-'RITING
LISTENING AND SPEAK·
ING
OTHER
which do you like the mosr?____________
_
B. Do you like to srudy grammar

learn new words
practise the sounds and pronunciation?
\Vhich do you like the most? _____________
C. Do you like to learn English by:

casserres
games
talking to English speakers
studying English books
watching T.V.
\X'hich is the most imporranr (1-5) to you?
_______ _
D. !\·1acroskills
1. Reading:
(a) Can you use a dictionary .
-a Iinle___ very well
__
_
(b) \Vhat can you read in English:

simple stories
newspapers
forms: bank
P.O.
C.E.S.
adverrisemenrs: shopping
housing
employment
bus timetables
maps/direct o ries
school notes
(c) What are the most important for you to learn
now:
___________________
2. Writing:
(d) Do you ever write leners
notes to reachers
fill in forms
(e) Which is the most importanr for you to learn
now:
________________________
3. Listening and speaking:
(0 Who do you speak

with in English? (g) How much do you
understand?
o a little a lot 1000Al

Shop assistants
Neighbours and friends
Bus drivers
Medical people
Teachers
Employers
Others
(h) \'Vho is it most important for you to learn to

speak with nov.,'?
___________ _
(i) Do you watch T. V.

listen to the radio
(j) How much do you lInder�tJnd?
E. How do you learn best'

No A IiIde Good I Best
alone:
pairs
small group
class
outside class
F. What do you feel are the most important things for you to
learn in the: shorr term _ _ ______
long term _________
G. How much time is available for study now:

per day __________ _
per week _________
\'(there would you like to study:

J.L.C.
Home· __________
H. Agreement:
Length 1
--,-
_ _ 1
--,-__ to 1 1
--J.._--J..__
_
How often do you want supervision:

I. l);lte of first supervision I I
Comments (may include impressions of interviewer/interprerer):
J. Interviewer: ________________
Interprerer: ________________
Date:. _________________
(Nunan 1 985: 67-70)

Intervie wer : D ate :
Name :
Current pr oficien cy leve l:
Age :
Ye ars of f orm al educ ati on :
Number and type of previ ous c ourses :
Nati on ality :
Marit al st atus :
Length of time in t arget c ountr y:
Present occup ati on :
Intended occup ati on :
H ome l angu age :
Ot her l angu ages sp oken :
Preferences re lating t o meth od ol ogy :
c ourse length :
intensity :
Le arning style :
Purp ose in c oming t o cl ass :
L angu age g oals :
Life g oals :
(Nunan and Burton 1 985)
� TASK 1 3
W hich of the ab ove inf orm ati on d o y ou think is likely t o be m ost
use ful f or pl anning purp oses ?
W hat are s ome of the purp oses t o which the inf orm ati on might be
put ?
The inf orm ati on c an se rve m any purp oses, depending on the n ature of the
educ ati on al instituti on in which it is t o be used. In t he first inst ance, it c an
guide t he selecti on of c ontent . It m ay als o be used t o assign le arners t o cl ass
g roupings . This will be quite a str aightf orward m atter if cl asses are b ased
solely on proficiency levels, but much more complicated if they are

designed to reflect the goals and aspirations of the learners. In addition, the
data can be used by the teacher to modify the syllabus and methodology so
they are more acceptable to the learners, or to alert the teacher to areas of
possible conflict.
� TASK 1 4
What sort of problems might the teacher be alerted to?
How, in your opinion, might these be dealt with?
With certain students, for example older learners or those who have only
experienced traditional educational systems, there are numerous areas of
possible conflict within a teaching programme. These potential points 0.£
conflict can be revealed through needs analysis. For example, the data
might indicate that the majority of learners desire a grammatically-based
syllabus with explicit instruction. If teachers are planning to follow a
non-traditional approach, they may need to negotiate with the learners and
modify the syllabus to take account of learner perceptions about the nature
of language and language learning. On the other hand, if they are strongly
committed to the syllabus with which they are working, or if the institution
is fairly rigid, they may wish to concentrate, in the early part of the course,
on activities designed to convince learners of the value of the approach
.
being taken.
� TASK 15
Some syllabus designers differentiate between 'objective' and
'subjective' information.
What do you think each of these terms refers to?
Which of the items in the sample data collection forms in Task 1 2
relate to 'objective' information, and which to 'subjective' informa
tion?
' Objective' data is that factual information which does not require the
attitudes and views of the learners to be taken into account. Thus,
biographical information on age, nationality, home language, etc. is said to
be 'objective'. 'Subjective' information, on the other hand, reflects the
perceptions, goals, and priorities of the learner. It will include, among other
things, information on ,vhy the learner has undertaken to learn a second
language, and the classroom tasks and activities which the learner prefers.
The second type of analysis, task analysis, is employed to specify and

categorize the language skills required to carry out real-world communica
tive tasks, and often follows the learner analysis which establishes the
communicative purposes for which the learner wishes to learn the
langu age . The centr al question here is : 'Wh at are the subord in ate ski lls and
know ledge re quired by the le arner in order to carry out re al-wor ld
communi cative t asks? '
� TASK 1 6
Di ck and Carey ( 1978) des cribe a number of instru ction al an alys is
appro aches, in clud ing pro cedur al an alysis, wh ich is used when an
ordered se quen ce of beh av iours is re quired to ach ieve a p arti cu lar
t ask . The t asks be low must be carried out to m ake a long-d ist an ce
phone call. In wh at order do you think these t as ks need to be carried
out for a long d ist an ce call to be m ade su ccessfu lly?
- D ial the appropri ate are a code .
- Ask for the desired person .
- Lift the re ceiver and listen for the appropri ate d ial tone .
- Lo cate the te lephone number of the desired person
and write it down .
- Listen for call sign al.
- Lo cate the are a code and wr ite it down .
- D ial the te lephone number noted .
Wh at sorts of communi cation t asks might be amen ab le to su ch an
an alysis?
One of the things whi ch m any se cond langu age le arners w ant to do
is comprehend r ad io and te lev ision bro ad casts . Us ing the above list
as a guide, write down the v ar ious sk ills and know ledge wh ich
w ou ld be re qu ired for a le arner to underst and a r ad io - we ather
report .
The most sophisti cated app li cation of needs an alys is to langu age sy llabus
des ign is to be found in the work of Joh n Munby ( 1978) . The mode l
deve loped by Munby cont ains nine e lements . According to Munby, it is
import ant for the sy llabus designer to co lle ct inform at ion on e ach of these
components :
1 Participant
Under th is component is spe cified inform ation re lat ing to the le arner 's
identity and langu age ski lls . These wi ll in clude age, sex, n at ion ali ty,
mother tongue, comm and of t arget langu age, other langu ages, et c. It is
therefore s imi lar in some respe cts to the le arner an alysis whi ch h as alre ady
been des cr ibed .
2 Purposive domain
This category refers to the purposes for whi ch the t arget langu age is
re qu ired .
3 Setting
Under this p ar ameter, the sy llabus designer must consider the env iron
ments in whi ch the t arget langu age wi ll be emp loyed .
20 Defining s),llabus design
4 Interaction
Here, the syllabus designer needs to consider the people with whom the
learner will be interacting. (See the discussion on role sets in Wright: Roles
of Teachers and Learners published in this Scheme. )
5 Instru17tentality
Instrumentality refers to the medium (whether the language is spoken or
written, receptive or productive), the mode (whether the communication is
monologue or dialogue, written or spoken, to be heard or read), and the
channel (whether the communication is face-to-face or indirect). (See
Bygate: Speaking published in this Scheme.)
6 Dialect
Here the variety and/or dialect is specified.
7 Target level
Here is stated the degree of mastery which the learner will need to gain over
the target language.
8 Comlnunicative event
This refers to the productive and receptive skills the learner will need to
master.
9 Communicative key
Here, the syllabus designer needs to specify the interpersonal attitudes and
tones the learner will be required to master.
� TASK 1 7
Do you think that the Munby approach is principally concerned
with the collection of objective or subjective information?
The Munby approach has received criticism from many quarters for being
too mechanistic, and for paying too little attention to the perceptions of the
learner. As it is also developed with reference to individual learners, it may
ultimately be self-defeating for classroom teaching.
Criticisms of early needs analysis work led to a change of emphasis, with a

greater focus on the collection and utilization of 'subjective' information in
syllabus design. This change in emphasis reflected a trend towards a more
humanistic ' approach to education in general. Humanistic education is
based on the belief that learners should have a say in what they should be
learning and how they should learn it, and reflects the notion that
education should be concerned with the development of autonomy in the
learner. Apart from philosophical reasons for weaning learners from
dependence on teachers and educational systems, it is felt, particularly in
systems where there are insufficient resources to provide a complete
education, that learners should be taught independent learning skills so
they may continue their education after the completion of formal
instruction.
Li ke mo st other a spect s of language syl labu s de sign , need s an al ysi s

procedures have attracted critici sm from a variety of sources-from
teacher s who fee l lear ner independence de tract s from their o wn authori n.:
and statu s in the c la ssroom , from some educatio n authoritie s who feel th it
syl la bu s deci sion s should be made by e xpe ns no t learner s, and by some
le ar n«rs them selve s who feel tha t, if a te acher or in stitut ion a sks for the
learner 's opinio n, it i s a sign tha t they do not kno w what they are doing .
The di scu ssion relati ng to the ro le of the learner i n sy llabus desig n
il lu strate s the poi nt made in 1, that mo st deci sion s are underpinned by
value judgeme nts derived from the planner 's belief sy stem s. All syl labuse s,
indeed , a ll a spect s of the curriculum , includi ng methodology and learner
as se ssment a nd eva lua tion are underpinned by belief s about the na ture of
language and language lear ning .
� TAS K 1 8
What vie ws o n the nature of language a nd language learning do you
thin k underly the Munby vie w of need s-ba sed syl labus de sign a s thi s
ha s bee n de scribed above ?
The approach to syllabu s de sign promoted by Nlu nby ha s led , in some

in stance s, to syl labuse s wi th a n arro w focu s such as 'E ng li sh for Mo tor
Mechanic s' and 'Eng li sh for Biolog ica l Science '. The a ssumption behind
the de velopmen t of some such syllabuse s is that there are ce nain a spec ts of
language which are peculiar to the conte xt s in which i t i s u sed and the
purpo se s for which it i s u sed . For e xample , it is a ssumed that there are
certain structure s, fu nc tion s, topic s, voc abulary item s, co nceptua l mean
ing s, and so on that are peculiar to the world of the motor mechanic a nd
which are not found in 'general ' Eng li sh .
. It is al so as sumed that different area s of u se wi ll re quire di fferent
communication ski ll s from the learner , a nd that the se need to be
specifical ly taught for the area of u se in que stion .
� TASK 1 9
Do you have any reservation s about the se vie ws ?
For mo st peop le , the idea that a given la nguage is divided i nto lot s of
subordinate a nd discrete 'univer se s of di scour se ' or 'mini-language s' i s
unsati sfactory . It doe s not seem to be con sistent with their o wn experie nce
of language. Analysis of the language u sed in di fferent domai ns seems to
indicate that , apa n from ce nai n technical term s, lin guis tic eleme nt s are
remar kab ly simi lar. It is argued that , whate ver lear ner s' fina l communica
tive purpo se s are , they shou ld be taught tho se elemen ts that represent a
'common core ' of language .
l
It has also b een po int ed out that th egr eat major ity of l ea rn ers want 'gen eral
English ' rath er than Engl ish for th e so rts of sp ec ific pu rpos es indicat ed
abov e. How ever, th er e is controv ersy o ver just what it is wh ich constitut es
'g en eral Engl ish '.
� TASK 20
Study th e following quot e:
1£w e say that X sp eaks Ch in es e ... we do not m ean that X can only
giv e a l ect Ur e on en gin eering in Chin es e ... Rath er, wh en w esay that
som eon e can sp eak a languag e, w e mean that that p erson can sp eak
th e languag e in th e sorts of situations p eopl e commonly encount er.
That is, th ere ar e c erta in ev eryday si tuations in wh ich w e, as human
b eings liv ing in a physical and social world, a ren ec essarily invol ved.
We must all, fo r exampl e, obtain food and sh elt er, w e must find our
way about, and w e must establ ish r elationsh ips wi th oth er p eopl e.
Gen eral p ro fic iency, th en, ref ers to th e ab il ity to us e languag e in
th es e ev eryday, non-sp ec ial ist situat ions .
(Ingram 1 984: 1 0)
How convinc ing do you find th is d escription of 'g en eral ' languag e
pro fici ency ?
Th e d if ficulty h ere is in d ecid ing just what const itut es th e common,

everyday purpos es o f Engl ish. It is conc eivabl e that this 'g en eral '
compon ent ma y, in its elf, rep res ent s impl y anoth er d omain of us e for th e
s econd languag e l earn er. In fac t, res earch ers hav e d emonst rat ed that, for
both first and s econd languag e l earn ers, th e cont exts in which th ey ar e
call ed upon to us e languag e can hav e a ma rked eff ec t on th eir abil ity to
communicat e eff ect iv ely in that situation. For exampl e, c ertain ind ividuals,
who ar e quit e comp et ent at 'social ' or 'su rvival ' English, as d esc rib ed by
Ingram, ar e s eriously d isad vantag ed wh en th ey ha ve to us e Engl ish at
school. In fact, ev en childr en who ar e nat iv e sp eak ers som etim es ha ve
dif ficulty wh en th ey b eg in formal schooling. It has b een sugg est ed that this
is du e to th e unfam iliar us es to wh ich languag e is b ein gput. In oth er words,
di fficul ty is not so much at th e l ev el of gramma r and vocabulary but at th e
l evel o f discours e. ( S ee Widdowson (1983) for an ext end ed d iscussion on
th is asp ect of languag e.)
The d ebat e o ver th e�natur e of languag e has not b een h elp ed by a con fusion
b et ween th e natur e of th e languag e us ed in particula r communicati ve
cont exts, th e skills in vol ved in commun icating in th es e cont exts, and th e
m eans wh er eby th es e skills m ight b e ac qu ir ed. Consid er, as an exampl e, t he
stud ent who wants to l earn English in o rd er to study motor m echanics. It
m ig ht well b e that, apa rt f rom a f ew sp ec ial ist t erms, th e structur es,
functions, and g en eral not ions us ed by an instructo r in d esc ribing th e
constr uct ion and f unct ions o f a car burettor are bas ica lly der ived fro m t he
sa me co mmon stock as t hose used by so meone hav ing · a cas ua l
conversat ion w it h t he ir ne ig hbo ur. However, t his does not mean t hat
so meone w ho has deve loped sk ills in conduct ing a cas ua l conversat ion will
necessar ily be a ble to fo llo w t he unfa miliar d isco urse patterns and
r hetor ica l ro ut ines under ly ing, say, a lect ure on t he str uct ure and funct ion
o f t he car bure ttor. In add it ion, it does not necessar ily fo llo w t hat t he best
way to deve lop t he listen ing sk ills re q uired to study motor mec han ics is to
listen to repeated min i- lect ures on t he nat ure o fcar burettors and ot her suc h
top ics. It may we ll fo llow, but t his is not se lf-ev ident.
� TASK 2 1
In answer ing t he fo llo wing quest ions, try and just ify yo ur pos it io n
by stat ing w hy yo u t hink t he tasks are or are not e q uiva lent in ter ms
of t he sk ills t he learner w ill need to carry o ut t he tasks.
1 'If someo ne were a ble to g ive a lect ure on eng ineer ing in Chinese,
do yo u t hink t hey wo uld a lso be a ble to descr ibe sy mpto ms o f
illness to a doctor ?
2 If someone were a ble to descr ibe sy mpto ms o f illness to a doctor
in Chinese, do yo u t hink t hey wou ld a lso be a ble to g ive a lect ure
on eng ineer ing ?
3 Wou ld someone w ho is a ble to descr ibe sy mpto ms o f illness to a
doctor in Eng lis h a lso be a ble to work as a wa iter in an
Eng lis h-speak ing restaurant ?
4 Wo uld so meone w ho is capa ble o f work ing as a wa iter in an
Eng lis h-speak ing resta urant a lso be a ble to descr ibe sympto ms o f
illness to a doctor ?
Many teac hers wo uld agree w it h Ingra m t hat t here is suc h a t hing as
'genera l Eng lis h a bility' and t hat t his can be defined as t he a bility to carry
o ut co mmon ly occ urr ing rea l-wor ld tasks. If asked to make a list o f t hese
tas ks, t hey wo uld p ro bably list such things as ask ing for d irect ions, as king
for and prov id ing persona l deta ils, descr ibing sy mpto ms o f illness to a
doctor, understand ing t he rad io, read ing newspapers, wr it ing notes to a
teac her, and so on. In fact t hey cou ld pro ba bly generate end less lists o f
'co mmon everyday tasks '. Now, com mon sense wou ld suggest t hat it is not
necessary for eac h and ever y task to be taug ht in t he c lassroom. In fact, it
wo uld be an imposs ibility. W hat t he sy lla bus des igner and t he teac her must
dec ide is w hic h c lassroo m tasks w ill ens ure ma ximum transfer of learn ing
to tasks w hic h have not been taug ht. On t he one hand, we can make a
random se lect ion o f rea l-wor ld tasks and teac h t hese in t he hope t hat t he
re levant bits of language 'st ick ' as it were, and t hat transfer to ot her tasks
w ill occ ur . On t he ot her hand, we can se lect tasks w hic h may bear litt le
rese mblance to rea l-wor ld tasks but w hic h are ass umed to s tim ulate
interna l psyc ho log ica l learn ing processes. The trad it iona l c lassroo m
24 Defining s),llabus design
substitution drill would be an example of a classroom task which is

justified, not because the learner might want to engage in drills outside the
classroom , but because it is assumed to result in learning which can be
transferred to real-world communicative language use. (We shall return to
this imponant issu� later in the section. )
Widdowson has written extensively o n the distinction between general
purpose English (GPE) and English for specific purposes. He suggests that
ESP has a training function which is aimed at the development of 'restricted
competence', whereas GPE fulfils an educative functiqn and is aimed at the
development of 'general ·capacity'.
. . . ESP is essentially a training operation which seeks to provide

learners with a restricted competence to enable them to cope with
certain clearly defined tasks. These tasks constitute the specific
purposes which the ESP course is designed to meet. The course,
therefore, makes direct reference to eventual aims. GPE, on the other
hand, is essentially an educational operation which seeks to provide
learners with a general capacity to enable them to cope with
undefined eventualities in the future. Here, since there are no definite
aims which can determine course content, there has to be recourse to
intervening objectives formulated by pedagogic theory . . . . in GPE,
the actual use of language occasioned by communicative necessity is
commonly a vague and distant prospect on the other side of formal
assessment.
(\Viddowson 1 983 : 6)
� TASK 22
How convincing do you find this line of argument ?
Do you think it necessarily follows that teaching for a specific
purpose will lead to a restricted competence?
2.4 Learning goals

An important step in the development of a language programme is
identifying learning goals. These will provide a rationale for the course or
programme. Learning goals may be derived from a number of sources,
including task analysis, learner data, ministry of education specifications,
and so on. The nature of the courses to be derived from syllabus specifications,
the length of the courses, and many other factors will determine what is
feasible and appropriate to set as goals, and will also largely dictate the
types of communicative and pedagogic objectives which are both
appropriate and feasible for the educational system in question.
� TAS K 23
Study the following goal statements:
'To encourage learners to develop confidence in using the target
language. '
'To develop skills in monitoring performance in spoken language:
'To establish and maintain relationships through exchanging
information, ideas, opinions, attitudes, feelings, experiences, and
plans.'
'To develop the ability to study, in English, at university.'
In what ways are these statements similar? In what ways are they
different?
Based on these statements, how would you define the term 'goal' ?
Although they could all be applied to language courses of various sorts, the
above statements differ in their focus. They include an affective goal, a
learning goal, a communicative goal, and a cognitive goal.
As it is used here, the term 'goal' refers to the general purposes for which a
l anguage programme is being taught or learned. While \ve shall take into
consideration a variety of goal types, the focus will be principally on
communicative goals. These are defined as the general communicative
activities in which the learners will engage (or, in the case of foreign
language learning, could potentially engage) in real-world target language
use.
If some form of needs analysis has been carried out to establish the
purposes and needs of a given group of learners or of an educational
system, a necessary second step is to translate them into instructional goals.
This requires judgement, particularly to ensure that the goals are
appropriate, not only to learner needs, but also to the constraints of the
educational institution or system, and the length and scope of programme
based on the syllabus. Thus, a syllabus designed for 900 hours of secondary
school instruction will be able to incorporate more goals than a ISO-hour
course for immigrants or refugees. By examining the goal statements of a
l anguage programme, one can usually identify the value judgements and
belief systems from which they are derived. It is also usually possible to
identify whether the syllabus designer has taken as his or her point of
departure the language, the learner, or the learning process.
2.5 Conclusion
In looking at starting points in syllabus design, I have suggested that the
starting point can be an analysis of the langua ge, information about the
learner, beliefs about the learning process itself, or a combination of these.
I
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L
The key question in relation to a linguistic perspective is: ' What linguistic
elements should be taught?' From a learner perspective, the key question is:
'\\'hat does the learner want to do with the language?' Finally, from a
learning perspective, the key question is: '\Xlhat activities will stimulate or
promote language acquisition ?'
These perspectives are not mutually exclusive. Rather, they represent areas
of relative emphasis, and a syllabus designer will usually incorporate
insights from all three perspectives.
It has been suggested that there is a major conceptual distinction between
product-oriented and process-oriented syllabuses, and that a given �yllabus
can be located somewhere along a process/product continuum. In 3 and 4
we shall consider . product-oriented and process-oriented syllabuses in
detail.
3 Product-oriented syllabuses
3 . 1 Introduction
In 2, I drew a distinction between product-oriented and process-oriented
syllabuses. We saw that product syllabuses are those in which the focus is
on the knowledge and skills which learners should gain as a result of
instruction, while process syllabuses are those which focus on the learning
experiences themselves.
In 3, we shall look at syllabus proposals which are specified in terms of the

end products of a course of instruction. As we shall see, these may be
realized in a variety of ways, for example as lists of grammatical items,
vocabulary items, language functions, or experiential content. .
3 .2 Analytic and synthetic syllabus planning

There are many different ways in which syllabus proposals of one sort or
another might be analysed. One dimension of analysis which has been the
subject of a great deal of discussion and comment is the synthetidanalytic
dimension.
It was Wilkins (1976) who first drew attention to the distinction between
synthetic and analytic syllabuses. He described the synthetic approach in
the following terms :
A synthetic language teaching strategy is one in which the different

parts of language are taught separately and step by step · so that
acquisition is a process of gradual accumulation of parts until the
whole structure of language has been built up.
(Wilkins 1 976: 2)
� TASK 24
In his work, Wilkins assumes that grammatical criteria will be used
to break the global language down into discrete units. The items will
be graded according to the grammatical complexity of the items,
their frequency of occurrence, their contrastive difficulty in relation
to the learner's first language, situational need, and pedagogic
convenience .
. '
\
Do you think that grammar is the only criterion for selecting and
grading content in a $ynthetic syllabus ?
If not, what other criteria can you suggest for selecting and grading
content ? .
Initially, people tended to equate synthetic approaches with grammatical

syllabuses. Howe\' er some applied linguists feel that the term 'synthetic'
need not necessarily be restricted to grammatical syllabuses, but may be
applied to any syllabus in which the 'content is product-oriented; that is,
,,·hich is specified as discrete lists of grammatical items and in which the
classroom focus is on the tea�hing of these items as separate and discrete
(see, fc;>r example, Widdowson 1 979). (Note that in this book, the terms
'grammatical' and 'structural' are used interchangeably.)
In contrast with synthetic syllabuses, analytic syllabuses:
are organised in terms of the purposes for which people are learning
language and the kinds of language performance that are necessary
to meet those purposes.
(\,,\lilkins 1 9 75: 1 3 )
I n a n analytic syllabus, learners are presented with chunks of language

which may include structures of varying degrees of difficulty. The starting
point for syllabus design is not the grammatical system of the l anguage, but
the communicative purposes for which language is used.
It is theoretically possible to conceive of language courses as being solely
synthetic or solely analytic. However, it is likely that, in practice, courses
will be typified as more-or-Iess synthetic or more-or-Iess analytic according
to the prominence given to discrete elements in the selection and grading of
input.
3 .3 Grammatical syllabuses
The most common syllabus type was, and probably still is, one in which
syllabus input is selected and graded according to grammatical notions o f
simplicity a n d complexity. Later i n 3 we shall see that grammatical
complexity does not necessarily equate with learning difficulty. In other
words, what is grammatically complex will not necessarily be that which is
difficult to learn, and that which is grammatically simple will not
necessarily be that which is easy to learn.
The most rigid grammatical syllabuses supposedly introduced one item at a
time and required mastery of that item before moving on to the next.
According to l\1cDonough :
The transition from lesson to lesson is intended to enable material in

one lesson to prepare the ground for the next; and conversely for
material in the next to appear to grow out of the previous one.
(AJcDonough 1 981 : 2 1 )
.�
Product-oriented syllabuses 29
McDonough illustrates this point as follows :
Lesson (I) has drilled copula and adjective combinations:

She is happy
Lesson (m) introduces the -ing form :
She is driving a car
Lesson (n) reintroduces existential there:
There is a man standing near the car
Lesson (0) distinguishes between mass and count nouns :
There .are some oranges and some cheese on the
table
Lesson (p) introduces the verbs like and want:
I like oranges but not cheese
Lesson (q) reintroduces don't previously known in negative
imperatives :
I don't like cheese
Lesson (r) introduces verbs with stative meaning:
I don't come from Newcastle
Lesson (s) introduces adverbs of habit and thus the present
simple tense; or rather, pr:esent tense in simple
aspect:
I usually come at six o 'clock
(McDonough 1 98 1 : 2 1 )
� TASK 2.5
As we have already noted, all syllabus outlines or proposals are
underpinned by assumptions about the nature of language and
language learning.
What assumptions about language and language learning do you
imagine might underpin, a grammatical syllabus of the type
described above ?
The assumption behind most grammatical syllabuses seems to be that

language consists of a finite set of rules which can be combined in various
ways to make meaning. It is further assumed that these rules can be learned
one by one, in an additive fashion, each item being mastered on its own
before being incorporated into the learner's pre-existing stock of know
ledge . . The principal purpose of language teaching is to help learners to
'crack the code'. Rutherford ( 1 9 8 7) calls this the 'accumulated entities'
view of language learning.
Assumptions are also made about language transfer. It is generally assumed

that once learners have internalized the formal aspects of a given piece of
language, they will automatically be able to use it in genuine communica

tion outside the classroom.
One of the difficulties in designing grammatical 'chains' in which discrete
grammatical items are linked is that the links can be rather tenuous. It is
also difficult to isolate and present one discrete item at a time, panicularly if
one wants to provide some sort of context for the language. In addition,
evidence from second language acquisition (SLA) research suggests that
learning does not occur in this simple additive fashion.
The dilemma for the syllabus designer who is attempting to follow some
son of structural progression in sequencing input is this: How does one
control input and yet at the same time provide language samples for the
learner to work on which bear some semblance at least to the sort of
language the learner will encounter outside the classroom ?
This problem might be addressed in a number of ways; One solution would
be to abandon any attempt at structUral grading. Another might be to use
the list of graded structures, not to determine the language to which
learners are exposed, but to determine the items which will be the
pedagogic focus in class. In other words, learners would be exposed to
naturalistic samples of text which were only roughly graded, and which
provided a richer context, but they would only be expected formally to
master those items which had been isolated, graded, and set out in the
syllabus. Another alternative, and one we shall look at in detail in 4, is to
focus on what learners are expected to do with the language (i.e. learning
tasks), rather than on the language itself. With this alternative, it is the tasks
rather than the language which are graded.
� TASK 26
At this stage, you might like t o consider the different suggestions
above and rank them from most to least satisfactory.
Can you think of any other ways of addressing the problem of
controlling input while at the same time using ' naturalistic'
language?
3 .4 Criticizing grammatical syllabuses

During the 1 9 70s, the use of structural syllabuses came under increasing
criticism. In this section we shall look at some of these criticisms.
One early criticism was that structurally-graded syllabuses misrepresented
the nature of that complex phenomenon, language. They did so in tending
to focus on only one aspect of language, that is, formal grammar. In reality,
there is more than one aspect to language as we shall see in 3.5 .
... TASK 27
�A�ny s!.r!!!:!!ually-graded coursebooks begin with the structure:
'demonstrative + be + NP' as exemplified by the statement: 'This is
a book'.
How many different communicative purposes can you think of for
this statement?
The most obvious purpose is that of identifying. This function is much

more likely to occur in classrooms (including language classrooms), where
learning the names of new entities is an important part of the curriculum,
than in the real world. Other functions might include contradicting ('It may
look like a video, but in fact it's a book'), expressing surprise ('This is a
book ? - Looks like a video to me !'), or threatening ('This is a book, and
your name will go in it if you don't behave !'). The list could go on.
Matters are complicated, not only by the fact that language fulfils a variety
of communicative functions, but that there is no one-to-one relationship
between form and function. Not only can a single form realize more than.
one function, but a given function can be realized by more than one form
(see Cook: Discourse published in this Scheme).
... TASK 2 8
Can you think of examples of a single structure fulfilling several
functions and a single function being fulfilled by several structures?
In Tables 2 and 3, you will find examples of the lack of fit bet\veen form and
function. In Table 2 a single form realizes a variety of functions, whereas in
Table 3 a single function is being realized by a variety of forms.
Form Functions Gloss
Directions That's the way to the

scenic view.
The cliffs are over there Warning Be careful of the cliffs!
Suggestion How about a walk along
the cliff top?
Table 2
Function Forms
Request May I have a drink, please?

Thirsty weather, this.
Looks like an interesting wine.
I'm dying tor a drink.
Is that a bottle of champagne?
Table 3
� TAS K 29
What are the implications for syllabus design of this lack of any
predetermined relationship between form and function ?
The wider view of language, focusing not only on linguistic structures, but
also on the communicative purposes for which language is used, developed
from insights provided by philosophers of language, sociolinguists, and
from other language-related disciplines. The immediate reaction to such a
wider view is to contemplate ways of incorporating it into the language
syllabus. Unfonunately, the form/function disjunction makes the process
of syllabus design much more complex than it would have been had there
been a neat one-to-one form/function relationship. We shall look at the
practical difficulties of incorporating formal and functional elements into
syllabus design in Section Two.
In recent years, criticism of grammatical syllabuses has come from
researchers in the field of SLA. Some of the questions addressed by SLA
researchers of interest to syllabus planners are as follows:
Why do learners at a particular stage fail to learn certain grammatical items
which have been explicitly (and often repeatedly) taught?
Can syllabus items be sequenced to make them easier to learn ?
\VIlat learning activities appear to promote acquisition ?
Is there any evidence that teaching does, in fact, result in learning?
� TAS K 3 0
Two imponant SLA studies carried out during the 1 9 70s were those
by Dulay and Bun ( 1 973 ) and Bailey, Madden, and Krashen ( 1 974).
These studies showed that certain grammatical items seemed to be
acquired in a particular order, that this order was similar for
children and adults, and for learners from different language
backgrounds. It also appeared that formal instruction had no effect
on the order of acquisition.
What do you think are the implications for syllabus design of the
notion that structures are acquired in a predetermined order?
One SLA researcher has this to say on the' implications of the research for
syllabus design:
Assuming the existence of stages of development, a logical step for

syllabus design might seem to be writing these stages directly into a
new syllabus. [i.e. ordering the syllabus in the same order in which
items occur in the learners' repertoire.] On the other hand, if learners
p ass through developmental stages in a fixed sequence, then it might
seem equally lo.gical to disregard the question of how the syllabus is
written - at least as regards structure - since learners will organise

this aspect of learning for themselves.
(johnston 1 985: 29)
In other words, assuming that learners do have their own 'inbuilt syllabus',
we could argue that the teaching syllabus should reflect this order. On the
other hand, we could simply forget about grading the syllabus structurally,
because this aspect of language development will automatically be taken
care of.
johnston argues that decisions on whether syllabuses should be sequenced
or not can only be settled one way or another by more research into the
relative effects of structurally-graded and non-structurally-graded sylla
buses. The difficulty for syllabus planners is that they often have to make
decisions before the relevant research has been carried out.
Research by Pienemann and Johnston (reported in Pienemann 1 9 8 5 ;
Johnston 1 985; and Pienemann and Johnston 1 9 87) has led them to
conclude that the acquisition of grammatical structures will be determined
by how difficult those items are to process psycholinguistically, rather than
how simple or complex they are grammatically. They illustrate this with
the third person 's' morpheme. Grammatically, this is a fairly straightfor
ward item, which can be characterized as follows: In simple present third
person singular statements, add 's/es' to the end of the verb. For example, 'I
sometimes go to Spain for my holidays' becomes 'He sometimes goes to
Spain for his holidays'. However, this simple grammatical rule is
notoriously difficult for learners to master. Pienemann and Johnston
suggest that the difficulty is created for the learner by the fact that the form
of the verb is governed or determined by the person and number of the
noun or noun phrase in the subject position. In effect, the learner has to
hold this person and number in working memory and then produce the
appropriate form of the verb. Thus the difficulty is created, not by the
grammar, but by the constraints of short-term memory.
Pienemann and Johnston use their speech-processing theory to explain the
order in which grammatical items are acquired. They suggest that
structures will be acquired in the following stages:
Stage 1
Single words and formulae.
Stage 2
Canonical or 'standard' word order, e.g. for English, Subject + Verb +
O bject.
Stage 3
Initialization/finalization. Final elements can be moved into initial position
or vice versa, e.g. words such as adverbs can be added to the beginning or
.
end of clauses.
i
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L
Stage 4
Semi-internal permutation. Internal elements can be moved to initial or
final position, e.g. words can be moved from inside the clause to the
beginning or end of the clause.
Stage 5
Fully internal permutation. Items can be moved about within a clause.
In Section Two, we shall look at the implications of this hypothesis for
syllabus design, and compare the ordering of grammatical elements
proposed by Pienemann and Johnston with those of some recently
published coursebooks.
There are a number of complications which arise when we attempt to apply
SLA research to syllabus design. In the first place, much of this work
assumes that we shall start out with groups of learners who are at the same
stage of grammatical proficiency, and that learners i n a given group will all
progress uniformly. Unfortunately these assumptions are not borne out in
practice. Another problem which occurs in second language contexts is
that learners need to use certain language structures (such as wh
questions) almost immediately. These need to be taught as memorized
'formulae' even though they are well beyond the learner's current stage of
developme.nt. Finally, learners may need exposure to grammatical items in
different contexts and over an extended period of time rather than simply
at the point when the items become 'learnable'.
In addition . to these arguments, there are the general arguments against
grammatical grading of content (whether this grading be based on
traditional criteria or more recent criteria stemming from SLA research) ,
o n the grounds that grammatical grading distorts the language available to
the learner. It could well interfere with language acquisition which is more
a global than a linear process, different aspects of grammar developing
simultaneously rather than one structure being mastered at a time. The
arguments against grammatically structured syllabuses are summarized by
Long (198 7).
At this point in time, then, the direct application of SLA research to syllabus
design is rather limited. While the research has shown that the learner's
syllabus and the syllabus of the textbook or language programme may not
be in harmony, in order to determine its applicability we must wait until the
results of follow-up research become available.
In a recent excellent analysis of the status of grammar in the curriculum,
Rutherford (1987) suggests that the abandonment of grammar as the
pivotal element in the syllabus may be premature. He argues that:
The critical need for making these [target language] data available to
the learner therefore places a special burden upon the language
curriculum and, by extension, the language syllabus.
(Rutherford 1 987: 1 50)
Product-oriented s)'lIabtt�.;.�
In Rutherford's vie\v, the lea r:- ::r needs direct contact with tr: �' �.1 r g::
language. We know that it is .:-:;"�ther necessary nor possible t(' :-- :".:w fde
learners with exposure to all :-.::-�et language constructions, a n� ::'.I t .1
major task for syllabus desif:::rs is to identify those aspec:� :· i the ..
grammatical system from whi c:: :t".lrners can generate the most ;:-·,,'\\· e r ru i
generalizations. These structur� :11USt be made available to the k.: :-:1e r .li:
the appropriate time (a proble rr.. ;i\Oen the fact that learners \yill u�:.:.lih- be
at different stages of 'readir.::�s'\ and using appropriate rt :.h!� gi� .. ..
instruments. In effect, what he :s �lrguing for is a vie\v of grat��r:l'j, r .IS ...
process rather than grammar as ?:-odu ct. In other words, grammar :�.lrn in g
should not be seen as the memo:-::;lcio n of sets of grammatical iten� �. :" u t J.�
the raising to consciousness in :�e learner of the ways gramm�t : �..� l � n d
discourse processes operate an� interact in the target language.
At this point, the view of gra m:�l�1r �lS process may seem rather .1t"ls t ract.
However, we shall look at app li"".ltions of Rutherford's grammar-\,'rie nte d
syllabus in Section Two.
3 . 5 Functional-noti onal syllabuses

The broader view of language r nw ide d by philosophers of langu..l ge a nd
sociolinguists was take n up during the 1 970s by those involved in l.tnguage
teaching, and began to be refle't�J in syllabuses and courseboo k s. Th is is
not to say that functional and situational aspects of language usc..' did not
exist in earlier syllabuses, but th.t[ for the first time there was a huge-s cale
attempt to incorporate this bro .lder view of language systemati�·.ll 1 y into
the language syllabus. In parti cubr, it gave rise to what became know n as
functional-notiona� syllabus de!\ ign.
Many teachers, on first encount".'ring the terms �function' and �noti on' find
them confusing. In general, fun'tions may be described as the conull unica-
.rive purpose� for which we use 1.1Oguage, while notions are the cOI4;ep ru aT
.,!!!,eanings (objects, entities, stat...'s of affairs, logical relationship s .. an d;;
on) expressed through langua�� .
� TASK 3 1
To check your understa nJing of the distinction between fu nctions
and notions, which items in the following lists are functio ns and
which are notions ?
identifying cause denying
time enquiring ownership
agreeing greeting duration
direction frequency suggesting
offering advising size
equality apologizing warning
approving existence persuading
Finocchiaro and Brumfit suggest that functional-notionalism has the

'tremeudous merit' of placing the students and their communicative
purposes at the centre of the curriculum. They list the following benefits o f
adopting a functional-notional orientation:
1 It sets realistic learning tasks.

2 It provides for the teaching of everyday, real-world language.
3 It leads us to emphasise receptive (listening/reading) activities
before rushing learners into premature performance.
4 It recognises that the speaker must have a real purpose for
speaking, and something to talk about.
5 Communication will be intrinsically motivating because it
expresses basic communicative functions.
6 It enables teachers to exploit sound psycholinguistic, sociolin
guistic, linguistic and educational principles.
7 It can develop naturally from existing teaching methodology.
8 It enables a spiral curriculum to be used which reintroduces
-grammatical, topical and cultural material.
9 It allows for the development of flexible, modular courses.
1 0 It provides for the widespread promotion of foreign language
courses.
(Finocchiaro and Brumfit 1 983: 1 7 )
� TASK 3 2
From your perspective, which three o f the above reasons might
prompt- you to adopt a functional-notional approach as it has been
described?
3 . 6 Criticizing functional-notional syllabuses

As we have already seen, the two central issues for the syllabus designer
concern " the selection of items for the syllabus and the grading and
sequencing of these items.
� TAS K 33
What d o you see a s some o f the advantages o f adopting a
functional-notional rather than a grammatical approa�h to syllabus
design ?
What difficulties do you envisage for a syllabus designer attempting
to address the issues of grading and sequencing from a functional
notional perspecthoe?
Syllabus planners find that when turning from structurally-based syllabus

design· to the design of syllabuses based on functional-notional criteria, the
selection and grading of items become much more complex. Decisions

about which items to include in the syllabus can no longer be made on
linguistic grou nds alone, and designers need to include items which they
imagine will help learners to carry out the communicative purposes for
which they need the language. In order to determine what these purposes
are, in addition to linguistic analyses of various sorts, it is also often
necessary to carry out some form of needs analysis. This is particularly so
when developing syllabuses for courses with a specific focus.
In developing functional-notional syllabuses, designers also need to look
beyond linguistic notions of simplicity and difficulty when it comes to
grading items. Invoking grammatical criteria, it is possible to say that
simple Subject + Verb + Object (SVO) structures should be taught before
more complex clausal structures involving such things as relativization.
However, the grading of functional items becomes . much more complex
because there are few apparent objective means for deciding that one
functional item, for instance, 'apologizing' is either simpler or more
difficult than . another item such as 'requesting'. Situational, contextual,
and extra-lingu istic factors which are used to a certain extent in the
selection and grading of content for grammatical syllabuses become much
more prominent and tend to complicate the issues of simplicity and
difficul ty.
Many of the criticisms which were made of grammatical syllabuses have
also been made of functional-"notional syllabuses. Widdowson pointed out
as long ago as 1 979 that inventories of functions and notions do not
necessarily reflect the way languages are learned any more than do
inventories of grammatical points and lexical items. He also claims that
dividing language into discrete units of whatever type misrepresents the
nature of language as communication.
� TASK 3 4
Is this a reasonable criticism o f functional-notional principles as
these have been described by Finocchiaro and Brumfit ( 1 983), or
does the criticism relate more to the way in which the principles have
been realized in practice?
3 .7 ' Analytic syllabuses

As we have already seen, syllabuses can be characterized as being either
synthetic or analytic. In this book, we shall follow \Viddowson's lead and
consider functional-notional syllabuses as basically synthetic. When such
syllabuses began to appear, they looked very similar to the structural
syllabuses they \vere meant to replace. In other words, while the units in
such books generally have functional labels, the content itself and the types
·
of exercises which learners were expected to underta �e were very similar to
\
!
i
I
those they replaced. Instead of learning about 'the simple past' learners
might now be required to 'talk about the things you did last weekend'.
Analytic syllabuses, in which learners are exposed to language \vhich has
not been linguistically graded, are more likely to result from the use of
experiential rather than linguistic content as the starting point for syllabus
design. Such content might be defined in terms of situations, topics, themes
or, following a suggestion advanced by Widdowson ( 1 978 ; 1 979), other
academic or school subjects. The stimulus for content-based syllabuses is
the notion that, unlike science, history, or mathematics, -language is not a
subject in its own right, but merely a vehicle for communicating about
something else.
The use of content from other subject areas has found its widest application
in courses and materials for ESP. However, this adoption has had its
difficulties. Very often the learner has extensive knowledge in the content
domain and is frustrated by what is considered a trivialization of that
content. In addition, as Hutchinson and Waters note:
In the content-based model . . . the student is frustrated because he is

denied the language knowledge that enables him to do the tasks set.
Despite appearances to the contrary, the content-based model is no
more creative than the language-based model. Although com
municative competence encompasses more than just linguistic
competence, linguistic competence is nevertheless an essential
element in communicative competence.
(Hutchinson and W'aters 1 983: 1 01 )
Dissatisfaction with the content-based approach, as it was originally

conceived, prompted some applied linguists to focus on language as a
process rather than as a product. Hutchinson and Waters developed a
model combining the four elements of content, input, language, and task.
The task component is central, and from it are derived relevant language
and content.
The LANGUAGE and CO:N1E1\TT focused on are drawn from the

INPUT, and are selected primarily according to what the learner will
need in order to do the TASK. In other words, in the TASK the
linguistic knowledge arid topic knowledge that are b uilt up through
the unit are applied to the solving of a communication problem.
(op. cit.: 1 02)
In 4.3, we shall examine in greater detail task-based syllabus proposals.
� TASK 35
What assumptions about the nature of language learning are likely
to be held by someone adhering to an analytic approach, in which
learners are confronted with language which has not been linguisti
cally graded?
One major assumption is that language can be learned holistically, in

'chunks' as it were. This contrasts with synthetic syllabuses in which it is
assumed that we can only learn one thing at a time; and that this learning is
additive and linear.
While analytic approaches take some non-linguistic base as their point of
departure, it should not be assumed that analytic syllabus designers never
use grammatical criteria in selecting and grading content. While some may
avoid the use of grammatical criteria, others incorporate grammatical
items into their syllabus as a second-order activity after the topics,
situations, and so on have been selected.
3 . 8 Conclusion
In 3 we have looked at approaches to syllabus design which focus on the
end product or outcomes of learning. In 4, we shall look at proposals in
which learning processes are incorporated into the syllabus design. We
shall see that, once consideration of learning processes is built into the
syllabus, the traditional distinction between syllabus design and methodol
ogy becomes difficult to sustain.
!
4 Process-oriented syllabuses
4 . 1 Introduction
In 3 we looked at syllabuses in which the focus was on the grammatical,
functional, and notional building blocks out of which courses of various
types can be constructed. Initially, it seemed that functional-notional
principles would result in syllabuses which were radically different from
those based on grammatical principles. However, in practice, the new
syllabuses were rather similar to those they were intended to replace. In
both syllabuses, the focus tended to be on the end products or .results of the
teachingllearning process.
We saw that syllabuses in which the selection and grading of items was
carried out on .a grammatical basis fell into disfavour because they failed
adequately to reflect changing views on the nature of language. In addition,
there was sometimes a mismatch between what was taught and what was
learned. Some SLA researchers have claimed that this mismatch is likely to
occur when the grading of syllabus input is carried out according to
grammatical rather than psychplinguistic principles, while others suggest
that the very act of linguistically selecting and grading input will lead to
distortion.
� TASK 3 6
What alternatives do you see to the sorts of syllabuses dealt with so
far ?
In recent years, some applied linguists have shifted focus from the
outcomes of instruction, i.e. the knowledge and skills to be gained by the
learner, to the processes through which knowledge and skills might be
gained. In the rest of 4 we shall look at some of the proposals which have
been made.. for process syllabuses of various SOrts.
This shift in emphasis has been dramatized by the tendency to separate
product-oriented syllabus design issues from process-oriented ones. This
has been most noticeable within the so-called 'British' school of applied
linguistics, in which the focus tends to be either on process or product, but
not on both. (This is despite the efforts of people ' such as Widdowson,
Candlin, and Breen to present a more balanced view. For a useful summary
of the range of positions which can be adopted on syllabus design, see the
papers in the collection by Brumfit ( 1 984 a } )
.
Process-oriented syllabuses 41
In 1, I argued that the planning, implementation, and evaluation of the

curriculum .should be seen as an integrated set of processes. If such a view is
adopted, it becomes unnecessary to think in terms either of a product
oriented or a process-oriented approach. While relative emphases will vary
depending on the context, environment, and purposes for which language
teaching is taking place, both outcomes and processes will be specified.
Among other things, it was the realization that specifying functions and
notions would not in itself lead to the development of communicative
language skills, which prompted the development of process-oriented
views. Widdowson suggests that a basic problem has been the confusion 6f
means and ends.
It is not that the structUral syllabus denies the eventual communica

tive purpose of learning but that it implies a different means to its
achievement. It is often suggested that the designers of such
syllabuses supposed that the language was of its nature entirely
. reducible to the elements of formal grammar and failed to recognise
the reality of use. But this is a misrepresentation. Such syllabuses
were proposed as a means towards achieving language performance
through the skills of listening, speaking, readi!1g and writing. That is
to say, they were directed towards a communicative goal and were
intended, no less than the FIN syllabus as a preparation for use. The
difference lies in the conception of the means to this end. StructUral
syllabuses are designed on the assumption that it is the internalisa
tion of grammar coupled with the exercise of linguistic skills in
motor-perceptual manipulation (usage) which affords the most
effective preparation for the reality of communicative encounters
(use) .
(Widdowson 1 987: 68)
Widdowson's argument here parallels the discussion in 2 on the nature of

'general English' and its implications for the syllabus. There it was pointed
out that classroom tasks could be justified, either because they replicated
the sorts of tasks that learners would need to carry out in the real world, or
because they stimulated internal learning processes. (There are tasks which
could do both, of course.) Widdowson argues that pedagogic tasks (i.e.
those which would not be carried out in the real world) can be thought of as
an investment to be drawn on to meet unpredictable co �municative needs.
� TASK 3 7
What assumptions about the nature o f language learning can you
discern in the above quote from Widdowson ?
What are some of the implications of these assumptions for syllabus
design ?
In 4.2 we shall look at some of the ways in which these ideas have made
their appearance as proposals for 'procedural' or 'process' syllabuses. In
4.3 we shall look at proposals for 'task-based' syllabuses.
4.2 Procedural syllabuses

Despite some differences in practice, the principles underlying procedural
and task-based syllabuses are very similar. In fact, they are seen as
synonymous by Richards, Platt, and Weber ( 1 985), who describe them
both as follows:
.' . . a syllabus which is organised around tasks, rather than in terms

of grammar or vocabulary. For example the syllabus may suggest a
variety of different kinds of tasks which the learners are expected to
carry out in the language, such as using the telephone to obtain
information; drawing maps based on oral instructions; performing
actions based on commands given in the target language; giving
orders and instructions to others, etc. It has been argued that this is a
more effective way of learning a language since it provides a purpose
for the use and learning of a language other than simply learning
language items for their own sake.
(Richards, Platt, and Weber 1 985: 289)
Both task-based and procedural syllabuses share a concern with the

classroom processes which stimulate learning. They therefore differ from .
syllabuses in which the focus is on the linguistic items that students will
learn or the communicative skills that they will be able to display as a result
of instruction. In both approaches, the syllabus consists, not of a list of
items determined through some form of linguistic analysis, nor of a
description of what learners will be able to do at the end of a course of
study, but of the specification af the tasks and activities that learners will
engage in in class.
� TASK 3 8
Which of the following planning tasks are likely to be most
important to a procedural or task-based syllabus designer?
- needs analysis
- specification of real-world learning goals
- specification of linguistic content
- specification of topics and themes
- specification of performance objectives
- specification of learning tasks and activities
One particular proposal which has been widely promoted is the 'Bangalore
Project' of which N. S. Prabhu was the principal architect. Until recently,
there was relatively little information on this project, but this has changed
with the pu�lication of Prabhu's Second Language Pedagogy.
Attempts to systematize inputs to the learner through a linguistically

organized syllabu�, or to maximize the practice of particular parts of
language structure through activities deliberately planned for that
purpose were regarded as being unhelpful to the development of
grammatical competence and detrimental to the desired preoccupa
tion with meaning in the classroom . . . it was decided that teaching
should consequently be concerned with creating conditions for
coping with meaning in the classroom, to the exclusion of any
deliberate regulation of the development of grammatical compe
tence or a mere simulation of language behaviour.
(Prabhu 1 987: 1 -2)
. . . the issue was thus one of the nature of grammatical knowledge to

be developed: if the desired form of knowledge was such that it
could operate subconsciously, it was best for it to develop
subconsciously as well.
(op. cit.: 1 4-1 5)
. . . while the conscious mind is working out some of the

meaning-content, a subconscious part of the mind perceives,
abstracts, or acquires (or recreates, as a cognitive structure) some of
the linguistic structuring embodied in those entities, as a step in the
development of an internal system of rules.
(op. cit.: 59-60)
� TASK 3 9
What assumptions about the nature of language learning are
revealed by these extracts ?
To what extent does your own experience lead you to agree or
disagree with these assumptions ?
(For a different perspective, you might like to read Breen ( 1 987), and
Somerville-Ryan (1987), who emphasize the role of the learner in process
syllabus design. It is also worth reading Rutherford ( 1987) for a very
different view of grammar-learning as process.)
Prabhll provides the following three task 'types' which were used in the
project.
1 Information-gap activity, which involves a transfer of given

information from one person to another - or from one form or
another, or from one place to another - generally calling for the
decoding or encoding of information from or into language.
44 Defin Ing syllabus design
2 R easoning-gap actIVIt)', which involves deriving some new

i nformation' from given information through processes of infer
ence, deduction, practical reasoning, or a perception of rela-
tionships or patterns. I
I
3 Opinion-gap activit)', which involves identifying and articulating
a personal preference, feeling, or attitude in response to a given
situation.
(op. cit.: 4 6-7)
� TAS K 40
During the course of the proje�t, teachers came to prefer reasoning
gap activities over the other two types.
Can you suggest why this might have been so ?
What would be the major differences between a procedural syllabus
and a traditional grammatical syllabus?
One possible criticism of the Bangalore Project is that no guidance is

provided on the selection of problems and tasks, nor how these might relate
to the real-world language needs of the learners. In other words, the focus is
exclusively on learning processes and there is little or no anempt to relate
these processes to outcomes.
� TAS K 4 1
D o you think that this i s a reasonable criticism ?
How important is it for a syllabus to specify both learning processes
and outcomes ?
Can you think of any teaching contexts in which it might be less
important than others to specify outcomes ?
4 .3 Task-based syllabuses
We shall now look at some other proposals for the use of tasks as the point
of departure in syllabus design. The selection of 'task' as a basic building
block h as been justified on several grounds, but most particularly for
pedagogic and psycholinguistic reasons. Long and Crookes ( 1 9 8 6) cite,
general educational literature which suggests that tasks are a more salient
unit of planning for teachers than objectives; Candlin ( 1 987) provides a
pedagogic rationale, while Long ( 1 985) looks to SLA research (although,
as we saw i n 3 , SLA research can be invoked to support contrary views on
syllabus design).
� TASK 42
How " do ·you"-think the term 'task' might be defined by language
syllabus designers ?
Despite its rather recent appearance on the syllabus scene, 'task-based'

covers " several divergent approaches. Two recent definitions of 'task' are
provided below.
. . . a piece of work undertaken for oneself or for others, freely or for

some reward. Thus, examples of tasks include painting a fence,
dressing a child, filling out a form, buying a p air of shoes, making an
airline reservation . . . In other words, by "task" is meant the
hundred and one things people do in everyday life.
(Long 1 985: 89)
. . . an activity or action which is carried out as the result of

processing or understanding language (i.e. as a response) . For
example, drawing a map while listening to an instruction and
performing a command . . . A task usually requires the teacher to
specify what will be regarded as successful completion of the task.
(Richards, Platt, and Weber 1 985: 289)
� TASK 43
A distinction which is not always made in the literature is between
real-world tasks (i.e. those tasks that the learner might be called
upon to perform in real life) and pedagogic tasks (those tasks the
learner is required to carry out in the classroom) .
To what extent are the authors of the above statements referring to
real-world or pedagogic tasks ?
Just as writers on task-based syllabus design have offered different

definitions of 'task', so have they adopted different approaches to the
selection of tasks. Thus Candlin ( 1 9 8 7) chooses to articulate pedagogic
criteria for task-selection while Long ( 1985) advocates a form of needs
analysis as the starting point.
Candlin offers the following criteria for judging the worth of tasks. Good
tasks, he suggests, should:
- promote attention to meaning, purpose, negotiation
- encourage attention to relevant data
- draw objectives from the communicative needs of learners
- allow for flexible approaches to the task, offering different routes,
media, modes of participation, procedures
- allow for different solutions depending on the skills and strategies
drawn on by learners
- involve learner contributions, attitudes, and affects

be challenging but not threatening, to promote risk-taking
- require input from all learners in terms of knowledge, skills, participa
tion
- define a problem to be worked through by learners, centred on the
learners but guided by the teacher
- involve- language use in the solving of the task
- allow for co-evaluation by the learner and teacher of the task and of the
performance of the task
- develop the learners' capacities to estimate consequences and reperCus
sions of the task in question
- provide opportunities for metacommunication and metacognition (i.e.
provide opportunities for learners to talk about communication and
about learning)
- provide opportunities for language practice
- promote learner-training for problem-sensing and problem-solving (i.e.
identifying and solving problems)
- promote sharing of information and expertise
- provide monitoring and feedback, of the learner and the task
- heighten learners' consciousness of the process and encourage reflection
(i.e. to sensitize learners to the learning processes in which they are
participating)
- promote a critical awareness about data and the processes of language
learning
- ensure cost-effectiveness and a high return on investment (i.e. the effort
to master given aspects of the language should be functionally useful,
either for communicating beyond the classroom, or in . terms of the
cognitive and affective development of the learner).
� TASK 44
From the above list, select the five criteria which seem to you to be
�he most useful for selecting tasks.
What guided you in your choice?
What are some of the things which might need to be specified when
designing pedagogic tasks ?
Doyle ( 1 979 ; 1 9 83), working within a general educational context, was

one of the first to suggest that the curriculum could be viewed as a
collection of academic tasks. He maintains that tasks will need to specify
the following:
1 the products students are to formulate

2 the operations that are required to generate the product
3 the resources available to the student to generate the product.
(Doyle 1 983 : 1 61 )
A similar, though more comprehensive set of elements, is proposed by

Shavelson and Stern ( 1 98 1 ) whQ suggest that in planning instructional
tasks, teachers need to consider:
1 the subject matter to be taught

2 materials, i.e. those things the learner will observe/manipulate
3 the activities the teacher and learners will be carrying out
4 the goals for the task
5 the abilities, needs and interests of the students
6 the social and cultural context of instruction.
This list is so comprehensive that with a little rearrangement, and the
addition of assessment and evaluation components, it could form the basis
for a comprehensive curriculum model.
� TASK 45
What, in your opinion, would need to be added to the list for it to
form the basis for " comprehensive curriculum model ? (You might
like to review the discussion on curriculum in 1.)
Long, who uses needs analysis as his point of departure, offers the
following procedure for developing a task-based syllabus:
The purpose of a needs identification is to obtain information which

will determine the content of a language teaching programme, i.e. to
provide input for syllabus design.
Inventories of tasks that result from the type of analysis described

above are necessary for this purpose, but insufficient.
They are only the raw data and must be manipulated in various ways
before they are transformed into a syllabus usable in classroom
teaching. The steps in this process are as follows:
1 Conduct a needs analysis to obtain an inventory of target tasks.

2 Classify the target tasks into task types.
3 From the task types, derive pedagogical tasks.
4 Select and sequence the pedagogical tasks to form a task syllabus.
(Long 1985: 91)
� TASK 46
In terms of the process-product orientation already discussed, in
what way is Long's proposal different from that of Prabhu ?
Long's final step raises the issue o f grading, which, as w e have seen, i s one
of the central steps in syllabus construction. Giv.en our discussion on the
concept of 'syllabus' in 1, it could be argued that any proposal failing to
offer criteria for grading and sequencing can hardly claim to be a syllabus at
all.
48 De�ning syllabus design
� TASK 47
What difficulties d o you foresee i n grading the tasks a n d activities i n
a task-based syllabus?
I
It is generally assumed that difficulty is the key factor in determining the !
ordering of items in a syllabus. All things being equal, items are presented i
to learners according to their degree of difficulty. The problem for the !
i
task-based syllabus designer is that a variety of factors will interact to i

determine task difficulty. In addition, as some of these factors will be I
dependent on characteristics of the learner, what is difficult for Learner A
may not necessarily be difficult for Learner B.
� TASK 48 I
Suggest some of the factors which you think might have a bearing on I
I
task difficulty'.
I
1
Most of the applied linguists who have explored the concept of
communicative language teaching in general, and task-based syllabus
i
design in particular, have addressed the issue of difficulty, although the
factors they identify vary somewhat. They include,the degree of contextual
support provided to the learner, the cognitive difficulty of the task, the
amount of assistance provided to the learner, the complexity of the
language which the learner is required to process and produce, the
psychological stress involved in carrying out the task, and the amount and
type of background knowledge required. (We shall examine the issue of
task difficulty in 4.7.)
The development of process and task-based syllabuses represents a change

of focus rather than a revolution in syllabus design. Until fairly recently the
preoccupation has been with the outcomes of instruction rather than with
the pedagogic processes which are most likely to lead to these outcomes.
\Vhile any comprehensive , syllabus design will still need to specify
outcomes, and to provide links between classroom processes and
real-world communicative goals, they will also need to provide principles
for selecting classroom learning tasks and activities. We shall look at this
issue in greater detail in 5.
4.4 Content syllabuses

In 3 we saw that the content syllabus is yet another real ization of the
analytic approach to syllabus design. It differs from task-based syllabuses
in that experiential content, which provides the point of departure for the
syllabus, is usually derived from some fairly well-defined subject area. This
might be other subjects in a school curriculum such as science or social
studies, or specialist subject matter relating to an academic or technical
field such as mechanical engineering, medicine, or computing.
Whether content syllabuses exemplify product or process syllabuses is a

matter for conjecture. In fact, most of them would probably be located at
the centre of the product/process continuum. I have included them in the
discussion on process syllabuses because it seems that the best \vork being
done in the area focuses on process rather than product. (See, for example,
the work of Hutchinson and Waters ( 1 983) in ESP.)
� TASK 49
What might be some of the advantages, as you see them, of adopting
another subject area as the basis for syllabus design ?
By selecting subject areas such as those just mentioned, the syllabus is given
a logic and coherence which might be missing from analytic syllabuses
which are little more than a random collection of tasks. In addition, the
logic of the subject may provide a non-linguistic rationale for selecting and
grading content.
In Australia, much of the teaching in adult ESL classes is content oriented.
Syllabuses take as their point of departure the skills and knowledge which
syllabus planners and teachers feel is important for new arrivals. Units of
work thus appear with labels such as 'health', 'education', and 'social
services' . While the relevance of this content might seem obvious, many
learners are confused by content-oriented courses, thinking they have
strayed into a settlement rather than a langu�ge programme. In such cases,
it is important for teachers to negotiate with the learners and demonstrate
the relationship between language and content.
In a recent publication, Mohan ( 1 98 6) argues for content-based syllabuses
on the grounds that they facilitate learning not merely through language
but with language.
We cannot achieve this goal if we assume that language learning and

subject-matter learning are totally separate and unrelated opera
tions. Yet language and subject matter are still standardly consi
dered in isolation from each other.
(Mohan 1 986: iii)
Mohan develops a knowledge framework which can be used for organizing

knowledge and learning activities. The knowledge framework consists of a
specific, practical side and a general, theoretiCal side. The specific side is
divided into description, sequence, and choice, while the general side is
divided into classification, principles, and evaluation. It is suggested that
any topic can be exploited in terms of these sjx categories, and that the
knowledge structure of a topic is revealed through the following types of
questions:
.5 (, Defining syllabus design
(A) Specific practical aspects

(particular examples, specific cases within the topic)
1 Description Who, what, where? What persons, materials, equipment,
i terns, settings ?
2 Sequence What happens? What happens next? What is the plot? What
are the processes, procedures, or routines ?
3 Choice What are the choices, conflicts, alternatives, dilemmas, deci-
sions ?
(B) General theoretical aspects
(What are the general concepts, principles, and values in the topic
material ?)
1 Classification What concepts apply ? How are they related to each
other?
2 Principles What principles are there? (cause-effect, means-end,
methods and techniques, rules, norms, strategies? )
3 Evaluation What values and standards are appropriate? What counts
as good or bad ?
(Adapted from Mohan 1 986: 3 6-7)
The knowledge framework is reflected in the classroom through activities,
which Mohan calls 'combinations of action and theoretical understand
ing', and which are realized through action situations. Mohan claims that
any action situation contains the elements listed in the knowledge
framework; that is, description, sequence, and choice, along with the
theoretical counterparts of classification, principles, and evaluation. The
action situations can be presented to learners through the familiar
pedagogical tools of picture sequences and dialogues.
� TASK 5 0
Mohan's proposal i s yet another example of an approach to
language teaching in which the focus is on the development of
language through classroom activities which are designed to
promote cognitive skills. What parallels are there between Prabhu's
process syllabus, and Mohan's content-based proposal ?
D o you have any criticisms o r reservations about Mohan's
proposals ?
In a recent review of Mohan's book, it is suggested that:
One basic problem is the author'S assumption that the knowledge

structures included in his organisational framework are indeed the
relevant structures. What evidence is there that there are three, and
only three, relevant practical knowledge structures? . . . a second
assumption made in this approach to the integration of language
and content is that moving from the practical to the theoretical is the
direction most desirable for teaching and learning. Is this direction
best for all learners, or do some learn better when they begin from a
theoretical base ? The level of maturity of the learner, individual
learning strategies and previous learning experience may play
important roles in optimal sequencing.
(Perry 1 98 7: 1 4 1 )
4 .5 The natural approach

The so called 'natural approach' has been most comprehensively described
by Krashen and Terrell ( 1 98 3 ) . Like Long's task-based proposal, the
principles underpinning the app"roach �re claimed to be based on empirical
research and can be summarized as follows:
1 The goal of the Natural Approach is communication skills.
2 Comprehension precedes production.
3 Production emerges (Le. learners are not forced to respond) .
4 Activities which promote subconscious acquisition rather than con
scious learning are central.
5 The affective filter is lowered.
(After Krashen and Terrell 1 983 : 58)
� TASK 5 1
Do you disagree with any of these principles?
Consider the principles you do agree with: Do you think we need
empirical evidence on these, or are they just common sense?
Do you think that Krashen apd Terrell can legitimately claim
authorship of principles such as 'develop communication skills ' ?
For which o f the principles would you like t o see firm evidence?
Krashen and Terrell develop a simple typology, claiming that most learning
goals can be divided into one of two categories: basic personal
communication skills and academic learning skills, and that these can be
further subdivided into oral and written modes.
� TASK 52
How useful i s this typology?
Can you think of learning goals which do not fit the typology?
Do you think that the approach might be more suited to basic
personal communication skills or academic learning skills?
The authors of the approach claim that:
The Natural Approach is designed to develop basic personal

communication skills - both oral and written. It was not developed
specifically to teach academic learning skills, although it appears

reasonable to assume that a good basis in the former will lead to
greater success in the latter.
(Krashen and Terrell 1 983: 67)
� TAS K 53
Just how reasonable is the assumption that the development of
communication skills will facilitate the development of academic
learning skills?
What view of language would seem to underly. this assertion ?
The basis of this approach seems to be the assumption that language

consists of a single underlying psychological skill, and that developing the
ability, say, to understand the radio will assist the learner to comprehend
academic lectures. (You might, at this point, like to review our discussion
on the nature of language in 2.2.)
Another major w�akness in the approach taken by Krashen and Terrell is
the assumption that learning takes place in a social vacuum, and that social
aspects of the learning environment (in particular, the classroom) are
irrelevant to what and how learners learn. Such an assumption has been
questioned by Breen ( 1 985) who suggests that:
How things are done and why they are done have particular
psychological significance for the individual and for the group. The
particular culture of a language class will socially act in certain ways,
but these actions are extensions or manifestations of the psychology
of the group . . . What is significant for learners (and a teacher) in a
classroom is not only their individual thinking and behaviour, nor,
for instance, their longer-term mastery of a syllabus, but the
day-to-day interpersonal rationalisation of what is to be done, why,
and h ow.
(Breen 1 985: 1 49 )
4.6 Syllabus design and methodology

It would seem, with the development of process, task-based, and content
syllabuses, that the traditional distinction between syllabus design
(specifying the 'what') and methodology {specifying the 'how'} has become
blurred.
Widdowson takes a rather traditional line on this matter, suggesting that a
syllabus is the
. . . specification of a teaching programme or pedagogic agenda

which defines a particular subject for a particular group of learners.
Such a specification provides not only a characterization of content,

the formalization in pedagogic terms of an area of knowledge or
behaviour, but also arranges this content as a succession of interim
objectives.
(Widdowson 1 987: 65)
He further suggests that the two syllabus archetypes, structUral and

functional-notional, exhaust the possibilities for the syllabus designer.
Both types assume certain methodological practices. The structUral
syllabus, 'will tend to promote activities which serve to internalize the
formal prop'erties of language' (op. cit.: 7 1 ) . The danger of this type of
syllabus is that learners may not be able to use their linguistic knowledge in
actual communicatiQn. The functional-notional syllabus will promote
activities which attempt to replicate in class 'real' communication.
Classroom activities thus become a 'dress rehearsal' for real-life encoun
ters.
� TASK 54
The danger o f the 'dress rehearsal' methodology, according to
Widdowson, is that learners may not be able to transfer what they
have learned to new situations but will only be able to perform in the
limited situations which they have rehearsed.
Do you agree or disagree with this view? What evidence do you have
for your belief?
To what extent do you think learners can transfer functional skills
from one situation or context to another? (Do you, for example,
believe that someone who has learned to provide personal details in
a job interview will also be able to provide details to a doctor's
receptionist? Would such a person be able to p rovide personal
details about their child to a teacher? Would they be able to ask for
directions ?)
How do these issues relate to the discussion in 2 on 'general' and
'specific' English ?
Widdowson proposes the following methodological solution:
[the methodology] would engage the learners in problem-solving

tasks as purposeful activities but without the rehearsal requirement
that they should be realistic or 'authentic' as natural social
behavio �r. The process of solving such problems would involve a
conscious and repeated reference to the formal properties of the
language, not in the abstract dissociated from use, but as a necessary
resource for the achievement of communicative outcomes.
(op. cit.: 71-2)
� TAS K 55
Compare this statement to those made by Prabhu, Long, and
Krashen and Terrell.
What are the similarities and differences between the various
proposals ?
What are the implications of Widdowson's view for syllabus design ?
. � TASK 5 6
i
Widdowson's view would seem to deny that process o r task-based I
syllabuses, in which the 'how' and the 'what' are intertwined, are l
I
syllabuses at all.
Do you accept the dissociation of syllabus design issues from those
of methodology? I
Do you believe that process and task-based syllabuses represent I
legitimate approaches to syllabus design ?
In contrast with Widdowson's view that process considerations belong to

methodology, Breen claims that process considerations (i.e. the means
rather than the ends) can properly be considered the province of syllabus
design.
An alternative orientation would PrIOrItize the route itself: a

focusing upon the means towards the learning of a new language.
Here the designer would give priority to the changing process of
learning and the potential of the classroom - to the psychological
and social resources applied to a new language by learners in the
classroom context....One result of this change of focus would be that
the syllabus could become a plan for the gradual creation of the real
syllabus of the classroom, jointly and explicitly undertaken by
teacher and learners. Such a plan would be about designing a
syllabus and, therefore, a guide and servant for the map-making
capacities of its users. Primarily it would be a plan for the activity of
learning within the classroom group.
(Breen 1 984: 52)
4.7 Grading tasks

The issue of grading was touched upon in 4.3. Here we shall take a further
look at the grading of elements in process syllabuses.
Standard texts on language teaching have tended to categorize classroom
activities according to the demands they make on the learner. It has
generally been assumed that the receptive skills of listening and reading
make fewer demands than the productive skills of speaking and writing.
Standard treatments of activity types, which are divided according to their
principal macros kill focus, can be found in Rivers ( 1 96 8 ) and Chastain

( 1 976). For a more comprehensive and contemporary treatment of
speaking and listening, refer to Bygate: Speaking and Anderson and Lynch :
Listening in this Scheme. Wright: Roles of Teachers and Learners also
deals with task types and the sorts of language they stimulate.
The development of communicative language teaching with its focus on
meaning has led to the use of more authentic materials. These, naturally
enough, contain a range of linguistic structures, which has meant that
grammatical criteria alone can not be used as a yardstick of difficulty.
Nunan ( 1 985) presents a typology of activity types in which difficulty is
determined by the cognitive and performance demands made upon the
learner, i.e. activity type is categorized according to type of learner
response (see Figure 1 ) . The typology exploits the traditional comprehen
sion/production distinction and adds an interaction element (recent
classroom-based research suggests that interactive language use in which
learners are required to negotiate meaning can stimulate processes of
second language acquisition) .
Processing
[ No response
. [ PhYSiCal
[ NOn-Verbal
Response Verbal
Non-physical
Material Productive
[ Repetition
[ Drill
Source
[
Response
Meaningful practice
Simulated
[ Rehearsal
Interactive Role play
Real
[ D iscussion
Problem solving
Figure 1 : Activity type categorized according to learner responses
(Nunan 1 985)
Using the typology, it is possible to take a given text or piece of source

material such as dialogue, a map or chart, a radio weat�er report, a
newspaper article, etc. and exploit it by devising activities at different levels
of difficulty. At a basic level, with an aural text, learners might be required
to respond non-verbally by raising their hand every time a given key \vord is
heard. Using the same text with much more advanced learners, the task
might be to discuss and answer in small groups a set of questions requiring
inferences to be derived from the text.
� TASK 5 7
How comprehensive is this typology ? Can you think o f activity
types which are not covered ?
How useful do you think the typology might be for grading
- tasks in a
process syllabus?
The following example illustrates the way in which a given text (in this case
an aural text) is processed at increasing levels of sophistication following
the typology suggested by Nunan.
Material Source
Interview adapted from an authentic source
Interviewer: Have you got a family, Doris ?
Doris: Family ? Yeah, I've got a family all right. My father's still
alive, His name's Jack. He's still with us all right.
Interviewer: What about your husband ?
Doris: Bert. That's my husband. That's him in the -photo, there.
Inten,iewer: I see. What about children?
Doris: Three, I've got three children. Two sons and a daughter. The
sons are Peter and Jack, and my daughter's called Nancy.
Nancy's the youngest - she's only eighteen.
Activities
Level l : Processing
Response: physical, non-verbal
Pre-teach the words 'father', 'husband', 'sons', 'daughter'. Play the tape.
Every time students hear these words they put up their hands.
Response: non-physical, non-verbal
Pre-teach the words 'father', 'husband', 'sons', 'daughter'. Students sight
read the words on the grid. Play the tape. Every time students hear the
words they place a tick in the appropriate box.
father
mother
sons
d aughter
Response: non-physical, non-verbal

Pre-teach the words 'father', 'husband', 'sons', 'daughter'.
Give the students a written gapped version of the text. Play the tape and get
students to fill in the gaps.
Level 2: Productive
Repetition
Get students to listen and repeat.
Cue: Have you got a family?
Have you got any children?
Have you got a son ?
Have you got a daughter?
Response: drill
Get students to listen and complete.
Cue: Have you got a family ( any children) ?
Response: Have you got any children?
Cue: a son
Response: Have you got a son?
Cue: a daughter
Response: Have you got a daughter?
Cue: an uncle
Response: Have you got an uncle?
etc.
Response: meaningful practice
Put students into. pairs and get them to ask and answer questions using cue
cards.
A Have you got (alan/any) ? family/ children! son
daughter/ uncle/ aunt!
niecel nephew
Level 3: Interactive
Simulated: role-play
Give each student a role card which contains a persona and a family �ree.
Students have to circulate and find members of their family.
Real: discussion
Put students into small groups and ask them to take turns at describing
their families using the structures already practised.
Real: problem solving
Students are given a blank family tree. They are split into three groups, and
each group hears an incomplete description of the family.
They work together to fill in their part of the family tree and then join with
members of other groups to complete the family tree.
With ESP and content-based syllabuses, an obvious means of grading
content is with reference to concepts associated with the subject in
question. In subjects involving science and mathematics, there are certain
concepts which should logically precede others. Whether in fact such
conceptual grading is appropriate for second language learners is another
matter, and one which will probably vary from subject to subject. It will
also depend on the extent to which the learner is familiar with the subject.
In Mohan's knowledge framework, task difficulty is determined by

cognitive complexity. On the specific practical side, tasks which focus on
description are simpler than those involving sequence, and these, in turn,
are simpler than tasks involving choice. On the corresponding theoretical
side, classification is simpler than the identification of principles, whicn is
simpler than evaluation.
Brown and Yule ( 1 983) devote considerable attention to task difficulty.
- They suggest that listening tasks can be graded with reference to speaker,
intended listener, and content.
When listening to a tape, the fewer the speakers, the easier the text will be to
follow. Follo\\Oing one speaker will be easier than following two, following
two will be easier than following three, and so on. According to Brown and i
Yule, even native speakers have difficulty following a taped conversation I

which involves four or more participants.
I
I
In relation to the intended listener, they suggest that texts, particularly i
'authentic' texts which are not addressed to the listener, may be boring to !
the learner and therefore difficult to process. They go on to state that: !

i
I.
. . . it is, in principle, not possible to find material which would
interest everyone. It follows that the emphasis should be moved
from attempting to provide intrinsically interesting materials, which
we have just cl�imed is generally impossible, to doing interesting
things with materials . . . these materials should be chosen, not so
much on the basis of their own interest, but for what they can be
used to do.
(Brown and Yule 1 983 : 83)
In considering content, they confess that surprisingly little is known about

what constitutes 'difficult' content. The problem here, as Nunan ( 1 984)
demonstrates, is that there is an interaction between the l inguistic difficulty
of a text and the amount of background knowledge which the listener or
reader is able to exploit in comprehending the text.
In summary then, a listening text which involves more than one speaker,
which is not addressed to the listener, and in which the topic is unfamiliar
to the listener will be more difficult to comprehend than a monologue on a
familiar topic \\Ohich is addressed to the listener.
In relation to speaking tasks, Brown and Yule suggest that:
Taking short turns is generally easier than long turns. Talking to a

familiar, sympathetic individual is less demanding than talking to an
unfamiliar, uninvolved individual or group. Something one knows
about and has well-organised in memory is naturally easier to talk
about than a new topic or experience which has little internal
organisation in itself.
(op. cit.: 1 07)
In addition, the text type will have an effect on difficulty. According to

Brown and Yule, straight descriptions will be easier than instructions,
which will be easier than storytelling. Providing and justifying opinions
will be the most difficult. Also, within each genre, the number of elements,
properties, relationships, and characters will also have an effect on dif
ficulty, as is demonstrated in Figure 2.
description descriptionl storytelling opinion

instruction expressing
more
t many elements, properties, relationships, characters or factors
difficult which may be difficult to distinguish from each other
less few elements, properties, relationships, characters or factors

difficult which are easily distinguished one from the next
+
I I I
Figure 2: Factors determining difficulty of listening texts
(Brown and Yule 1 983: 1 07)
Candlin ( 1 98 7) offers the following factors as likely to be significant in

determining difficulty:
- cognitive load (the complexity of the mental operation to be carried out;
for instance Candlin suggests that tasks which require learners to follow
a clear chronological sequence will be easier than a task in which there is
no such clear development)
- communicative stress (the stress caused by the context, which will be
determined by such things as the learner's knowledge of the subject at
hand and relationship with the other individuals taking part in the
interaction)
- particularity and generalizability (the extent to which the tasks follow a
universal or stereotyped pattern)
- code complexity and interpretive density (the complexity of the
language particularly in terms of the sorts of processing constraints
described by SLA researchers and the extent to which the learners are
required to interpret what they hear or read)
- content continuity (the extent to which the content relates to the
real-world interests or needs of the learners)
- process continuity (the coherence, continuity, and interrelatedness of
tasks)
Long suggests that tasks requiring a one-way transfer of information
should precede those requiring a two-way exchange, that convergent tasks
should precede divergent ones, that tasks in the 'here and now' should
precede ones involving displaced time and space, and that intellectua l
content should b e a factor in grading tasks (Long 1 98 7) .
One o f the most comprehensive treatments of listening task difficulty i s that
offered by Anderson and Lynch: Listening in this Scheme. They identify a
range of factors \vhich influence difficulty. These can be attributed either to
the listener, the listening material, or the task. The following factors have
been extracted from their book (you are referred to the original for a com
prehensive treatment of listening task difficulty):
- the sequence in which information is presented
- the familiarity of the listener with the topic
- the explicitness of the information contained in the text
- the type of input
- the type and scope of the task to be carried out
- the amount of support provided to the listener
� TAS K 5 8
Review the work o f Anderson and Lynch, Brown and Yule, Candlin,
Long, Nunan, and Mohan presented in 4 and create your own list of
all those factors likely to affect the difficulty of a task.
4 . 8 Conclusion
We have looked at proposals which focus on learning processes rather than
on the end products of these processes. This does not mean that all such
syllabuses do not, at some stage, include a specification of what learners
should be able to do as a result of instruction. However, if and when
grammatical, functional, 'and notional elements are considered, this
happens as a second-order activity.
With the adoption of procedural, task-based, content-based, and other
non-linguistic approaches to syllabus design, the distinction between
syllabus design and methodology becomes blurred. We shall explore in
greater detail the relationship between syllabus design and methodology
in 5 .
5 Objectives
5 . 1 Introduction
It may come as some surprise to those familiar with the theory and practice
of syllabus planning to find that we are only now getting around to
discussing objectives. I have postponed consideration of objectives until
after the discussion of process -oriented and product-oriented syllabuses
because the issues raised in those discussions are of particular relevance
here. This does not mean that I am advocating the specification of content
before the specification of objectives. Whether one moves from a
specification of objectives to content and activities or the other way round
will depend on the type of syllabus being developed, and the role which the
objectives are made to play. In the so-called 'rational' curriculum process
(Tyler 1 949), objectives are specified before content and activities because
their principal role is to act as a guide to the selection of the other elements
in the curriculum. As we shall see, in the more interactive approaches to
curriculum and syllabus design which have replaced the 'rational'
approach, objectives can be useful, not only to guide the selection of
structures, functions, notions, tasks, and so on, but also to provide a
sharper focus for teachers, to give learners a clear idea of what they can
expect from a language programme, to help in developing means of
assessment and evaluation, and so on.
In 2, we looked at some of the starting points in syllabus design and at the
relationship between learner purpose and syllabus goals.
Goal statements are relatively imprecise. While they can act as general
signposts, they need to be fleshed out in order to provide information for
course and programme planners. This can be achieved through the
specification of objectives. In 5, we shall see that there is no conflict or
opposition between objectives, linguistic and experiential content, and
learning activities. In fact, objectives are really nothing more than a
particular way of formulating or stating content and activities.
5 .2 Types of object.ves
The term 'objective' is a loaded one which has caused a lot of debate within
the educational community. There is disagreement about the nature of
objectives and also about the precision with which they should be
formulated. Some curriculum specialists maintain that no sound instruc-
62 Defining syllabus design I
I
i
I
tiona) system could possibly hope to emerge from a syllabus in which
:
:
i
content is not stated in the form of objectives. Others argue that the p rocess I
of specifying content in terms of objectives leads to the trivialization of that
content. There are, of course, different types of objective, and some of the I
I
controversy surrounding their use could well be a result of a lack of clarity
about just what is meant by the term itself. i
I
� TASK 5 9
Study the following lists o f objectives and see if you can identify
what distinguishes one list from another.
List 1
- to complete the first ten units of The Cambridge English Course I
I
- to teach the difference between the present perfect and the simple
past tenses
- to provide learners with the opportunity of comprehending
authentic language
List 2
- Students will take part in a role play between a shopkeeper and a
customer.
- Students ,vill read a simplified version of a newspaper article and
answer comprehension questions on the content.
- Students will complete the pattern practice exercise on page 48 of
Elementary English Usage.
List 3
- Learners will obtain information on train departure times from a
railway information office.
- Learners will provide personal details to a government official in
a formal interview.
- Learners will listen to and comprehend the main points in a radio
news bulletin.
In 1, the curriculum model of Tyler ( 1 949) was referred to briefly. Tyler's

model is based on the use of objectives, and his book was very influential in
promoting their use. Tyler suggested that there were four ways of stating
objectives:
1 specify the things �hat the teacher or instructor is to do
2 specify course content (topics, concepts, generalizations, etc.)
3 specify generalized patterns of behaviour (e.g. 'to develop critical
thinking')
4 specify the kinds of behaviour which learners will be able to exhibit after
instruction
Objectives 63
� TASK 60
Which of these ways of stating objectives do you think is likely to be
most useful ? Why? -
What criticisms, if any, would you make of [he other methods ?
Can you think of any other methods of stating objectives ?
Tyler criticized the specification of objectives in terms of what the teacher is

to do on the grounds that teacher activity is not the ultimate purpose of an
educational programme. He also regarded the listing of content as
unsatisfactory because such lists give no indication of what learners are to
do with such content. While he felt that the third alternative was on the
right track - in that it focused on student behaviour, he felt that the
specification was rather vague. He therefore suggested that the preferred
method of stating objectives was in terms of what th e learner should be able
to do as a result of instruction. The statement should be so clear and
precise that an independent observer could recognize such behaviour if he
saw it.
Other proponents of an 'objectives approach' to language syllabus design
argue that specifying objectives in terms of teacher �l\,:tivity could result in
courses in which the objectives are achieved but the learners learn nothing
and that, with objectives specified in terms of classroom activities, the
rationale is not always clear (in other words, the links between the
instructional goals and the classroom objectives arc not always explicit) .
5 .3 Performance objectives in language teaching

O bjectives which specify what learners should do as a result of instruction
are sometimes called 'performance objectives'. A good deal has been
written for and against the use of such objectives.
In 1 972, a book on the use of performance objectives in language teaching
was published by Valette and Disick. In the book, arguments similar to
those already outlined are advanced for the use of an objectives approach
to syllabus design. In particular, it empha�izes the importance of stating
objectives in terms of student rather than teacher behaviour, and of
specifying input rather than output.
� TASK 6 1
Complete the following tasks which have been adapted from Valette
and Disick ( 1 972: 1 2).
The following are examples of either student or teacher behaviours.
Identify the four student behaviours by marking 5 next to them.
__ 1 to present rules of subject-verb agreement
__ 2 to explain the differences between direct and indirect object
pronouns
64 Defining syllabus design I
I
3 to write answers to questions on a reading selection

I
I
4 to model the pronunciation of dialogue sentences
5 to repeat after the speakers on a tape
6 to mark whether a statement heard is true or false
I
7 to introduce cultural material into the lesson
8 to review the numbers from one to a hundred i
I
__ . 9 to describe in German a picture cut from a magazine I
i
The following are examples of student input and output behaviours.
Write an 0 next to the four output behaviours.
1 to pay attention in class
I
2 to recite a dialogue from memory
3 to study Lesson Twelve
4 to learn the rules for the agreement of the past participle
5 to look at foreign magazines I
6 to attend a make-up . lab period
7 to write a brief composition about a picture
8 to read a paragraph aloud with no mistakes
9 to watch a film on Spain
__ 1 0 to answer questions about a taped conversation
Most syllabus planners who advocate the use of performance objectives

suggest that they should contain three components. The first of these, the
performance component, describes what the learner is to be able to do, the
second, the conditions component, specifies the conditions under which the
learner will perform, and the final component, the standards component,
indicates how well the learner is to perform. As an example, consider the
following three-part performance objective:
In a classroom simulation, learners will exchange personal details. All
utterances will be comprehensible to someone unused to dealing with
non-native speakers.
The different components of the objective are as follows:
Perfonna7tce: exchange personal details
Conditions: in a classroom simulation
Standard: all utterances to be comprehensible to someone unused to
dealing with non-native speakers.
� TAS K 62
Indicate the performance, conditions, and standards in the follow
ing performance objectives:
1 Working in pairs, learners will provide enough information for
their partner to draw their family tree. Enough information will
be provided for a three-generation family tree to be drawn.
2 Students will extract and record estimated minimum and
Objectives 65
maximum temperatures from a taped radio weather forecast.

Four of the six regions co,.,°ered by the forecast must be accurately
recorded.
3 While watching a videotaped conversation benveen two native
speakers, identify the v arious topics discussed and the points at
which the topics are changed. All topics and change points are to
be identified.
The specification of conditions and standards leads to greater precision in

objective setting, and also facilitates the grading of objectives (objectives
can be made easier or more difficult by modifying conditions and
standards) . However, formal four-part objectives can become unwieldy,
with a course spawning many more objectives than a teacher could hope to
teach (Macdonald-Ross 1 975) . One way of overcoming this problem is to
specify conditions and standards for sets of objectives rather than for each
individual objective.
� TASK 63
What do you see as the advantages for language syllabus design of
specifying objectives in performance terms ?
·
We have already considered some of the advantages of specifying
objectives in performance terms. Mager ( 1 975), an influential proponent of
performance objectives, sees them as curriculum 'signposts' which indicate
our destination. He rather acidly asks how we are to know when we have
reached our destination if we do not know where we are going. (A
counter-question might be: 'How do we know where we are, when we end
up somewhere other than our pre-specified destination ?')
Gronlund ( 1 9 8 1 ) argues that the effort to specify objectives in performance
terms forces us to be realistic about what it is feasible to achieve, and that
they greatly facilitate student assessment. In relation to this second
argument, he points out the difficulty of writing a test if we do not know
what it is that we wish our learners to be able to do as a result of instruction.
Other arguments in favour of objectives include their value in enabling
teachers to convey to students the pedagogic intentions of a course. (Mager
and Clark ( 1963) carried out an experiment in which students who knew
where they were heading learned much faster than students who had not
been provided with course objectives.) Their value in assisting with other
aspects of course planning such as the selection of materials and learning
objectives has also been pointed out.
In recent years, learner-centred approaches to language syllabus design
have become popular. In such approaches, the learner is involved, as far as
possible and feasible, in the planning, implementation, and evaluation of
the curriculum. This involvement is felt to increase the interest and
motivation of the learners. It is also felt to be a particularly effective way o f

developing the learners' learning skills b y fostering a reflective attitude
toward the learning process (see, for example, Candlin's ( 1 98 7) list of
desirable characteristics of learning tasks in 4.3).
Advocates of a learner-centred approach to education believe that, at the
very least, learners should be fully informed about any course of study they
are undenaking. Information (in the learner's home language where
necessary) can be provided in a number of forms. It can, for instance, be
provided in the form of a specification of course content. O ne advantage of
the provision of information in the form of performance objectives is that
these are generally couched in terms to which the learner can relate. If asked
why he is a ttending a language course, a learner is more likely to reply that
he wants to be able 'to understand the news on television', or 'to obtain
goods and services as a tourist in the target country' than 'to master the
distinction between the pres ent perfect and simple past' or 'to use the article
system appropriately'.
Proponents of learner-centred approaches to curriculum development also
argue for the pedagogic benefits of training learners to set their own
objectives (see, for example, Candlin and Edelhoff 1 982; Nunan and
Brindley 1 98 6). In this context, Brindley ( 1984) suggests that:
Setting learning objectives serves a number of useful purposes: it

enables the teacher to evaluate what has been learned since terminal '
behaviour is always defined in terms which are measurable; it means
that learners (provided they have participated in the process of
setting objectives) know what they are supposed to be learning and
what is expected of them ; it provides a constant means of feedback
and on-going evaluation for both teacher and learner; and it
provides 'a way of beginning the individualisation of instruction'
(Steiner 1 975) since learners can set their own standards of
performance and evaluate how well these standards have been
attained.
(Brindley 1 984: .35)
� TASK 64
Make a list !Jf the various arguments in favour of an objectives
approach as described here.
Which of these arguments do you find mostlleast convincing?

From your experience, how feasible do you think it is to teach
learners to set their own objectives ?
What type of learner is most likely to benefit from such an exercise?
What type of learner is least likely to benefit?
Ob;ectives 67
5 .4 Criticizing performance objectives

Rowntree ( 1 9 8 1 ), a persuasive advocate of objectives during the 1 9 70s, has
more recently accepted that there are many ways other than the objectives
approach of providing a rationale for a programme or course, and that
what may suit one teacher, subject, situation, or student group may be
inappropriate to another. His more moderate stance has been prompted by
the realization that the setting of objectives is both time-consuming and
extremely difficult for many teachers. Shavelson and Stern ( 1 9 8 1 ) also cite
evidence suggesting that most teachers simply do not seem to think in terms
of objective setting. Despite the difficulties involved, Rowntree asserts that:
I certainly believe that objectives must be considered at some stage of

course planning. If they are not themselves used as the means for
arriving at course content, then they can provide a powerful tool for
analysing and elaborating content arrived at by other means.
(RoUlntree 1 98 1 : 35)
The follo\ving lists provide arguments for and against the use of
performance objectives.
List A - Arguments against the use of performance ob;ectives
1 It is easiest to write objectives for trivial learning behaviours, therefore
the really important outcomes of education will be under-emphasized.
2 Pre-specifying explicit objectives prevents the teacher from taking
advantage of instructional opportunities unexpectedly 9�curring in the
classroom.
3 There are important educational outcomes (such as changing com
munity values, parental attitudes) besides pupil behaviour changes.
4 There is something dehumanizing about an approach which implies
behaviour which can be objectively measured.
5 It is undemocratic to plan in advance precisely how the learner should
behave after instruction.
6 Teachers rarely specify their goals in terms of measurable learner
behaviour.
7 In certain subject areas such as the humanities it is more difficult to
. identifv measurable learner behaviour.
8 If mos� educational goals were stated precisely, they would generally be
revealed as innocuous.
9 Measurability implies accountability: teachers might be judged solely
on their ability to produce results in learners.
List B - Arguments countering those in List A

1 While opportunism is welcome, it should always be justified in terms of
its contribution to the attainment of worthwhile objectives.
2 Sophisticated measuring instruments are being developed to assess
many complicated human behaviours in a refined fashion.
3 Teachers should be taught how to specify objectives.
4 Ivluch of what is taught in schools is indefensible.

5 Teachers should be assessed on their ability to bring about desirable
changes in learners.
6 Certain subject specialists need to work harder than others to identify
appropriate learner behaviours.
7 It is undemocratic not to let a learner know what he is going to get out
of the educational system.
8 All modifications in personnel or external agencies should be justified
in terms of their contribution towards the promotion of desired
pupil behaviours.
9 Explicit objectives make it far easier for educators to attend to
important instructional outcomes by exposing the trivial which is often
lurking below the high-flown.
� TASK 65
Match the arguments from List A with the counter arguments from
List B. (Both lists have been compiled from a variety of sources
which are summarized in Stenhouse 1 975 : 72-7.)
These arguments were formulated in the context of general
education, and those who advanced the arguments were not
thinking specifically of language teaching. Stenhouse himself
thought that language teaching was one area which could benefit
from performance objectives.
To what extent do you think they are relevant to the teaching of
languages?
During the 1 970s, Raths sought principles for the selection of content
which were not dependent on the prior specification of objectives. He came
up with the following list.
1 All other things being equal, one actjvity is more worthwhile

than another if it permits children to make informed choices in
carrying out the activity and to reflect on the consequences of
their choices.
2 All other things being equal, one activity is more worthwhile
than another if it assigns to students active roles in the learning
situation rather than passive ones.
than another if it asks students to engage in enquiry into ideas,
applications of intellectual processes, or current problems,
either personal or social.
than another if it involves children with realia.
Ob;ectives 69
than another if completion of the activity may be accomplished

successfully by children at several different levels of ability.
than another if it asks students "to examine in a new setting an
idea, an application of an intellectual process, or a current
problem which has been previously studied.
than another if it requires students to examine topics or issues
that citizens in our society do not normally examine - and that
are typically ignored by the major communication media in the
.
nation.
than another if it involves students and facultv members in 'risk'
taking- not a risk of life or limb, but a risk of success or failure.
than another if it requires students to rewrite, rehearse, and
polish their initial effort.
1 0 All other things being equal, one activity is more worthwhile
than another if it involves students in the application and
mastery of meaningful rules, standards, or disciplines.
1 1 All other things being equal, one activity is more wonhwhile
than another if it gives students a chance to share the planning,
the carrying out of a plan, or the results of an activity with
others.
than another if it is relevant to the expressed purposes of the
students.
(Raths 1 971, cited in Stenhouse 1 975: 86-7)
� TASK 66
To what e�t..ent do you think this list represents an alternative to the
use of objectives in specifying content?
The list was written within a general educational context. Do you
think the list is applicable to language teaching?
Are some of the criteria on the list more useful than others in your
view?
Can you specify these? (Alternatively, you might like to rank the
criteria from most to least applicable.)
5.5 Process and product objectives

A distinction which is not always observed by curriculum specialists is that
between real-world objectives and pedagogic objectives. {See also the
discussion in 4 on the distinction between real-world and pedagogic tasks. )

A real-world objective describes a task which learners might wish to carry
out outside the classroom, while a pedagogic objective is one which
describes a task which the learner might be required to carry out inside the
classroom. Examples of both types of objective follow.
Real-world objective
In a shop, supermarket, or department store, learners will ask for the price
of a given item or items. Questions will be comprehensible to shop
assistants who are unused to dealing with non-native speakers.
Pedagogic objective
The learner will listen to a conversation between a shopper and a shop
I
assistant and will identify which of three shopping lists belongs to the
shopper in question.
� TASK 67 I
What is the difference between these two objectives? . \
Rewrite the real-world objective as a pedagogic objective.
Another distinction which needs to be observed is between objectives

which describe what learners will be able to do as a result of instruction
(product objectives) and those which describe activities designed to
.
develop the skills needed to carry out the product objectives (these might be
called process objectives).
In 2, we considered the example of the motor mechanic undertaking study
in connection with his trade, who might need, among other things, to
follow a lecture on the structure and function of carburettors. A 'product'
objective for a course for motor mechanics might read as follows:
The learner will demonstrate his knowledge of the parts of a carburettor by
listening to a five-minute lecture on the subject and labelling a diagram. All
parts to be correctly labelled.
A major problem with such objectives is that they give no guidance as to
how the objective is to be achieved. On the one hand, the teacher might
make learners perform the terminal task repeatedly in class until they are
able to perform it with the required degree of skill. On the other hand� the
teacher may wish to focus on activities which do not attempt to replicate in
class the terminal performance, but which are designed to develop the
receptive and interpretative skills which might be assumed to underly the
ability to comprehend lectures of the type described above.
Process objectives differ from product objectives in that they describe. n ot
what learners will do as a result of instruction, but the experiences that the
learner will undergo in the classroom. These experiences will not
necessarily involve the in-class rehearsal of final performance, although
Objectives 71
they may do so. The form that the objective takes will reveal the attitude of
the syllabus designer towards the nature of language and language
learning.
� TASK 68
Study the objectives that follow. What d o they reveal about their
authors' beliefs on the nature of language and language learning?
What are the similarities andlor differences benveen these objectives
and the real-world and pedagogic objectives already �escribed? (Is
there, in fact, a difference, or are real-world objectives the same
thing as product objectives, and pedagogic objectives the same thing
as process objectives ?)
1 Students will study the picture sequence in the student's book and
ask and answer wh- questions regarding loca�on and time.
(Adapted from Hobbs 1 98 6: 2 7a)
2 Students will study a railway timetable and solve a series of
problems relating to departure and arrival times of specified train
services.
(Adapted from Prabhu 1 987: 32)
The specifications of process and product objectives are not necessarily

mutually exclusive. One type specifies the means, the other the ends. It
could be argued that any comprehensive syllabus needs to specify both
process and product objectives.
� TASK 69
Can you think of any teaching contexts in which i t would be
unnecessary to specify product objectives ?
Which type of objective is likely to be most useful to you as a
classroom teacher?'
5 .6 Conclusion
In 5 we have explored the issue of objectives-setting in syllabus design,
focusing in particular on performance objectives. Some of the arguments
for and against an objectives approach were taken from general
educational theory and presented within a language teaching context. In
the final part of 5, a distinction was drawn between process and product
objectives. In Section Two, we shall see how these ideas have been applied.
SECTION TWO
Demonstrating syllabus design

6 Needs and goals
6. 1 Introduction
In 6 we shall look at some of the ways in which the concepts and processes
introduced in 2 have been applied.
6.2 Needs analysis

In 2 we saw that needs analysis refers to a family of procedures for
gathering information about learners and about communication tasks for
use in syllabus design.
The following sets of data, extracted and adapted from �lunby ( 1 978)
show the sorts of information which can be collected through needs
analysis.
Student A
Participant Thirty-five-year-old Spanish-speaking male. Present com
mand of English very elementary. Very elementary command of German.
Purposive domain Occupational-to facilitate duties as head waiter and
relief receptionist in hotel.
Setting Restaurant and reception area in Spanish tourist hotel. Non
intellectual, semi-aesthetic public psycho-social setting.
Interaction Principally with custom.ers, hotel residents, and reservation
seekers.
Instrumentality Spoken and written, productive and receptive language.
Face-to-face and telephone encounters.
Dialect Understand and produce standard English; understand Re
ceived Pronunciation ( RP) and General American.
Communicative event Head waiter attending to customers in restaurant;
receptionist dealing with residents '/customers , enquiries/reservations,
answering correspondence on room reservations.
Communicative key Official to member of the public, server to customer.
Formal, courteous.
Student B
Participant Twenty-year-old Venezuelan male. Elementary .command of
target language. No other languages.
Purposive domain Educational-to study agriculture and cattle breeding.
76 Demonstrating syllabus design
Setting Educational institution in Venezuela. Intellectual, quasi-profes

sional psycho-social setting.
Interaction Principally with teachers and other students.
Instrumentality Spoken and written, receptive and productive. Face-to
face and print channels.
Dialect Understand and produce Standard English dialect, understand
General American and RP accent.
Communicative event Studying reference material in English, reading
current literature, taking English lessons to develop ability to understand
agricultural science material.
Com1nunicative key Learner to instructor.
� TASK 70
How useful do you think these data might be for syllabus design?
Which information might be most useful in syllabus design and how
might it be used ?
Do the participants have anything in common ?
If these students were studying a t the same language centre, would i t
b e possible for them to share part o f a language programme?
Would the Munby approach lead to process-oriented or product
oriented syll�buses ? Can you explain your conclusion ?
Here i s a rather different set o f data.
Name: (Deleted)
Age: 26
Tinle in target country: 18 months
Nationality: Vietnamese
Education: Completed' primary education
Occupation: Dressmaker
Proficiency: Elementary
Communicative needs: Basic oral communicatio'n skills; form filling;
timetables; reading signs and short public notices
L1 Resources: Family; home tutor
Learning goals: Communicate with parents of children's friends
Preferred learning activities: Traditional, teacher-directed classroom
instruction
Availability: 2-3 X week (mornings only)
Motivation: Brought in by family
Pace: Average
(Adapted from Nunan and Burton 1 985)

Needs and goals 77
� TASK 71
I n what ways does the information provided here differ from that
provided in the Munby data ?
Which do you think might be more useful? Why ?
When might the information contained in the table be collected? By
whom?
Which of this information might usefully be collected by teachers
working in an institution with a set syllabus ?
How might the information be used to modify aspects of the
syllabus ?
What additional information, if any, would you want to collect?
Here are some additional data extracted from the same source.
Name: (Deleted) .
Age: 62
Time in target country: 12 years
Nationality: Russian
Education: Completed primary education
Occupation: Home duties
Proficiency: Beginner
Communicative n�eds: Basic oral communication skills; wants to
understand radio and TV; wants to learn vocabulary and grammar;
has difficulty with Roman script
L 1 Resources: Grammar books; magazines
Learning goals: Wants to mix with native speakers
Preferred learning activities: Traditional, teacher-directed classroom
instruction
Availability: Mornings
Motivation: Referred by family doctor
Pace: Slow
(Adapted from Nunan and Burton 1 985)
� TASK 72
In what ways is this second learner similar to or different from the
first learner?
Are there enough similarities for both learners to be placed in the
same programme?
In designing or adapting a syllabus for this learner, which
information would you utilize and which would you ignore?
Which data do you think a syllabus designer with a product
orientation might focus on?
Which data do you think a syllabus designer with a process

orientation might focus on? What additional data might such a
person require ?
In 2, a distinction was drawn between 'objective' and 'subjective'

inform ation. We saw that subjective information reflects the perceptions
and priorities of the learner on what should be taught and how it should be
taught. Such information often reveals learning-style preferences by the
learner.
In a major study of learning-style preferences among adult second language
learners, . �Tilling ( 1 9 8 8 ) asked 5 1 7 learners to rate a series of statements
according to how accurately they reflected the learners' own attitudes and
preferences. (Interpreters were used where necessary.) Learners were asked
to respond according to the following key: 1 = 'No ' ; 2 = 'A little'; 3 =
'Good' ; 4 = 'Best'. The statements to which they were asked to respond are
as follows (the statements are ranked here from ( 1 ) most to (30) least
popular) :
1 I like to practise the sounds and pronunciation. 1234
2 I like the teacher to tell me all my mistakes. 1 23 4
3 In class, I like to learn by conversations. 1 23 4
4 I like the teacher to explain everything to us. 1 23 4
5 I like to learn many new words. 1 23 4
6 I like to learn by talking to friends in English. 123 4
7 I like to learn by watching, listening to native sp�akers. 1 23 4
8 I like to learn English words by. hearing them. 1 23 4
9 I like to learn English words by seeing them. 1 234
10 I like the teacher to help me talk about my interests. 1 234
11 I like to learn English in small groups. 123 4
12 I like to learn English words by doing something. 1 23 4
13 I like to study grammar. 1 23 4
14 At home, I like to learn by watching TV in English. 1 234
15 I like to have my own textbook. 1 23 4
16 I like to learn by using English in shops/trains . . . 1 23 4
17 I like the teacher to give us problems to work on. 1234
18 I like to go out with the class and practise English . 1 23 4
19 A t home, I like to learn b y studying English books. 1 23 4
20 In English class, I like to learn by reading. 1 2 ·3 4
21 I want to write everything in my notebook. 1 234
22 In class, I like to listen to and use cassettes. 1 234
23 I like the teacher to let me find my mistakes. 1 23 4
24 At h ome, I like to learn by reading newspapers, etc. 1 23 4
25 In class, I like to learn by pictures, films, video. 1 234
26 I l ike to learn English with the whole class. 1 23 4
27 At home, I like to learn by using cassettes. 123 4
28 I like to learn English by talking in pairs. 1234
29 In class, I like to learn by games. 1234
30 I like to study English by myself. 123 4
Needs and goals 79
� TASK 73
Which of this information do you think would be most useful, and
which least useful in developing a programme for the learners who
were surveyed?
What are some of the ways the most useful information might be
used in syllabus design ?
Which of the statements are designed to obtain information about
( 1 ) what they want to learn (2) how they want to learn.
In general, do these learners seem to favour ( 1 ) a traditional (2) a
communicative (3) an eclectic or 'mixed' approach to instruction ?
The learners who were surveyed strongly disliked games and pair
work. What would you do if your syllabus were heavily biased
toward the use of games and pair work, and you found yourself with
students such as these ?
In what ways does the distinction between objective and subjective
needs analysis parallel that between product-oriented and process
oriented syllabus design ?
6.3 From needs to goals

As we saw in 2, goals come in many shapes and forms. They can refer to
cognitive and affective aspects of the learner's development, what the
teacher hopes to achieve in the classroom, what the teacher hopes the
learners will achieve in the classroom, the real-world communicative tasks
the learners should be able to perform as a result of instruction, and so on.
Product-oriented goals can be derived directly from the learners them
selves, that is, by asking the learners why they are learning the language.
Alternatively, they can be derived by syllabus designers through a process
of introspecting on the sorts of communicative purposes for which
language is used. These can either relate to a restricted domain (as in ESP)
or to the more general purposes for \vhich language is used. The lists of
functional items developed by people such as Wilkins and van Ek were the
result of attempts to describe and categorize all the different things that
users of a language might want to do with that language.
In considering needs and goals, we should keep in mind that the teacher's
syllabus and the learner's syllabus or 'agenda' might differ. One of the
purposes of subjective needs analysis is to involve learners and teachers in
exchanging information so that the agendas of the teacher and the learner
may be more closely aligned. This can happen in two ways. In the first
place, information provided by learners can be used to guide the selection
of content and learning activities. Secondly, by providing learners with
detailed information about goals, objectives, and learning activities,
learners may come to have a greater appreciation and acceptance of the

learning experience they are undertaking or about to undertake. It may be
that learners have different goals from those of the teacher simply because
they have not been informed in any meaningful way what the teacher's
goals are.
Some of the purposes which learners, teachers, and syllabus planners in the
Australian Adult Migrant Education Program have articulated are as
follows:
- to develop skills in learning how to learn
- to develop the skills necessary to take pan in academic study
to develop an appreciation of the target society and culture
- to develop sufficient oral and written skills to obtain a promotion from
unskilled worker to site supervisor
- to communicate socially with members of the target or host community
- to develop the survival skills necessary to function in the host
community
- to establish and maintain social relationships
to be able to read and appreciate the literature of the target culture
to comprehend items of news and information on current affairs from
the electronic media.
� TAS K 74
To what extent do you think.it possible for information such as this
to be used to modify a syllabus which has been set by an outside
authotity?
Would it be possible to develop a common syllabus to meet all of the
communicative needs incorporated in the above statements ?
If not, what are some of the syllabus elements which might be
similar, and which might be different?
Which of the statements could be accommodated by a single
syllabus ?
For those goals aimed at learners who were at roughly the same proficiency
level, it might be possible to identify cenain common elements, particularly
in terms of grammar and common core vocabulary items. "It is in the
specification of experiential content (topics, themes, situations, and so on)
that differences might occur. The macroskill focus might also vary, with
some students wishing to focus on the development of literacy skills and
others wishing to concentrate on the development of listening and/or
speaking skills.
If learners \vere at a similar proficiency level, the following purposes could
probably be covered by a single syllabus:
Needs and goals 81
- to communicate socially with members of the target or host community

- to develop the .survival skills necessary to function in the host
community
- to establish and maintain social relationships.
� TAS K 75
Suggest a goal statement which could cover these three learning
purposes.
The following nine general communicative goals were developed as part of

a curriculum for students learning second and foreign languages at the
school level. The goals were not derived directly from learners, but from an
analysis carried out by syllabus planners, experienced teachers, and
educational authorities.
Instruction should enable learners to :

1 participate in conversation related to the pursuit of common activities
with others
2 obtain goods and services through conversation or correspondence
3 establish and maintain relationships through exchanging information,
ideas, opinions, attitudes, feelings, experiences, and plans
4 make social arrangements, solve problems, and come to conclusions
together
5 discuss topics of interest
6 search for specific information for a given purpose, process it, and use it
in some way
7 listen to or read information, process it, and use it in some way
8 give information in spoken or written form on the basis of personal
experience
9 listen to, or read or view, a story, poem, play, feature, etc., and respond
to it personally in some way.
These have been adapted from the Australian L�nguage Levels (ALL)
Project. For a detailed description of the project, see Clark (. 1 9 87:
1 8 6-237).
� TASK 76
To what extent do these statements represent the sorts of things
which learners might wish to do in real life ?
How comprehensive is the list?
Are there any omissions or areas of overlap ?
Match the ALL Project goal statements with the units from The
Cambridge English Course, Book 1 .
-
,I
/'
82 De1110nstrating syllabus design
Map of Book 1*
In Unit Students will ieam to Students '\\ill ieam to talk about
.-\sk and gi\'e names: say hello: ask and tell where people Numbers .
1 are from.
Sar hello,formallr and informallr: ask about and gi\'e Jobs: age.
2 personal mformation.
Describe people: teU the time. Family relationships.
Describe places: gi\'e compliments; express uncertainty: Geography; numbers to 1 . 000.000.

4 confirm and correct information.
Describe houses and ilats: make and answer telephone Home: furniture, addresses: telephones.
5 calls.
Express.likes and dislikes: ask abodt and describe habits Habits and routines.
6 and routmes.
Ask and tell about quantitr. Food and drink: shopping: quantification.
7
Ask f�r and grve directions: ask and teU about physical and Finding your wa)' in a town.
8 emouonal states,
EXJlJ'ess degrees of certaintr: talk about frequenc)', How people b"e: how animals li\'e; weather and climate.
9
Descnbe people 's appearances; g1\'e comphments; write Colours: parts of the bod)': clothing: resemblances.
10 simple letters.
t:se what the)' ha"e learnt in different ways. Physical description.
Ask for and gi\'e information. Personal history: differences between past and present;
12 recent paSL
�lake and grant requests: sa�' ,,'here iiUiig s are; check Shopping; tra\,elling,
13 information,
Ask for and gi"e information. Abilities: comparison; similarities and differences.
14
Ask ior and gl\'e miormauon: narrate. Change; history.
15
Ask for and gi\'e opinions; agree and disagree; ask foUov,'·up Weights and measures; appearances; professions;
15 questions. personality types: dates.
order meals; make and repl�' to requests: barrO\\': make Food; restaurants: differences in lormalit)'; ha\'ing
17 and reply to offers. guests at home,
Express guesses: write postcards. Temporary present actions and states: holida�'s: change;
18 economics and demography.
Plan; make, accept and decline m,itallons and Travel; distance; going out.
19 suggestions.
Initiate con\·ersations. express mterest: ask jor. express Meeting strangers: frequenq'; likes and dislikes: being
and react to opi::io::�. in love: duration.
Ask for and 1JI\'e reasons. Ph)'sical qualities: composition oj objects; personal
21 possessions: production: imports and exports.
Ji
Descnbe: ask for and \'e personal "ilormauon; use what Comparison: shoppmg: people's appearance and
the\' ha\'e learnt in difierent "1I\'S.
. beha'iour.
�
Gi\' instructions and ad\ice. Sports; position, direction and change of pOSition:
23 cooking.
Make requests: ask ior and 1JI" e iruormation. Hotels; public transpon; air tra\'el: place and direction.
24
Talk about plans; make predictions. Plans: smaU ads: tra\·el.
25
Talk about problems: express sympathr: make suggestions; Common physical problems; personal relationships.
2.6 express and respond to emotions: describe relationships.
!\arrate. Wa)'s of travelling; speed; how things are done.
27
Descnbe objects: narra te. Education s)'stems: quantit)·: shapes; parts of things:
28 position: structuring of time, sequences: dail\' routines.
Predict: warn: raise and counter objections. Danger: horoscopes.
29
Classifr: make and accept apolOgies; correct Need: imponance: use and usefulness: shopping.
30 misunderstandings: complain.
Slake, accept and decline oiiers: ask for and anal\'Sc
' Reciprocal and reflexh'e action: self and others: social
31 information. situations: possession.
Express obligation and opinions: other functions dependent Correctness: other areas depending on activities
on )'our choice of acthities. chosen.
"This ·map· of the course should be transla:ed into the students' Ilnlluaae .·here possible.
(Swan and Walter 1 984: iv)

Needs and goals 83
How comprehensive is the above list of tasks ?

Were there any units which could not be matched with tasks ?
The following goals were extracted from a syllabus for foreign as opposed
to second language learners of English.
1 To contribute to the intellectual, personal, and vocational development
of the individual.
2 To develop and maintain a sense of confidence and self-worth.
3 To acquire the competence to use English in real-life situations for the
development and maintenance of interpersonal relationships and to take
part in interpersonal encounters through the sharing of factual and
attitudinal information.
4 To develop communicative skills in order to acquire, record, and use
information from a variety of aural and written sources.
5 To develop mastery over the English language as a linguistic system and
to have some knowledge of how it works at the levels of phonology,
morphology, and syntax.
6 To increase, through a common language, the possibility of understand
ing, friendship, and co-operation with people who speak English.
7 To be able to exploit one's knowledge of English to better inform the
world of one's people and their concerns, and to be able to participate
more actively and effectively in English in the international arena.
S To foster the development of critical thinking skills and the development
of learning skills so that students can continue their education beyond
the school setting.
9 To develop the skills and attitudes to- listen to, read, and write English
for creative and imaginative purposes.
(Adapted from Nunan, Tyacke, and Walton 1 98 7: 2 6)
� TASK 77
What are the simihirities and differences between this set of
statements and the ALL Project goals ?
Which goals relate to a product-oriented view of syllabus design and
which to a process-oriented view?
Is this list more or less process-oriented than the ALL Project goals?
� TASK 78
Study this final set of goal statements.
Participation in learning arrangements should assist learners to
develop the necessary knowledge, skills, and confidence to:
1 obtain factual and attitudinal information from visual and print
media and to use this information for a variety of purposes
84 Demol/stratil/g syllabl/s desigl/
2 interact with others for transactional purposes (i.e. to obtain

goods, services, and information
3 develop and maintain interpersonal relationships through the
sharing of factual and attitudinal information (e.g. ideas,
opinions, feelings, etc.)
4 provide information to others in written form
5 understand the social and cultural nature of living in the target
culture
6 develop insights into English as a linguistic system
7 identify their own preferred learning styles and develop skills in
'learning how to learn'
8 continue learning independently once they have left the pro-
gramme.
For what context do you think these goals have been derived (e.g.
foreign or second language learning; adults or children; general or
specific purpose syllabuses) '
Which goals relate ro language products and which ro learning
processes?
6.4 Conclus ion

In 6 we have looked at applications of some of the ideas and concepts
introduced in 2. We have looked in particular at examples of needs analysis
procedures and syllabus goals. From these examples, it can be seen that
needs and goals can be analysed according ro their orientation on the
process/product continuum.
7 Selecting and grading content
7. 1 Introduction
Here we shall be looking at some of the different ways in which the ideas
discussed in 3 have been applied. We shall examine a number of different
syllabuses, and explore the ways in which grammatical, functional, and
notional items are selected, graded, and interrelated. The aim of 7 is to
familiarize you with the ways in which these different elements are
conventionally treated. This should provide you with the skills and
knowledge you will need to analyse the selection and grading of content in
your own syllabuses, a task you will be asked to undertake in Section
Three.
7.2 Selecting grammatical components

In 4 we looked at the distinction between synthetic and analytic syllabuses.
Synthetic syllabuses were described as those in which content is selected
and graded according to discrete point principles. Wilkins assumed that
these would be grammatical, but Widdowson has argued that any syllabus
which consists of inventories of discrete point items, be they grammatical,
f� nctional, or notional, is basically synthetic.
These days, few syllabus designers who adopt a synthetic orientation
would be prepared to defend a syllabus based entirely on grammatical
forms. Most attempt some sort of synthesis between grammatical,
functional, and notional items. Later, we shall look at some of the ways in
which syllabus planners have tried to integrate these various components.
We have already noted that there is a lack of any direct one-to-one
relationship between linguistic functions, notions, and grammatical forms.
While this leads to a certain amount of arbitrary decision-making about
which forms to introduce with which functions, some form/function
relationships naturally suggest themselves, particularly at lower pro
ficiency levels (for example, 'talking about oneself and others' hardly seems
feasible without some knowledge of personal pronouns, copula 'be', and
predicative adjectives relating to such things as nationality).
At these lower levels (from beginner through to lower intermediate) most
general coursebooks cover items such as the following:
- basic sentence forms - quantifiers
- verb morphology - demonstratives
- noun morphology - definite and indefinite articles
86 Deli/ollstratillg syll.7blls desigll
[ense forms prepositions

questions connectors
negation noun phrases, including modific3tion
modal verbs adverbials
pronouns
� TASK 79
Match the above grammatical categories with the following items
.
from The Cambridge Ellglish Course, Book 1 .
1 present of to be; possessive adjectives
2 Alall with jobs; subject pronouns
3 noun plurals; 's for possession; present of to be (plural); halle
got; adjectives; adverbs of degree
4 Alall contrasted with the; adjectives before nouns; all I ill I at
with places; ISlI't that . . . ?
S there islthere are; simple present affirmative, thislthat; Calli
Could I . . . ? ; tell +object+
. that clause; formation of noun
plurals
6 simple present; omission of article; like + ing; neither . . . nor;
object pronouns; at with times; by (bus); from . . . IIl1til
7 countables and uncountables; expressions of quantity; omission
of article; was/were; some and an)'j much and lnany
8 for + exptessions of distance; to be with hllngry, thirst)', ete.
9 complex sentences; text building; ftequency adverbs; imperson
al it
1 0 Halle got; both and all; look alike; What (a) . . . '
7.3 Selecting functional and notional comp onents

In recent years, any number of functional and/or notional typologies have
made their appearance in the market place. While there are simila tities
amongst these, as one might expect, there are also differences. This reflects
the fact that the typologies have been produced largely through intuition.
The following category headings give some idea of the diversiry which is
possible:
llall Ek (1 975)
imparting and seeking factual information
expressing and finding our intellectual attitudes
expressing and finding OUt emotional attitudes
expressing and finding OUt moral attitudes
getting things done
socializing
\Vilkills (1 976)
modality rational enquiry and exposition
suasIOn personal emotions
argument emotional relations
Selecting and grading content 87
Finocchiaro (in Finocchiaro and Brumfit 1 983)

- personal - referential
- interpersonal - imaginative
- directive
ALL Project (Clark 1 98 7)
- establishing and maintaining relationships and discussing topics of
interest
- problem-solving
- searching for specific information for some given purpose, processing it,
and using it
- listening to or reading information, processing it, and using it
- giving information in spoken or written form on the basis of personal
experience
.
- listening to, reading, or viewing and responding to a stimulus
- creating an imaginative text
(Adapted from Clark 1 987: 22 7-8)
The authors of these lists imply that they incorporate all of the possible uses
to which language can be put.
� TASK 8 0
What are the similarities and differences between these lists ?
Which of the above lists do you think most satisfactorily captures
the various real-world uses to which your learners might put
language? Why?
Are there any omissions ? If so, what are they?
7.4 Relating gramm atical, functional, and

notional components
As we have already seen, the link between grammatical, functional, and
notional components is not entirely predictable, although there are certain
components which are consistently linked together by syllabus designers
and coursebook writers.
� TASK 8 1
This list below contains the functional content from the first ten
units of Checkpoint English in jumbled order. Suggest the gramma
tical items which might be taught in each unit.
List A
1 describing houses
reminding
contradicting
asking for directions
2 giving your full name

apologizing
asking for help
3 interrupting politely
asking for help
describing oneself
telling the time
4 identifying
asking for possessions
5 well-wishing
inviting, offering
accepting, declining
6 describing present and future events, activities
complaining
7 giving your name .
giving personal information
8 offering, inviting, accepting, declining
checking quantity and quality
9 giving instructions
expressing possession
warning
1 0 making suggestions
asking leading questions
making leading statements
� TASK 8 2
The list below contains the grammatical items taught i n the first ten
units of Checkpoint English. Match these with the functional
contents listed in Task 8 1 .
List B
A Be: present affirmative
Subject pronouns
Here, there; this, that; these, those; my; your
Indefinite article
Definite article
B Be: present, interrogative, affirmative
Possessive adjectives
C Be: negative, interrogative
Question words
Subject, object pronouns
There is (are)
D Simple present
Adverbs of frequency
E Have
At, in, on, next to
Noun plurals
F Have got
In, on, under, near
Noun plurals
G Be: past
Noun plurals
Only
Noun + 's
H Some, any, a lot of, many, much
Noun plurals
Nouns indicating gender
I Regular past simple
Possessive pronouns and adjectives
Noun plurals
Who, who is, who's, whose
J Present progressive, affirmative, negative
Irregular past
Which, if any of these, did you find comparatively easy to link
together?
Which seemed to be arbitrary?
Many of the coursebooks currently available attempt to integrate topical

and notional elements as well as grammatical and functional ones.
� TASK 8 3
The following lists of functional components (List A) and notionaU
topical components (List B) have been taken from The Cambridge
English Course, Book 1 . Match the items in List A with those in List
B. (When you have finished, you can check your answers against the
table of contents in Task 76.)
List A
Students will learn to:
1 Ask and give names; say hello; ask and tell where people are
from.
2 Say hello formally and informally; ask about and give personal
information.
3 Describe people; tell the time.
4 Describe places; give compliments; express uncertainty;
confirm and correct information.
S Describe houses and flats; make and answer telephone calls.
6 Express likes and dislikes; ask about and describe habits and
routines.
!
7 Ask and tell about quantity.

8 Ask for and give directions; ask for and tell about physical and
emotional states.
9 Express degrees of certainty; talk about frequency.
1 0 Describe people's appearances; give compliments; write simple
letters.
List B
Students will learn to talk about:
1 Home: furniture; addresses; telephones.
2 Food and drink; shopping; quantification.
3 How people live; how animals live; weather and climate.
4 Jobs; age.
S Colours; p arts of the body; clothing; resemblances.
6 Finding your way in a town.
7 Family relationships.
8 Geography; numbers to 1 ,000,000.
9 Habits and routines.
10 Numbers.
Which of these did you find comparatively easy to match ?
Which were difficult? Why ?
I n which o f the above coursebook units d o you think the follo\ving
sentences appeared ?
1 Joe and Ann have got three children.
2 I like the Greek bronze very much.
3 I don't think that cats eat insects.
4 There is a fridge in the kitchen.
S Sheila has got long dark hair and brown eyes.
6 Where's the nearest post office, please?
7 What do you do?
8 There are seven calories in tomatoes.
9 Dundee is a town in the east of Scotland.
10 Where do you come from?
Which of these did you find comparatively easy to match ?
Which, if any, were difficult? Why ?
Which could have appeared in more than one unit? What does this
say about the relationship between form and function?
Which grammatical items could these sentences be used to
exemplify ?
The following extract is taken from the Graded Levels of Achievement i n

Foreign Language Learning Syllabus Guidelines.
0 1 Tasks: conversation and correspondence
Punctions and Notions

likely to be involved Examples ot Tasks
01 . 1 Identifying a person Functions Pupil A has a picture of •

or object Describing thief . Pupil B haa several
Seeking info�ation pictures and must identify
Conversation in pairs Seeking confi�ation the one described by Pupil A
or in groups Notions aa the thief .
srze:-colour. shape.
pos i t ion . parts of body , Pupil A baa
a picture of his
clothes, possessions , lost bicycle. Pupil B haa
actions . contenes of several pictures of bicycles
handbag. etc and must identify the one
+ Physical and psycholo described by Pupil A aa the
gical characterist ics lost one.
01.2 Identifying whether Functions Pupil A baa a picture of

objects are the same Seeking information someone he/she knows .Pupil
Describing B has a picture of so�one
Conve rsation in pairs Seeking confirmation he/she knows . Is it the same
or in groups Notions person?
Size. colour. shape , Pupil A haa a picture of a
posi tion , clothes , parts handbag she has los t . Pupil B
of body, possessions . has a pictUre of s handbag
actions , contents of she has found . Are they the
handbag or suitcase etc same?
+ Physical or psycholo
gical characte rist ics
D I . l Spotting differences Functions Pupil A has picture , Pupil 8

Describing has ssme picture, Wi t h
Conve rsation in pairs Seeking informat i on several alterations . Pupils
or in groups Seeking conf irmation IIIUSt find the d i f ferences
Notions without shOWing each other
Obj ects . people , shapes . the pictures.
pOS ition , clothes .
actions etc
D I . 4 Di s covering what ' s Functions Pupil A has a card :

III J, s 8 1ng Seeking information
Giving information Bus
Conversation in pairs Seeking confirmation
or in groups Suggesting
Glving opinions
Agree ing/disagreeing Pupil 8 has a ca rd :
Asking for explanation
Explaining
Not ions Bus Port
conterit of squares Stop
(as approp riate ) Water
Pos ition
Sequence They !DUst discuss what the,
Casual relationships have on their cards snd on
the basis of this fill in the
blanks.
D I . S Drawing 88 instructed Functions Pupil A has a s illlp le map with

Giving instructions plans on it. PupU B has
a
Conve rsation in pairs Seeking information blank lIIap and must put in the
or groups Notions plans accord ing to pupil A ' s
Relevant objects and instructions.
people shapes , colours .
spatial pOD i t ions , s ize .
sequence
( Clark and Hamilton 1 984: 30)

� TASK 84
From the above extract does i t appear to you that events, functions,
notions, and tasks been integrated in a principled way, or do the
relationships between these elements , appear to be arbitrary?
7.5 Grading content

In 3 , we saw that, traditionally, items in a grammatical syllabus are graded
largely according to whether they are easy or difficult, and that difficulty is
defined in grammatical terms. We also saw that grammatical difficulty is
not necessarily the same as learning difficulty.
The two lists which follow set out the order in which verb and tense forms
appear in two popular coursebooks.
Cambridge English Checkpoint English
1 Present of be (singular) 1 Be: present affirm.
2 I} 2 Be: present interrog.
neg.
3 Present of be (plural) 3 Be: neg. interrog.
have got There is (are)
4 I} 4 Simple present
5 There is/there are 5 Have
6 Simple present 6 Have got
7 Was/were 7 Be: past
8 II- 8 II-
9 I} 9 Regular past simple
10 Have got 10 Present progressive
affirm. neg.
Irregular past
, 1 1 Be contrasted with have 11 Irregular present
Irregular past
1 2 Simple past 12 Be going to
Present tenses
Irregular past
I} These sections focus on grammatical ite'ms other than verb tenses.
� TASK 8 S
How much agreement i s there between these two coursebooks on
the order of presentation of verb and tense forms ?
What conclusions would you come to about the level o f ease o r
difficulty o f different verb and tense forms ?
� TAS K 8 6
List and compare the ordering of other grammatical items in
coursebooks such as Checkpoint English, The Cambridge English
Course, or Contemporary English.
What similarities or differences are there?
What generalizations would you make about the ease or difficulty of
different grammatical items?
In 3, we looked at the work of several researchers in the field of SLA. These

researchers claim that the order in which learners actually acquire
grammatical items is very often different from the order of difficulty
suggested by linguists. Researchers such as Pienemann and Johnston
( 1 987) claim that it is learning difficulty, determined by such things as
short-term memory, rather than grammatical difficulty, which determines
those items students will be capable of learning at a given stage.
Pienemann and Johnston's theories predict that learners will acquire
question forms in the order in which they are listed below.
1 What's the time?
What's your name?
2 How do you spell X?
Are you tired ?
Have you got an X?
Would you like an X?
3 Where are you from ?
4 Do you like X?
� TASK 8 7
Compare this order with the order in which the items are taught in
the coursebooks you have examined.
What similarities and differences are there?
Would it be possible to reorder the items in the coursebooks you
have examined to fit in with this developmental order?
Would it be desirable to do so ? (If you think it undesirable, give your
reasons.)
The following lists of functions have been taken from the syllabus guide to
English Today! Books 1-3 .
Communicative functions
Book 1
Greetings. response to Questions and answers about
greetings. farewell; 1 -6. 47 personal possessions: 58 ... 6 1
Introducing themselves: 2-5. 26. 27. Asking what things are in English:
.
30. 32. 34 9- 1 1 . 1 6-23. 42. 4 3. 64
Asking and telling the time: 48. 49. 50. Asking a person's nome and making
51 simple enquiries: 46. 47
Counting up to twelve: 36-4 1 . 48-5 1 Expressing thanks: 47. 59
Saying the letters of the alphabet and Responding to instructions:
spelling: throughout throughout
Identifying and describing simple Giving instructions: 7. 30. 3 1 . 3 3. 59
objects: 8-23. 40-43. 52-55. Inability to respond. asking for
58-64 information: 58
Simple description of themselves and
others: 30. 32. 34. 44-46. 56-6 1
Greettngs. response to What people are doing: 56-63. 76. 77 Book 2
greetings. farewell: 1 - 5. 40. 4 1 Asking and answering questions
Introducing themselves: 2. 3. 26 about
Asking and telhng the time: 23. 3 I location: 4 5-47. 62. 70. 7 1
Counting 1 - 1 00: 22. 23. 26. 27. 30. personal possessions: 32-35. 38. 4 3
3 1 . 64-68. 72. 73
Saying the letters of the alphabet AskIng what thIngs are I n English:
and spelling: throughout 9- 1 5. 32. 3 3. 38. 40. 4 1 . 82. 8 3
IdentifYing and describing SImple A n apology o r excuse: 5 6
objects: throughout Thanks: 35. 75
Simple deSCription of themselves and Responding to instructions:
others: 23. 24-27. 37. 43. 52. 54. throughout: giving 1n5t!"uctions: 43.
55. 63. 78. 84 48. 49. 56. 57
Book 3
Greetings. response to greetings. Making simple enquiries about a
farewell: 1 -3. 1 9. 34. 94 person: 1 - 3. 1 5. 74-77
The time: 3. 7 1 . 73: the day and the Asking permission to do simple things:
dote: 78-8 1 0 34. 56
Counting: I 3 Requesting things needed: 23. 24. 44.
Saying the letters of the alphabet and 56. 62
spelling: throughout Making and responding to an apology
The weather: 82-84. 86 or excuse: 3. 2 1 . 23. 62
Identifying and describing simple Thanks: 2. 62
objeCts: throughout Likes. dislikes. needs and wants:
Simple descriptions of themselves and 1 9-2 1 . 40. 42. 66. 67
others: 6-8. 29-3 1 . 63. 67. 7 3-77. Responding to Instructions:
79. 80 throughout: giving instructions: 3.
What people are doing: 3. 1 0. 1 4. 34. 5. 6. 32. 3 3. 35
43. 62 Inability to respond: 45
Asking and answering questions Orol and written prohibitions and
about location: 9. I I . 1 4. injunctions: 32-33. 35. 52-55. 65
70-33 Comprehending simple narratives:
Asking and answering questions 1 9-2 1 . 23-24. 32-34. 40-42.
about personal possessions: 1 5. 39. 62-63. 89. 9 1 -92
62. 63 Recognizing common Signs: 52-55
Asking what things are in English: English nomes of important places: 70.
37-39. 74. 75 73.
(Howe 1 985)
� TASK 8 8
What evidence is there of grading throughout the series ?
What principles seem to have informed the selection and grading of
items ? (For example, has grading been influenced by linguistic,
cognitive, maturational, or practical considerations ?
As we have seen, the issue of grading is a critical one, and one which will be
taken up again in 8 and 9.
7.6 Conclusion
We have now looked at the selection, grading, and integration of
structural, functional, and notional content. The aim of 7 was to explore
the ways in which content selection and grading is conventionally dealt
with, and to provide you with the skills you need to examine and criticize
the selection and grading of content in your own syllabuses .
. In 8 we shall look at applications of process-oriented approaches to
syllabus design and examine the selection and grading of learning tasks and
activities.
/
8 Selecting and grading learning tasks '
8 . 1 Introduction
We shall now reconsider those issues raised in Section One which
relate to the selection and grading of learning tasks and activities. In parti
cular we shall look at examples and applications of the ideas presented
in 4. First, we shall look at the relationship between goals, objectives, and
tasks. We shall then look at tasks which have been proposed in relation to
the various process-oriented syllabuses discussed in �. Finally, we shall
examine a range of task types. The purpose of 8 is to provide you with the
skills you will need to examine the selection and grading of tasks in relation
to your own syllabuses.
8 .2 Goals, obj ectives, and tasks

In Section One, we examined the desirability of relating classroom
activities to syllabus goals and objectives so that courses and programmes
derived from such syllabuses have an overall coherence of purpose. Failure
to provide links between goals, content, and learning activities can lead to a
situation in which the desired outcomes of a programme are contradicted
at the classroom level. As Widdowson has pointed out:
. . . it is perfectly possible for a notional syllabus to be implemented

by a methodology which promotes mech�nistic habit formation and
in effect is focused on grammar; and conversely for a grammatical
syllabus to be actualized by a methodology which develops a
genuine capacity for communication.
( \Viddowson 1 987)
In 6 we saw that one group of syllabus planners working within a school

context came up with the following list of communicative goals:
Instruction should enable learners to :
1 participate in conversation related to the pursuit of common activities
with others
2 obtain goods and services through conversation or correspondence
3 establish and maintain relationships through exchanging information,
ideas, opinions, attitudes, feelings, experiences, and plans
4 make social arrangements, solve problems, and come to conclusions
together
Selecting and grading learning tasks 97
5 discuss topics of interest

6 search for specific information for a given purpose, process it, and use it
In some way
7 listen to or rea d information, process it, and use it in some ways
8 give information in spoken or written form on the basis of personal
experience
9 listen to, or read or view a story, poem, play feature etc., and respond to
it personally in some way.
� TASK 8 9
Match each of the following groups of classroom activities with one
of the above goal statements:
A find the cheapest way to get from A to B from travel brochures
listen to airport announcements to find out when one's
plane leaves and from which gate
listen to alternative ways of making a particular dish and
discuss them with a friend
B - read a news item and discuss it with someone
- read an article and summarize it
- listen to a lecture and make notes on it
C - write a letter inviting someone to a party
determine with someone how best to get from A to B
- choose with someone which present to buy someone for her
birthday
D - m ake a model
- lay the table
- cook something
- play a game of some sort
E - greet people
- exchange personal information
- discuss one's hobbies
- narrate a recent experience
- write a letter to a friend
F - discuss the latest news
- discuss pollution in the atmosphere
G - give a talk
write a report
- keep a diary
- record a set of instructions on how to do something
- fill in a form
H - buy food
- get a meal
- get accommodation in a hotel
98 Demonstrating syllablls design
- hire a car
- get information about sightseeing
- write for some information about holidays
- read a story and discuss it with a friend
Do the goal statements represent useful headings, or are they
redundant?
What purpose, if any, is served by grouping learning tasks and
activities under goal statements such as those above?
In 5 we looked at the advantages and disadvantages of specifying objectives

in performance terms. It was suggested by some syllabus designers that
performance objectives could be useful in certain types of syllabus design
because they provided a specification of what learners should be able to do
as a result of instruction. The objectives can be specified, either in
real-world or classroom terms, and can provide a link between classroom
activities and general goals.
� TASK 9 0 .
See whether you can write objectives for each of the classroom
activities described in Task 89.
Which of these relate to real-world performance, which to
classroom performance and which, if any, to both real-world and
classroom performance?
Did you have any difficulty writing objectives for any of the
activities ? If so, which ? Can you say why you had difficulty ?
8 .3 Procedural syllabuses
Certain approaches to syllabus design begin, not with a needs analysis or a
statement of goals and objectives, but with lists of classroom tasks. As we
saw, there can be problems with this approach: it is often difficult to see
how the classroom tasks are related to learners' purposes, and the lists
themselves may remain j ust that, unco-ordinated lists of tasks. The
advantage of having a restricted set of goal statements is that it can provide
a degree of coherence which may otherwise be lacking. It also enables th�
syllabus planner to link classroom tasks to the real-world uses to which
learners might wish to put their second language skills.
There are, however, circumstances in which it is impossible to derive
communicative goals from learners' purposes because the learners have no
purpose beyond, perhaps, passing a public examination. In some foreign
language teaching situations it may only be possible to make goal
statements in vague or even vacuous terms.
In educational contexts where there is no specific communicative end in
sight, proposals have been made for basing the syllabus, not on content, but
on procedures which are felt to promote second language acquisition. One
such proposal is the Bangalore Project.
We saw in 4 that the Bangalore Project has received a good deal of
publicity. The following sample tasks are from the Project. Task A has been
adapted from Brumfit ( 1 984), while Task B has been taken from Prabhu
( 1 987).
Task A
Appendix : Ba ngalore exercise (see page 1 04 )

( Prabhu, 1 982: Lesson 1 H J : 2 6 Au g ust 1 9 8 1 )
The following di:1logue is h:mc.lcc.l mat :1 nc.l rC:1d :1loud by two sets o f students, e:1ch
m k ing :1 p:1rt.
Suresh: D:1ddy, when will the tmin comc ?

. R:1j3n: I n :1bout ten Ol inutes. l t is on l ), 4 . 1 0 pm now.
S u rc:sh: Wil l it le:1ve the st:1tion 3t unce ?
R3j:1n: No Sure:sh, it will Stop herc for 1 0 minutes. h le:1ves M:1dr:ls only at
4.30 pm.
R3c.1h:1: Does it re:1ch Hyder:lb3d by 7.00 a m ?
R:lj3n: No, only :It 8 . 3 0 :101. W e must h a ve o u r bre:l k fast i n the tr:lin.
Suresh: How much did you p:ly for the tickets. D3dd y ?
R:1j:1n : I p:lid Rs 360.00 for th ree first cI:lsS t ickets. \'(/hen we come b3ck from
Hyder:1b:1d. we sh:111 cr:1vel by second cl:1ss.
R:tdh:1: Yes. A second-cl :1ss ticket COStS only R s 5 0/-.
Suresh: Are we going to St:1y :1t Hotel Ann3purn:1 this time too, M u mmy?
R3dh:l: Yes de:1r, the rooms :lre very com fon:tble there.
R:lj:1n: And the food is :l lso good.
R:1dh:1: When do we come b3ck to M :1d r:l s ?
R:1j:ln: After :1 week. \'(/e w i l l b e b:1ck here : n the Centr:11 St:uion o n Saturday,
the 22nd of A ugust.
Suresh: Today is also :1 S:lturd3y.Ou r school h:ts holid:1Ys for :l week from today.
R3dh:1: There is the tr3 i n ! S u resh. ( 3 ke this b:tg. I'll t:l ke this suitcase. D3ddy C:1n
t:lke the: bigger sui tc3se. We m u st fi n d o u r compartmenr.
Prc-task: The tC3cher discusses with the class the fo l lo \v i ng questions:
I Who is Surcs h ?
2 Wh:1t is h is father's n:tme?
3 Who is R3dh 3 ?
4 Where are they now ?
5 What is thc name of the station ?
6 Wh3t arc they doing there?
7 \'(/here are they goi ng?
8 At what time does the train leave M :td r3 s ?
9 How long does it t3ke: to re:1ch H yder3bac.l ?
lO i s i t a night train o r a d:1Y train ?
tI Wherc wil l they st3 Y in Hyder:1 b:1d ?
12 Will they h3ve: break fast at Hotel Annapu rna tomorrow ?
t3 Docs R3jan like to St3Y :1t Ann:tpu rn3 ? How do you know ?
t4 Why docs R:1dha likc Hotel Ann3purn3 ?
1 00 Del1lonstrating syllabus design
1 5 For how m:lOY days will they stay a t H yder:a ba d ?

1 6 On which d a y a re they Ica v i ng Madras?
17 \'(1i l l Su resh miss his classes?
1 8 \'(Ih :a [ luggage do they have?
1 9 Arc they rich? How do you know ?
20 How m uch docs a first class ticket COSt ?
2 1 How much will they spend for thei r ret u rn (rom Hyderab3d t o M3dra s ?
22 T h e Hyderabad Express leaves H yderab3d :a t 4 .00 p m . W h e n docs i t reach
M a d ra s ?
23 Last week R a j a n went t o H yderabad. He t ravel led b y second class both ways.
How m uch did he spend on the t ra i n tickets ?
24 Is this the (irst time that they :lre goi ng to Hyderabad? How do you know?
Task: Pupils are asked to answer the fol l o w i ng q uestions overnight.
Say whether the (ollowing st:ltements a rc true or (alse; give reasons for your
:mswers.
1 Mr Raj:m a l ways travels by (irst class.
2 There :lre no good hotels i n Hydera bad.
3 The R:ljans reached the st:uion before the tra i n :l rrived.
4 Radha ca n a ttend her friend's weddi ng at H yderab3d on 20th A ugust. .
S S u resh was at M�dra s on Independence D:lY.
Comment: Pupils' performance, m:uked ou t of 1 0, was:
Marks Pupils
9- 1 0 9
7-8 10
S-6 3
3--4 0
1 -2 I
23
Pupi ls a rc now beginning to try to state reasons in their 'own words' instead o f
merel y ci r i ng l ines from the text.
(Brllm{it 1 984: 1 45-6)

Selecting and grading learning tasks 1 01
Task B
2 Instructions to draw
A sequence of lessons based on instructions to draw contained the

following task (following a similar pre-task) representing an
�ppropriate challenge at one stage of project teaching:
a Draw a line, from left to right.

b Write B · at the right end of the line, and A at the left end.
e Draw another line below AB.
d Write 0 at its left end and C at its right end.
a Join BD.
When the sequence was resumed two weeks later, with twelve
lessons on other task-types intervening, the following task proved
to be appropriately challenging for the class. (The pre-task which
preceded it introduced conventions such as that 'continue AB'
meant continuing the line concerned in the direction of B to about
twice its original length.)
D
a Name the top corners of the square: B on the left and C on
the right.
b Name the cornars at the bottom: 0 on the right and A on the
left.
e Continue AB and call the end of the line E.
d Continue CD and write F at the end of the line.
a Join EC.
f What should be joined next?
Returning to the drawing sequence a long time later (when about

200 lessons had intervened, though only three of them had been on
drawing instructions) the teacher found the class able to do the
following task with about the same measure of success:
a Draw two parallel, horizontal lines. Let them be about

four inches long.
b Join the ends of the two lines on the left, with a short
vertical line.
e Use two parallel, vertical lines to join the right ends of
the horizontal lines.
d Mark the mid-points of the parallel, vertical lines.
a Draw a dotted line, horizontally, passing through the
mid-points of the parallel vertical lines and extending
to the right for about half an inch.
f Use straight lines to join the right end of the dotted l ine
with the right ends of the two horizontal parallel lines.
(Prabhu 1 98 7b: 33-4)

1 02 DenlOllstrating syllabus design
� TAS K 9 1
\Vhat sort of skills are likely to be developed from tasks such as
these ?
In what ways do the tasks differ from 'traditional' language tasks ? In
what ways are they the same?
The Bangalore syllabus does not focus explicitly on language and
does not specify the grammatical, functional, or notional items to be
taught. Would it be ( 1 ) possible (2) useful to specify the grammatic
al, functional, and notional items which could be taught through
these two tasks ? If so, list these.
8 .4 The natural approach

In 4, we saw that the authors of the natural approach divide language goals
i nto basic personal communication skills (oral and written) and academic
learning skills (oral and written) .
� TASK 92
Indicate to which goal they belong, by placing the appropriate letter
(A, B, C, D) against each of the tasks that follow the language goals.
Goals
A basic personal communication skills: oral
B basic personal communication skills: written
C academic learning skills: oral
D academic learning skills: wrinen
Tasks
1 read textbooks
2 present a class report
3 listen to a lecture
4 read and write notes to friends or workers
5 read signs, including instructions
6 read and fill out forms (applications and other documents)
7 p articipate in a conversation with one or more speakers of L2
8 write reports, essays
9 read and discuss literature
10 listen to a conversation between other speakers
11 listen to announcements in public places
12 read advertisements (windows, newspapers, magazines)
13 listen to a film or other audiovisual presentation with academic
content
14 study for and take an exam
15 take notes in class
16 request information in public places
17 listen to and participate in panel and classroom discussions
1 8 read and write personal letters

1 9 listen to radio, television, films, music
2U read for pieasure
Would learners take part in these activities inside or outside the

language class ?
Which activities could be part of both a language course and a
non-language course ?
Krashen and Terrell ( 1 983) suggest that basic personal oral communica
tion goals, for which the approach is best suited, can be expressed in terms
of the situations in which students must use the target language and the
topics of communication. In other words, they ,are assuming a link between
classroom activities and the real world. The following example is taken
from their book:
Recreation and leisure activities

Topics
1 . Favourite activities
2. Sports and games
3. Climate and seasons
4. Weather
5. Seasonal activities
6. Holiday activities
7. Parties
8. Abilities
9. Cultural and artistic interests
Situations
1. Playing games, sports
� TASK 93
Complete the table overleaf, b y providing appropriate topics o r
situations.
For what type of learners would the topics and situations in the table
be most suitable (beginning/intermediate/advanced learner; ESU
EFL learner; new arrivalllong-term resident of target community) ?
What criticisms would you make of a syllabus outline based only on
topics and situations?
1 04 Demonstrating syllabus design
Area Topics Situations
Family, friends, Family and relatives Birthday party

activities Physical states
Emotional states
Daily activities
Holiday and vacation
activities
Pets
Plans, Job interview

obligations, Talking on the job
and careers
Residence Place of residence

Rooms of a house
Furniture and household
items
Activities at home
Amenities
Health, illness, Visit to Dr

and At hospital
e mergencies . Buying m edicine
Table 4
8 .5 Content-based syllabuses
In 4 we looked at syllabuses based on experiential content, focusing in
panicular on the work of Mohan. Mohan's knowledge framework,
consisting of a practical aspect and a theoretical aspect was described.
Here, we shall look at ways in which this knowledge framework is realized
through action situations.
One of the techniques suggested by Mohan for representing action
situations is through flowcharts. The figure on the facing page shows the
flowchart of a shopping situation between a clerk and a shopper.
� TASK 94
Suggest ways in which the flowchart might b e used as the basis o f
lesson sequences.
Do you think the flowchart could be used for a whole unit or
module, or would it only serve for a single lesson ?
How might the flowchart relate to Mohan's knowledge framework ?
C = derk
S = shopper
Boxes are numbered l-l J
C. C. S.
. provide
introduction pay
goods
13 12
S. state
shopper's
method of
rejection
payment
2 11
C. ask method
request of
10
S. S.
clerk's shopper's shopper's
apology refusal acceptance
4 8 9
C.
query answer
yes
5 6
Figure 3 : Flowchart o f shopping situation

(Mohan 1 986: 59)
Mohan suggests that the flowchart can represent situational language and
situational content in combination more adequately than can cartoon
strips or picture sequences. In addition, the various branches of the
flowchart offer alternative pathways which are not possible with linear
sequences. They thus relate to the knowledge framework by providing
teachers with the potential for developing activities focusing on either
description, sequence, or choice.
� TASK 95
Suggest some classroom activities for a shopping situation involving
description, sequence, and choice.
The following suggestions are provided by Mohan:

Description
Basis: a typical situation includes participants, actions, objects, and a scene
or setting. Dramatization or pictures show these visually. All can be
described by the teacher.
Examples: shopper gives an identifying description of the item wanted.

Shopper and clerk compare and contrast items.
Classrooln activity: learners role play shopper and clerk using labels,
advertisements, and catalogue descriptions of goods for information. More
generally, a description of the state of affairs at any point in the situation
gives a starter for role playing the remainder of the situation.
Sequence
Basis: a typical situation is a series of related events and actions on a time
line. If there is no discourse we have a chain of actions. With discourse we
have a script. These events and actions can be narrated by the teacher.
Exalnple: the clerk's attention is distracted and the shopper leaves with the
goods, mistakenly thinking they have been paid for. The clerk calls the
shopper back and they clear up the mistake, establishing the chronological
order of events and the reasons for the confusion.
Classrooln activity: an extension of the above. The shopper is to be accused
of shoplifting. Students create the events which led up to this. Then some
take the roles of shopper, clerk, and floorwalker and the rest act as the
supervisor and interview the others about what happened. A report on the
incident is written combining the interview information. Simpler activities
include narrating the script or action chain and issuing instructions to the
shopper or clerk.
Choice
Basis: a typical situation will include intentional actions. Any such action
springs from a choic� which derives from a decision situation (some
choices, of course� are more trivial than others). The decision situation can
be stated by the teacher.
Example: the shopper makes a decision to buy or not to buy. This can be by
internal deliberation or by discussion. A possible choice can be offered by a
proposal and can be rejected with a refutation. Alternatives can be
compared and contrasted and their consequences explored.
Classroom activity: the main decision is whether to buy or not. The
students create the decision situation that this springs from. This can be
simpler or more complex, depending on the level of the students. A
statement of the decision situation is the basis for a problem solving
activity.
(Extracted from Mohan 1 986: 65-6)
� TASK 96
Select some other action situation and develop i t in the same way a s
l\10han developed the shopping situation.
If content-based syllabuses consisted of nothing more than a series of

action situations strung together, they could be criticized for being
incomplete. In the following task you are asked to consider some of the
additional elements which might be specified.
� TASK 9 7
For what types o f students might the shopping situation be
appropriate?
To which real-world tasks might it relate?
Specify a given learner proficiency level, and suggest performance
objectives for the shopping situation.
Suggest grammatical, functional, and notional components.
What principles do you think might guide the selection of content in
� content-based syllabus? Will they be basically the same as or
different from those guiding content selection in other analytic
syllabuses we have looked at?
What principles might be invoked in grading content? Will these be
basically the same as or different from those used to grade content in
�ther analytic syllabuses?
8.6 Levels of difficulty

As we have already seen, grading becomes a major problem in syllabuses
based on tasks and activities rather than lists of grammatical items.
In 4.7 the comments by Brown and Yule on task difficulty were discussed,
and you were asked to produce a list of factors likely to influence task
difficulty.
The following tasks have been adapted from Brown and Yule. In each task,
the students are working in pairs.
1 Both students have a photograph which is almost identical. The speaker
has to describe what is in the photograph as accurately as possible in
order that the listener can identify in what way his photograph differs
from the one which the speaker is describing.
2 The speaker has a diagram. The listener has a blank sheet of paper, a
black pen, and a red pen. The speaker has to instruct the listener to
reproduce the diagram as accurately as possible on his sheet of paper.
The listener has to listen carefully and to follow the speaker's
instructions.
3 The sp�aker has a cartoon strip story. The listener has a set of pictures
which show scenes or the . characters from the story and some from
different stories. The speaker has to tell the story so that the listener will
be able to identify which scenes or characters fit the account he hears.
4 The speaker has a set of photographs depicting a sequence of events
leading up to a car crash. The listener has a set of photographs, some of
F
which show details of the particular car crash being described and some
for another car crash. Alternatively, the listener has a road layout design
on which he has to draw the locations and movements of the cars
involved in the crash.
5 The learner watches a short piece of video film in which a teacher
expresses a fairly strong opinion that corporal punishment is necessary
in school to ensure that teachers can do their work and that students can
learn. Learners are asked to watch the film and say what they think about
the matter.
� TAS K 9 8
Refer to the list o f factors likely to determine task difficulty that yo_u
worked on in Task 58 and grade the above tasks from easiest to most
difficult.
It has been suggested that, all things being equal, activities which can be
exploited at different levels of difficulty are more useful than those which
are only suitable for a single proficiency level. Such activities are obviously
extremely useful in mixed-ability classrooms.
Because of the variety of factors involved, it is not always easy to determine
whether a given activity is easier or more difficult than another; it is
sometimes a matter of judgement.
,
The following activities have been extracted from a book designed for
mixed-ability groups. Tasks at different levels of difficulty have been
derived from the same piece of data (in this instance an airport
announcement) .
Listen only to the first announcement.
Where should you 90 for seal alloc3non? ____________
2 Listen only to the first announcement.
Where is il? Tick GJ the correct picture.
o o
3 Listen only 10 the first announcement.
Where should he 90? Tick GJ the right answer.
DA DB DC DD
(Adapted from Jones and Maar 1 985: 25-9)
� TASK 9 9
Study the above activities and decide which is the easiest and which
the most difficult.
An alternative CO the procedure adopted by Jones and Moar is CO devise

activities which can be worked on in small groups, where each learner can
contribute accotding co his/her level of competence. One commonly used
activity which lends itself well to mixed-abiliry groups consists of a series of
pictures depicting a narrative.Each student is given a picture. The task is
for each student co describe hislher picture and then for the group as a
whole co decide on the appropriate order in which the pictures should be
sequenced.
The following unit extract is from the Challenges coursebook.

BRITISH BROAOC ASTlIWG CORPOR ATION

IliJIli1'c
and Sharing 3EC/Challenges ::esea:-cn !lotes
C:':.ARLOT'!'::
Cha.rlotte i s IS YCCOS old a...,d ....o:-i:s as a :-f>cepti o = s t i n
C"x(ord Street 1 n Loncor-' s ".est. En c . She l S a pretty gi:-l ....i t h
a l i v l.' l y pe:-sonality. She t,
"ea on ...ell i th people a:10 h a s a
....
lot of [ricn:::s .
STEP 1 READING
A t p:-eSent, �na:lot.e n.s
n o flxec address. She has been
looking
!:n
" SO::le....he:-e to live fo:- about t!":ree
COMtns. So :a:- sne has been
u
nsuccessful and has bee::! slee;ling-
on the floor of a �!'"iem! ' s flat.
C::a:lottes ' s j:li::-en:s ljve In the
country JUSt Outside London il."lc!
although it is possible to live at nO:::f> "'!�h
her pa:ents an::::
(:O=UtfO to Lon:ion eve::- y day to vory. like t:"lousands of
othe!'" people,
Cna:lo"ote "'a!'lts to be independ ent.
She "'ants to lead a l i ff" ot
ner O"fl,
Cha.:l o t t e ' s bOY!!'"!en:::: ,

Glen. sha!'"es a flat ....i th three
other fr1en:::: s ,
':""ne.v
....1":-1' lucky. Tne:.' fo::..
.,o a flat ver;' quickly. Chao -Ioae, h o....e vl"=-.
nas not beer: so lud:y .
E.very day she ouys il."l eveninl> ,:ape::-

an� looks through the acVerti sf_
::len', S , ;)he visi '.s a.,� telephones flat
;'�ncies about three tioes
OI.t,.VS
·
a "'!'!'k. $he a c:..a.ga::inf> c a l l e :: 'Title D-.lt ' every Thu:sday and
�ooks throl,lg!'J the ' :1ats to Share ' pages ve,:,;.. carefull y.
see a nu=oe!'" of ciffere nt pIsces

i n difff.>:-e nt par�s
London. ::ach time she has been disappoin ted fo!'" one
:-eason 0::-
CONF I Q ,Ni l "' L

STEP 2 QUESTIONNAIRE
CLlfNT 5 DilJ;.II.S
cl,ent
:! �"SI I.�;)TE0) -E)-
Iogf> 01
OCcuOdtton
P'Ufnt �OC'US
You ate the person who interviews ;;,no of dcco"'mO(l�I'on ....�nlcd
Charlolle ill a flat agency. Fill in the P,el�"to IOCdl_on l i n London OUI 0 1 lo..... nl
lorm for her using the information in "10.... o�<; ��! I"� e' ��. ��" (0.0. "9 10' nf.-. ��o",;o��_'or
How n�s 'nt' tt'�nl Deen 100''''9 10' accommooatto
Ihe leu. e n ______
, It I�t' ch�nl ,� loo:",n<;l '0' !onaH!(l accomn'003tton "'file . Duel

nOl@ on n,s n�' p... r�o"al" ..
When Chariolle !efl home she . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (lwl l O Sl � .\' wilh friends In

- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (consult I a n ;Jgenl. Then she . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
_
STEP 3 WRITING London. She fir:.1

.
. l ''l fbI which:J 50·\car·0
. . . \\'1Sil Id \\'om,1n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I \\"In! ) \0 share.
'
. - . . . . . (phone) ;,bOUI anal I ler room .
•
The followmg mommg she .

� [.0'\ [ II!II When she . . . . . .: . . . . . . . . . If!cll lhere. she ( fi n d ) Ih <l l the
room was \ cry Imy, .-\ n d s h ' - - ' : . . . ·b· · ·;·, i"�;iik·� ) �·h�· �lrl l herc. She
Tell the story of Chadotte's search.
cr fi:.II. u ·
;;; '\\,:5 100 1<I le. They h;Jd found
F i t l in the gaps using a suitable form . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . !C�1l at) <InOI h . . . -
01 the words i n brackets. someone. ;-':e)'1 she . . . . . . . . . (rin!!) a boy who Ilved In a b ed ·SllIer.
her She . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...
_
But the bed·SHler . (nOI suit) either.
lbegml 10 feel er� depressed Tnen ;j fnen

\ ' d> ' treadl her an
.
I (want)
<l d \ crti�c menl from t h e n c\\·� p a T
��"i1 � �l�fl :
h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ( phon e )
someone 10 sh�fe a rcb.\ed. happ. .
,mal her glf . I . They . '
' '
them. The I!ir/s . . . . . . . . . . ,. . . . . . . linlcr\'iew ) her and

she
jchoo�el CharlOlle. The nexl SalurdiJ Y
lmO\e in!.
STEP 4 READING
STEP S NOTE·TAKING
list what kind of accommodation is

available in the advertisements.
You now know something about Charlotte, and yOll have seen what flats are on
STEP 6 DISCUSSION offer What do you think CharioHe would think about them? Use the
switchboard.
I II I
a kit�'hc:n Itl,han,'
!
Ih�rc'� 101\! :Jnd p.!:JI:C th.:rc
a tub<:: )1;lII o n nearb�
largo::
po::u:dul
sunny
/1
comrorlable
I il\
think I I thc
tirst
second
! fbl b \cr� good for Chad'llll! bc\:au�e
lIui<;1
non·�moklng
don'! think ' free
I I \\o:!l·silu:Jtc:d
i h:J) to share: :J kitchen

ha� a lot 01 fricnds
I "cll With p.!oplc

�hc:
tlCI) .)n
, ;
W:IOIS hl lc:Jd a life oft'n:r own
II I
not a mali typo:
100 young
"
)hc's
I
I Ihdy
rm . . . .
ilkl.'
hht iI"L . .
flal
.
don·l l i ke the hecause .
second there·!> . . . .
�o\\ lell your grour' \\ hat you think r'rder
there isn·t . . ..
ahl.'ut the nats.
You ha\ c arrived in an English

!\peaking countr) . You are looking for
a flat. perhaps alone. perhaps to share
with somc�'\dy. Wrile a n ad\eni�
ment for t he newspaper asking I<lr
accommodat ion. Your ad\en i!;ement
mighl look �omelhin!l like these : ____ _ _.4 2 70�
_�
!,--_P
FOR E I G :'\ STlJD E:-';T. man. 30 ��ar'

old. s«ks flat to share. preferably \\ ilh
En2lishman. Town Cenlre. Cookrne
facilities essenlial. "'nle Bo� :-':0. 789:
(Abbs, Ca11dlin, Edelhoff, Moston, and Sexton 1 979: 2-4)

•
� TASK 1 00
Do the above activities seem to be sequenced in any principled way?
If so, what criteria have been utilized in sequencing the activities ?
Does task difficulty seem to be one of the factors influencing the
sequencing of tasks ?
\Vhat are the factors determining the difficulty of the different tasks
in the unit?
The sample unit extracts which follow have been taken from Hutchinson
and \Vaters ( 1 9 8 3 ) .
Selecting and grading learning tasks J J3
Unit 1: Tools
Look at the p i c tu r e s in the I nput b e l ow a n d na k e a l i st of all the tool s
and ma t e r i a l s you wou l d need for the job.
Rep l ac i ng a pane
1 . Remove the broken pane , 2. Scrape away t h e o l d putty

wea ri n g g l o v e s a n d t a k i n g wi th a h a mm e r a n d a s u i tabl e
great care. too 1 .
3. T a k e o u t a ny w i n d ow pins l eft 4. B r u s h o f f a ' 1 d u s t and c l ea n

i n t h e frame. i
r e m a i n n g p u t ty f r o m t h e f r a m e .
�. T a k e d i a g o n a l a s we i I a s b. C a r e f u l l y e a s e the new p a n e
horizontal a n d vert i c a l i n t o p o s i t i o n , wea r i ng
me a s u r e m e n t s . g l oves .
/
114 Delnonstrating syllabus design
l F i x the pane in p l a c e w i th 8. Work t h e p u t ty i n t o p l a c e

panel pi ns . wi t h t h u m b , p u s h i n g f i rm l y .
9. Wi th a p u t ty kni fe or sharp 10. W h e n t h e p u t ty i s d ry , p a i n t

bl ade , ang l e t h e p u t ty a s t h e p u t ty a n d t h e f r a me .
s hown .
GATH E R I N G I N F O RMAT I O N
Step 1
a ) Put these i ns tructi ons i n- orde r :
Angl e the p u t ty .
Me a s u re the f r ame .
Take out all the old g l a ss .
Fi x the pane wi th pane } p i ns .
P a i nt the p u t ty a nd the f r ame .
Remove the p u t ty .
Put the new pa ne i n to pos i t i on .
l a ke out the pane l pi ns .
Put the stri p of p u t ty round the i ns i de of the frame .
Put p u t ty round the n ew pa n e .
B uy the n ew p a n e .
Cl ean the f ra me .
Step 6 I Adverbs I
Remo ve t h e b ro k e n gl ass carefu l l y .
Put s u i t a b l e a d ve rb s in these sentences :
i) S c ra p e away t h e o l d p u t ty .
il) C l ean the fr ame .

iii ) Mea s u re the f r ame .
iv} Fi t the new pan e .
v) Put in the panel p i ns .

vi ) Wo rk t h e p u t ty i n t o the frame .
vi i ) Ang l e the p u t ty .
vi i i ) Pa i nt the f r a me .
TAS K
Thi s is a p i c t ure o f a meta l f r a me w i n d o w . Ma k e a set o f i n s t ruc t i o n s fo r
re p l a c i n g t h e pane of g l ass . ( Note : me t a l frame wi ndows can rust ea s i l y . )
(Hutchinson and Waters 1 983: 1 03-9)
� TASK 1 0 1
What criteria have been utilized in sequencing the activities ?
Do the tasks increase in difficulty from the beginning to the end of
the unit?
What factors seem to be involved in task difficulty?
The Hutchinson and Waters example is taken from the field of ESP.
As with general purpose syllabuses, different ESP syllabuses will be located
at different points along the product/process continuum.
116 Delnonstrating syllabus design
The contents pages below and opposite have been taken from another ESP
publication, English in Focus: Biological Science.
Contents
Acknowledgements x
Introduction
Unit I Biology - The Study of Living Organisms
I: R EA D I N G A N D C O M P R E H EN S I O N
E X ERCI S E A: Listing the i mportant points 2
EXERCISE B: Finding out about the meaning of words 2
EX E RCI S E C: Checking facts and ideas 3
EX E R C I S E D: Connecting facts and ideas 3
II: U S E O F L A N G U A G E 4
E X E R C I S E E : Describing shape 4
EX ERCIS E F: Describing size 7
EX ERCIS E G : Describing external features 7
E X ERCI S E H : Describing similarities between two organisms 8
E X E R C I S E I : Describing differences between two organisms 8
Ill: T R A N S F E R O F I N FO R M A T I O N 9
E X E R CIS E J: A table of similarities and differences 9
EXERCISE K: Making a brief description of an organism 9
IV : G U I D E D W R I TI N G 10
Describing and comparing the form and structure of two
simple organisms 10
V : R E A D I N G A N D N OTE-TA K I N G 11
The characteristics of living things 11
Unit 2 The Differences between Plants and Animals
I: R E A D I N G A N D C O M P R E H E N S I O N 13
E X E R CI S E A: Finding out about the meaning of words 14
EX ERCIS E B: Connecting facts and ideas 14
vi Comellls
II: USE OF LANG UAGE 16

EX E R C I S E C : Naming statements 16
EX E R C I S E 0: Definitions of groups of organisms and
of anatomical structures 17
EX E R C I S E E : Describing form and structure 17
EX ERCISE F: Describing function 18
EX E R C I S E G: Genera l statements 19
EX E R C I S E H: Negative general statements 19
I I I : T R A � S F E R O F I N F O R �t A T I O N 20
EX ERC I S E I: A table of contrasts 20
EX E R C I S E J: Describing similarities and di ffe rences �I
IV: G U I D E D W R I T I N G "
Stating facts and discussing their im portance , .,
V: R E A D I N G A N D N OT E - TA K I S G
Unit 3 The Need for Energy - Autotrophs and Heterotrophs
I: REA D I N G AND COMP R E H E N SI ON 26

EXERCISE A: Finding o u t about t h e meaning o f words 27
EX E R C I S E 0: Definitions a n d naming statements 27
E X E R C I S E C : Checking facts and ideas 28
EXERCISE 0: Connecting facts and ideas 28
II: U S E O F LA N G U A G E 28
E X E R C I S E E : Stating a condition and i t s consequence 28
EX E R C I S E F: Stating a fact and its consequence 29
EX E R CI S E G: Describing structure 30
EX E R C I S E H: Describing relative position 31
EX E R C I S E I : Describing a sequence of even ts 32
EXERCIS E J: Describing a sequence of events and giving
structural information 32
I I I : T R A N S F E R OF I N FO R M A T I O N 33
E X E R C I S E K : Describing t h e general structure of a green leaf 33
E X E R C I S E L : Describing t h e shape and arrangement of the cells
in a tissue 34
EXERCISE M: Describing similarities and differences 34
E X E R CI S E N : Describing function a nd giving extra information 35
E X E R C I S E 0 : Describing relative position 35
IV: G U I D E D W R I T I N G 36
Describing t h e detailed structure a n d t h e function
of leaf tissues 36
V: R E A D I N G A N D N OT E -TA K I N G 37
Photosynthesis 37
(Pearson 1 979: v-vi)

� TAS K 1 02
From the above sections of the contents page, do you think the
coursebook will be either product-oriented or process-oriented ? In
other words, do you think the course is basically designed to develop
students' knowledge of biological science or the skill of thinking and
reasoning like a biological scientist? (You may decide that it is trying
to do both.)
8 . 7 Teaching grammar as proeess

In Section One we looked briefly at the work of Rutherford, who argues for
the inclusion of grammar as a central element in the curriculum. Here we
shall look at applications of Rutherford's ideas. I am dealing with these
here rather than in 7 because Rutherford is basically concerned with
grammar as process rather than product. This is evident in the following:
Given all that we presently know about language, how it is learned,
and ho\v it can be taught, the 'grammatical' part of a 'grammatical
syllabus' does not entail specification of the language content at all;
rather, it specifies how that language content (chosen in accordance
\\;th a variety of other, non-linguistic criteria) is to be exploited. The
immediate reasons for not assigning a specifying role to grammar
are worth reiterating. Grammatical specification in the syllabus has
to result in the selection and ordering of grammatical constructs - a
necessarily linear and sequential display of language items for
learner input. Language acquisition, on the other hand, is not a
linear progression, but a cyclic one, or even a metamorphic one.
That is, the learner is constantly engaged in reanalysing data,
reformulating hypotheses, recasting generalizations etc.
(Rutherford 1 987: 1 59)
The following tasks, which have been extracted from Rutherford's book,
give some idea of how his ideas might be applied in practice.
A Which, if any, of these sentences contains an error ? Find the errors and
correct them.
1. In Lake �laracaibo was discovered the oil.

2. After a few minutes the guests arrived.
3. In my country does not appear to exist any constraint on women's
rights. etc.
B \<'hich is the most appropriate conversational response:

Why ?
1 . :\ Is he lea\int:r now:
b
B Yes, he is, ecause he has an appointment.
2. :\ Is he lea\ing now:
B Because he has an appointment.
3. :\ "by is he lea\ing now?
etc.
C Which of the following statements is implied by the text?
The passing of the bill has given rise to funher bitterness among the
various . linguistic communities in the pro\ince.
l. The various linguistic communities are bitter.

2. Bitterness caused the bill to be passed.
3. The province is bitter at the linguistic community.
D Select the appropriate words to complete the sentences.

(Note: This task has been completed by the author.)
Although the Pro\ince of Quebec has resisted efforts
� aueiaes
-6eR¥ aeRies
deprive depAP}eS
to � it of its French-speaking forbidden
-lteep- identity no one can say that he is pra"8Rtes
pFe¥eRt preRieired
In'ambit
-aveid-
-6eay-
to speak English. That is, eepfi.t:e
in making French the official ..fereHI anyone
language of Quebec, the laws still do not keep
prevent
prohibit
avoid
-tIetw
from speaking whatever eepri.e
language he chooses. .forbid: speaking English.
Some people speak French and �
pFe"eat
praiH9it
-&YeW:
denv
eep�...e
.
In Canada they don't ..fereid you your rights.

-keep-
pfe.'eftt
pF9meit
(continued)
E Select the appropriate form of the sentence.
\Veathering and erosion of rock exposed to the atmosphere constantly

remove particles from the rock.
J
( a b c
1. These rock particles Sediment is what "'hat these rock
are called sediment. these rock particles particles are called
are called. is sediment.
a b
2. The upper layers press down on As sediments accumulate, the
the lower ones as sediments upper layers press down on
accumulate. the lower ones.
a b
3. Sediments that stick together Sedimentary rocks are formed
form sedimentary rocks. b\' sediments that stick
together.
a b
4. Such rocks have been able to . Only in this way ha\'e such
sun;\,e the test of time only
. in rocks been able to suniye the
this way. test of time.
F Show the relationship between the words in italics by drawing an arrow.
1. That was a terrible thing to do.
Ll
r
2. That was a tem'ble Ih g 10 hap en. f
G What do the italicized words refer to ?
After IheJ' save a little money, Howard and Ellen wanted to buy a
house. So they did. The floor plan was almost exactly the same as lhal
of Ellen's parents' home, where she was reared. Bu)ing it was not
easy for the j'OUtlg couple, but Ellen was determined to go through 'lith
il. She could not stand lhing in their small apartment any longer. She
wanted the kind of space lhal she had always lived \\ith. Howard
couldn't quite understand his 'life's insistence on mo\ing to more
spacious quarters. 77U;T small apartment was big enough for him. I n
fact il was almost like the one h e had li\'ed i n a s a child. But h e could
remember his mother sa�ing almost daily, 'If only I had more room'.
H and I Rewrite the texts in normal English.
Dear Sir:
I am writing in response to )'OUT cOmpallJ' S announceme1l1 [:\�"D )'OIlT
(ompatlJ' s a1l11011ncement appeared in last Sunday's edition of the Tampa
Herald] of an opening for a systems analyst. [I assume that the position
has not already been filled) I enclose "V. Tisll",e [AND one more piece of
information should now be added to "V' Tiswne1 - etc.
Tile Norse explorer. Lei[ Ericson, succeeded in ----______
The 1':orse
_______________________ ; bill
explorer reaches the shores of Canada about 1000 A.D.
u u moughl ______________________
The history of the white man there doesn't
______ ' In 1497John Cabot, in Ihe sm'ice

begin until much later
ofHenry VII, managed _____________________
John Cabot reaches the shores of Nova

_______ . . . etc.
Scotia
J Complete the sentences in normal English.
1. Many French Canadians find [They learn English) imponant.

2. Quebec makes [Quebec preserves its French-speaking identity] a
rule.
3. Quebec takes [French is to be given priority over English] for
granted.
4. The government left [\Vill French be the official language of
Quebec?] up to the people to decide.
(Rutherford 1 98 7)
� TASK 1 03
Bygate ( 1 987:3) suggests that there is an important difference
between 'knowledge about a language and skill in using it'.
Do you think that Rutherford's tasks are trying to develop
knowledge about a language or skill in using it?
What do you think learners will gain from carrying out the tasks?
How useful do you think these activities are ?
8.8 Conclusion
In 8 we have looked at some of the ways in which the theoretical aspects of
selecting and· grading learning processes have been applied. We have seen
that the grading of learning tasks is particular complicated, and that
different syllabus designers and coursebook writers have looked to
different criteria in carrying out such tasks.
9 Selecting and grading objectives
9 . 1 Introduct ion
We shall now look at applications of the ideas presented in 5. In particular,
we shall look at the distinctions between product-oriented and process
oriented objectives, and real-world and pedagogic objectives.
9 . 2 Product-oriented objectives
Product-oriented objectives describe the things that a learner will be able to
do as a result of instruction. Product, or, as they are more usually called,
performance objectives may be couched in different terms. For example,
they may refer to grammatical, functional, thematic, or topical skills and
knowledge.
The extract on the facing page has been taken from the Washington State
Adult Refugee ESL Master Plan.
� TASK 1 04
Indicate the principal locus of each 01 these objectives.
Is the syllabus basically grammatical, functional, or topical in its
orientation, or is it an attempt at developing an integrated syllabus?
Are the objectives all at the same level of difficulty, or are some more
difficult than others'
If you were developing a teaching programme from this syllabus,
what is the order in which you would teach these objectives' (That
is, how would you grade the objectives ')
What criteria did you use in grading the objectives?
Selecting and grading objectives 1 23
Preliterate I
Oral/Aural
The student is able to:
01A 1 Make statements and ask questions related to personal
and family information.
01A 2 Exchange simple, common expressions of greeting and
leave-taking.
01A 3 Identify and state the names of cardinal numbers from
0-100.
01A 4 Identify and state the names of the letters of the
alphabet.
01A 5 Follow one-step directions and commands (e.g., come
in, put it down).
01A 6 Ask and respond to questions about time.
01A 7 Identify and count currency.
01A 8 Make statements and ask questions about health
problems and states of being (e.g., I'm tired. My
_____ hurts).
01A 9 Ask and respond to yeslno questions which verify family
information, . directions, time, money amounts, health
problems, parts of th e body, colors, sizes, andlor shapes.
.
OIA 10 Identify and name the basic colors (e.g., red, blue,
yellow, green, orange, black, white).
01A 1 1 Identify and name basic sizes (e.g., big, small).
OIA 1 2 Identify and name basic body parts.
OIA 13 Identify days of week in order.
OIA 14 Ask and respond to who, what, when, where, and how
many requests.
01A 15 Ask and respond to questions using common action
verbs in the simple present and present continuous
tenses (e.g., come, go, put, bring, buy, give, take, open,
close).
O/A 16 Respond to questions about weather (e.g., rain, cold,
snow) .
01A 1 7 Indicate lack of understanding or need for repetition
(e.g., '1 don't understand,' 'Please repeat').
O/A 1 8 Identify and inquire about classroom objects.
O/A 19 Use personal pronouns and possessive pronouns and
adjectives.
(Calloway 1 985: 23)

The next extract is taken from the Hawaii English Program which was
. developed for teaching schoolchildren rather than adults.
Language skills
K-6 Language Skills : Non-graded, largely non-text, multi-media, self
instructional or peer-taught packages of materials to help the student
toward progressively greater synthesized control of his language
performance.
Instructional unit Objectives Materials
Listening-Speaking
The materials in this section are most often used in a two-part
communication system consisting of a listener and a speaker. Although
listening and speaking constitute one process, the speech communication
process, the skills have been separated to make it possible for the learner
to focus on one aspect of this process at a time.
1 . Sounds of The child discriminates 35 audio-card booklets
English (E) between and produces and 35 picture
English sounds that may booklets, diagnostic
be difficult for children. audio cards and
worksheets
2. Dialect Markers The child discriminates 15 audio-card booklets
(OM) between and produces and 15 picture
English sounds that are booklets, diagnostic
often confused by Island audio cards and
children. worksheets
3. Intonation (lnt) The child discriminates 6 sets of audio cards
between and produces
statement and yeslno
question intonation
patterns .
4. Stress . The child discriminates 4 speaker, 4 listener
between and produces booklets
contrasted stress patterns.
5. Colors and The child recognizes and 3 sets audio cards, 3
Shapes (C&S) names 12 colors and 7 sets flashcards,
shapes. diagnostic worksheets
6. Prepositions The child recognizes and 9 sets audio cards,
( Prep) uses prepositions such as various m anipulative
on, under, through and m aterials (wooden
around appropriately. block, wood cube,
string), 4 laminated
sheets
(Hawaii English Program 1 9 75: 1 )

Selecting and grading objectives 125
� TAS K 1 05
In what ways are these objectives similar to/differept from those in
the Washington State syllabus ?
In what ways do both of these extracts reflect the target groups for
which they were designed?
What assumptions by their authors about the nature of language
and language learning are revealed in these extracts?
In 5 we saw that formal performance objectives are supposed to have three

parts: a statement of what the learner is to do, under what conditions, and
with what degree of skill. The difficulty level of the objectives is governed
by the interaction between task, conditions, and standards.
In practice, many syllabuses focus on the specification of learner
performance and either omit or detail separately the conditions and
standards.
� TASK 1 06
Write (C) or (5) after each of the following to indicate whether they
are conditions of standards.
1 the amount of repetition permitted
2 the degree of grammatical accuracy displayed
3 the source of the text - whether live or recorded, authentic or
simulated
4 whether the interlocutor is or is not used to dealing with
non-native speakers
5 whether performance is rehearsed or unrehearsed
6 the degree of fluency, intelligibility
7 the amount of assistance provided
8 the lengthl size of utterances/ texts required
(Adapted from Nunan 1 985)
Select five of the objectives from the Washington State syllabus and
add standards and conditions to make them: ( 1 ) easier (2) more
difficult.
It has been suggested that if the syllabus is to be more than a random

collection of statements about learner performance, it is necessary for them
to be linked to superordinate goals.
� TASK 1 07
The following objectives have been adapted from the Royal Society
of Arts Certificate of English as a Second Language. Suggest a
superordinate goal for them.
126 Demonstratillg syllabus desigll
express own point of view in a group discllssion

2 signal lack of understanding; ask for repetition andlor clarifica
non
3 make arrangements involving rime and location
4 give an account of an experience in logical, sequential, chronolo
gical order
5 give a description of an object, or person, related to an event or
personal experience
6 ask or respond to a number of related questions in order to obtain
or give advice or opinion
7 make appropriate apology and response
8 exchange greetings and personal details with sympathetic inter
locutor
These could all be subsumed under a goal such as 'to provide learners with
the language and skills necessary to participate in casual conversations'.
Some of them could also appear under other goal statements. For instance,
the objective: 'ask or respond to a number of related questions in order to
obtain or give advice or opinion' could be subsumed under the goal, 'To
obtain information for a specific purpose'. The following objectives have
been extracted from the Washington State syllabus:
1 state and respond to common oral instructions used during the
\V'ashingron State Driver's Examination
'
2 stare and follow the steps in a complex process of five tO seven steps (e.g.
clean a household appliance, assemble a toy or a piece of equipment, set
a multi-functional watch)
3 give information over the phone (e.g. job enquiries, directory assistance,
working hours, appointment)
4 state and follow common medical and safety instructions (e.g. treatment
plan, dosages, warning labels)
5 notify and state reasons for absence from work or school for self and
child
6 give and respond to warnings (e.g. 'Warch our!' 'Oon'r tOuch!' 'Stop!')
7 identify, stare andlor follow on·the-job rules and school regularions
8 make starements and ask quesrions using common acrion verbs and 'be'
and 'do' in simple present and present continuous tenses
� TASK 1 0 8
In 5, ir was pointed out thar objecrives could be couched in rerms of
real-world performance, or in terms of activities which learners are
to carry our in the classroom.
Which of the objecrives in rhe above lisr refer ro:
real·world rasks, i.e. rasks which rhe learner could conceivably be
required to carry our in rhe real world'
Selecting and grading objectives 1 27
2 classroom tasks, i.e. tasks which it would be highly unlikely for

the learner to carry out outside the language classroom, but \vhich
are thought to facilitate learning?
3 both real-world and classroom tasks?
Which, if any, of the above real-world objectives would it not be
practical to teach in class?
Can you think of pedagogic objectives which might be written to
facilitate the acquisition of real-world skills ?
� TASK 1 09
The following objectives are not the sort of things individuals are
likely to be required to do outside the classroom. Can you think of
any reasons why they might, nonetheless, be useful objectives to
have in a language course?
1 In a classroom role play, ask and answer questions relating to
personal details. Responses to be comprehensible to someone
unused to dealing with non-English speakers.
2 Read the following newspaper article and identify the antece
dents of the underlined anaphoric reference items. Eight of the ten
items to be correctly identified.
3 Listen to a taped radio news bulletin and identify the news
headlines. Four of the six headlines to be correctly identified.
. 4 Indicate, by placing a circle around the correct alternative, which
items in a vocabulary list occur as key words in a news broadcast.
S Indicate ability to follow a narrative by listening to a story and
placing a series of pictures in the correct sequence.
6 Demonstrate the ability to decode regular sound/symbol rela
tionships in school texts.
7 Sight-read key function words when they occur in context.
S Extract relevant information from a recorded dialogue and
complete a table.
Coursebooks do not always explicitly state what it is the learner should be

able to do as a result of undertaking a particular activity or unit of work.
However, it should be possible to rewrite coursebook content in the form
of objectives (i.e. in a form which states what learners will do in and out of
class).
� TASK 1 1 0
Study the following activity from The Cambridge English Course
and write at least one objective which learners should be able to
perform as a result of completing the activity.
128 DemollStratillg syllabus design
170/
�Appearances
Sheila has got long dark hair
1 PUI the right names with the piclUres.

Sheila has got long dark hair and brown eyes. 4
Helen has got long red hair and green eyes.
�
Mary has got long fair hair and green eyes.
\��
.
.
,_
Lucy has gOt short gre�' hair. and bl u e eyes.
2 .-\5k the teacher questions. 3 Test olher students. Do Ihe�: know these
words?
hair eyes nose ears mouth face

arm hand fOOl leg
4 Talk about yourself and other people. 5 Wrile three sentences with ;lnd. a n d three
Examples: with bUl. Examples:
-rl'( gol $111011 hallds. .\fy molhl'r has got pretty hair. ' I've Jot /4£ �es, � ":'f mo�r
MS, tuo Ik cfuC S-!';"<'tu
y.{L A:a.v-;
6uL . ":1 £a>C-Crv-� ,fcC uu-y
;'..au- .
6 Listening for information. Lislen 10 the recording a nd fill in the table.
lace eyes
Sieve 5 wde
LO'ra S :'r:.;rr
(,.a:i' S so...
(Swall alld IValter 1 984: 41)

Selecting and grading ob;ectives 129
� TAS K 1 1 1
What is your opinion on the relationship between syllabuses and
coursebooks ?
Do you think that in the case of comprehensive coursebooks such as
The Cambridge English Course 'syllabus' and 'coursebook' are
synonymous ?
In some educational systems, teachers are provided with course outlines

consisting of frames which they can use, adapt, or modify in developing
their courses. The syllabus frame which follows overleaf has been taken
from Wylie and Sunderland (1 982). It is intended to help teachers working
with adult immigrants.
� TASK 1 12
Study the learning objectives set out in the frame overleaf.
How appropriate are these objectives for the content which is
specified?
Are the objectives designed for beginning, intermediate, or ad
vanced students?
What conditions and standards might be added to the objectives to
turn them into three-part performance objectives ?
� TASK 1 1 3
As we saw in 5, one criticism of product-oriented objectives is that
they frequently fail to indicate how the objective is to be achieved.
Refer back to the extract from Clark and Hamilton (1984:30)
preceding Task 84.
The syllabus guidelines from which this extract was taken attempt
to provide a link between objectives and tasks.
Write out three performance objectives based on the extract, to
include performance, conditions, and standards.
�
fUNC'l' I ON NOTIons POS S I DLE Cml'l'EXTS CULTURI\L CONTENT w
O ·
11 GltEET l NGS AND GOOI'UYES �

�
a' G r e e t ing CREETING . c lassroom wi th teacher , . ge s ture for �it down �
FAREWELL other s tude n t s , v i s i to r D .beckoning normally w i t h palm up, crooked o
b, Asking how the o the r per non 10 �
POLITENESS . ch i ld-care cen t r e index f i nger not obscene en
�
c, Te l l i ng how one i o lUN, FAH ILIARITY . ch i ld r e n ' s school wi th . woving as g re e t i ng ( d i s tan t ) and goodbye
PRESENT TIME teache r , o th e r p a r e n ts . f requently simul taneous r e c iproca tion o f �
�
d , saying goodbye
. local shop g r e e ting , goodby e , and inqu i r y
�.
POINT OF TIME
e, I nv i t ing someone to come in SOCIAL CONVENTION . in the s t r e e t .use o f th ank you ( for the thought/in v i ta tion)
f, I nvi t ing someone to s i t down

RECIPROCITY . soci a l g a ther ing (See dso CUI,TURAL CONTENT Group 7) en
�
CRATITUDE • doctor ' s , d e n t i s t ' s surgery . when a list of a i lments can be an appropr i a te
g' Thanking • workplace response to How GAe you1
.ove r the fence . norms of phys ical contact ( s ame and oppos i te
�
• postcard sex) in public e . g . k i ss � ng , ma l e s walk ing �
. le tte r wi th arms around each othe r
. no�e ( to teache r ) . the Aus t r a l i an weekend
. conventions o f opening and clos i ng l e t te r s
�
6Q'
�
EXAMPLES LEARNING ODJECTIVES SKILLS & ACTI VITIES
I
* .
lIel lo , how are you ( today) ? Come i n . . u se g r ee t ing s and goodbye s in EXAMPLES column, plus o the r I .number bi ngo
Good, thank s . lIow Are you? oppropt i a te phr ases e . g . goodnight, VeGA SiIl /�ladam (See
Fine, thank you . s i t down . RATIONALr. - D i s t r i bu tion and Recycling p . l9 and Consol ida tion
Thank you . . u se c.ome. .in , .6-it dOWtI p . 26)
See you on Mondoy. . u se nllmes of days of tho week
See you.
, / /. ..
De a r Hiss Pobinson , . u se numbe r s to 60 in spoken form (NO 6�6teen ve rsus 6i 6 �J I
n�·e . . u se nume r als to 60 in wr i tten Corm (ND l and 7)
Your s s i nce r e l y . u se timo of day, in d i g i tal - eleven 6�6teen
f i r s � as
See you at 1 1 . • use time phrases todaJ{, th.l..4 46teJtnoon, t.on.iglt:t, tomOJVtow,
-
Deer J i l l , at I o ' et�k , at midday, e tc . (NO u n s t r e s sed syllables)

lIave a good weekend . . r ecognise al ternati ve way ( s ) of invi t ing someone to s i t down ,
Than k s , same to you. o . g . Tah£ 4 �eat
. use wavo. as d i n tan t gree t i n g and as g6o<1bye
Excuse me , I mus t go now. . recogn i se non-ve rbal suppor t · for inv i t i ng someone to como i n
Dear S i r and s i t down and r espond approp r i a te ly
Good morning .
*To ' u se ' a ph r ase means to recog n i se i t s to tal meaning and to

111 1
r e spond appropr i a tely, and produce i t whe r e approp r i a te . To
. ' r ecogn i oe ' means to re spond appropr i a te l y to the total
me aning o f a phr aso bu t not to produce i t .
( Wylie and Sunderland 1 982)

9.3 Process -oriented objectives

Process objectives focus, not ·on the outcomes of instruction, but on the
classroom activities themselves. The extract from Clark and Hamilton
referred to in Task 1 13 can be seen as an attempt to reconcile both process
and product objectives.
� TASK 1 14
How successful is this attempted reconciliation?
How important is it for syllabus desIgners to specify both the means
and the ends of instruction ?
The following extract is from Clark and Hamilton ( 1984).
Stages one and two

Event Possible Functional Possible Notional Content
Content
D3 . 1 Seeking Politeness Whether there is and how
information Attracting attention to get to: (availability,
through Seeking information existence and direction)
conversation Reacting to information a) Station, underground
Seeking clarification station, bus stop, ferry
Thanking c) Cafe, restaurant
d) Hotel, campsite, toilet
e) Various shops and
markets related to food
and drink, clothes,
toiletries, medicines,
postcards, writing
materials, souvenirs,
gifts, films for
photography,
newspapers, magazines,
books, records,
camping needs, etc.
£) Post office, police
station, cinema,
swimming pool.
Sights in general, i.e.
castle, monument, zoo
etc.
(continued)
132 Del1lollstratillg syllab/ls design
D3.2 Bu)"ing Politeness e) Goods - see suggested

through face Reacting to request to list above
to face help f) Stamps at POSt office
conversatton Asking for things
Expressing \\"ish for
something
Giving information Quantit)l, size, colour,

about intended style
purchases Availability, price
Seeking information Best buy for a particular
Asking for suggestions purpose
or ad" ice/reacting Approval, disapproval,
appropriately suitability, tOO
Asking for/giving expensive, tOO big!
Reacting to comment small, etc.
Transacting payment Money, change
Thanking
(Clark alld Ha1l7ilton 1984 : 4 1 )
� TASK 1 1 5
Select one of the six events presented by Clark and HamiltOn and
\\Tlte out:
1 product objectives
2 corresponding process objectives.
Do you think that specifying both product and process adds
anything of value to the tasks' If so, what'
I n Task 68, vou were asked to decide whether there was any real
distinction berween real-world, product, pedagogic, and process
objectives. Re"iew the decision you came to and decide whether,
having looked at a variety of objectives, you would like to change
your m i n d .
� TASK 1 1 6
Review the p rocess objectives you have written and decide on how
these might be graded.
To what extent do your grading criteria reAect those established for
grading tasks and activities in 8 ?
\X'ould i t be appropriate to add conditions and/or standards to
process objectives?
Do you think that the notion of adding standards is inconsistent
with the notion of process objectives?
9.4 Conclusion
In 9 we have studied examples of different types of objectives. We have seen
that some objectives relate to real-world tasks, while others relate to
classroom tasks. Some objectives can be related to superordinate goal
statements, while for others this is more difficult. A distinction is drawn
between product-oriented and process-oriented objectives. Difficulty
levels, and therefore grading criteria for product-oriented goals, can be
found in the specification of conditions and standards. Establishing levels
of difficulty for process objectives is much more difficult, although work
being carried out by people such as Anderson and Lynch ( 1 988) should, in
the future, help us in setting grading criteria.
SECTION THREE
Exploring syllabus design

10 General principle s
10. 1 Curriculum and syllabu s models

Not all of the following tasks will be relevant for all readers. Only attempt
those tasks which are relevant and useful to you in your own particular
teaching situation.
Where one task presupposes the completion of a preceding task, or utilizes
resources from it, this will be indicated.
� TASK 1 1 7
Aim
To criticize the curriculum model operating in your own teaching system.
Resources
Curriculum documents, statements, and outlines from your teaching
institution.
Sample curriculum models such as those presented in 1.
Procedure
Study the curriculum documents you have collected.
Using these, and your own introspection, draw a diagram to represent the
curriculum model operating in the system in which you work.
Evaluation
Are there any notable omissions from the model? Is its major point of focus
on planning, implementation, or assessment?
Which of the following elements are included or excluded from considera
tion in the curriculum documents?
- needs analysis
- goals and objectives
,- content specification
- learning tasks and activities
- resources and materials
- curriculum implementation
- curriculum management
- learner assessment
- programme evaluation
- teacher development
Which of these is the major point of focus in the curriculum?
138 Exploring syllabus design
t> TASK 1 1 8
Aim
To identify some of the assumptions underlying the language curriculum o f
your institution.
Resources
As for Task 1 1 7.
Procedure
Study the documents and make brief notes on the following:
beliefs about language, teaching, and learning incorporated into the
documents
assumptions about learners' needs
- assumptions about the context in which learning occurs
Make a list of the questions you would like to put to the author(s) of the
documents you have studied.
Evaluation
To what extent do you agree or disagree with the assumptions underlying
the curriculum on which your language programmes are based ?
Can you think of any strategies to change, modify, or adapt aspects of the
curriculum with which you disagree?
Ho\v would you answer the questions you have set for the curriculum
' planners ?
� TASK 1 1 9
Aim
To compare the idealized view of the curriculum with what actually
ha ppens in reality.
Resources .
As for Tasks 1 1 7 and 1 1 8.
Procedure
Compare the idealized view of the curriculum, as set out in the curriculum
documents, with the reality as you know it, i.e. the 'real' curriculum which
is enacted in classrooms each day.
Make a list of all the things which, in your view, distinguish the idealized
curriculum from the enacted curriculum.
Evaluation
How great is the gap between the ideal and the reality ?
To what extent would it be desirable or feasible to try and close this gap ?
Which, in your opinion, should be modified, the ideal or the reality ?
Is the gap between the ideal and the reality due largely to educational,
administrative, financial, or political factors ?
General principles 139
� TAS K 120
Aim
To identify the scope of the syllabus(es) you are currently using.
Resources
The set of statements on syllabus design extracted from Brumfit ( 1 984) and
reproduced in 1.3.
Sets of syllabus statements and outlines.
,Procedure
Study the syllabus statements and outlines which form the basis for your
programme planning and make a list of those elements which are included
in the syllabus.
Compare this list with the set of statements in 1.3 on syllabus design.
Extract those statements which reflect the view of syllabus underlying your
syllabus outlines and documents.
Using one or more of the statements from Brumfit as a guide, write a
definition of syllabus which is consistent with the syllabus statements and
outlines.
Evaluation
What are the similarities and differences between your own syllabus
statement and those in Brumfit?
Does your statement represent a broad or narrow view?
� TASK 1 2 1
Aim
To identify those areas of the syllabus amenable to modification or
adaptation by the teacher.
Resources
Syllabus documents, programming procedures, and statements from your
own teaching institution.
Procedure
Analyse your own teaching situation and write down those areas of the
syllabus in which teacher intervention might be possible.
Make a list of the strategies which could be employed to facilitate teacher
intervention.
Evaluation
To what extent is it feasible for teachers to modify or adapt the syllabus you
are using?
J 40 Exploring sy/labus design
� TASK 1 2 2
Aim
To compare the syllabus you are usmg with .that used m a similar
institution.
Resources
Syllabus documents, ptogramming procedures, and statements from vour
own and a comparable institution.
Procedure
Analyse and compare the twO sets of documents.
Evaluation
What are the similarities and differences between the twO'
Do the documents reveal discernible differences in beliefs about the narure
of language and language learning?
What are these'
1 0 .2 Purposes a nd goals
� TASK 1 2 3
Aim
To e,·aluate the use of biographical information in syllabus planning and
adaptation.
Resources
A biographical data collection fotm.
Procedure
Develop a biographical data collection form. This may be adapted ftom the
sample fotm that ptecedes Task 13 in 2.3. At this stage, restrict your focus
to biographical data, e.g. age, years of formal education, nationality, and
first language, current proficiency level, length of time in target culture,
number and duration of previous language courses, present and intended
occupation, and other language(s) spoken. (Needless to say, not all this
information will be relevant or applicable to the students you teach.
Develop a form to rellect your own situation.)
Interview a sample of students from your own classes and those of vour
colleagues.
Review the data you have collected.
Evaluation
What are the similarities and differences between students'
Do the data provide any useful information on how learners might most
effectively be grouped'
How useful did you find the data collecting exercise from a syllabus
planning perspective?
� TASK 1 24
Aim
To evaluate the use of instructional analysis in syllabus planning.
Resources
The following needs analysis form:
Participant
Purposive domain
Setting
Interaction
Instrumentali ty
Dialect
Communicative event
Communicative key
Procedure
Complete the needs analysis form for a group of students you are currently
teaching, or for a group you have previously taught.
List the ways in which this information might be used for writing or
modifying a syllabus for the students in question.
Evaluation
Which categories did you find relatively easy to complete?
Which did you find difficult?
Which information do you think is useful to collect for syllabus planning
purposes ?
.
Which do you think is not very useful or relevant?
� TASK 1 25
Aim
To evaluate the subjective needs and preferences of your students.
Resources
The learning preference survey form related to Task 73 .
Procedure
Study the form and modify it by deleting items which are obviously
inappropriate for your students or teaching situation.
Survey each student in one of your classes or the class of a colleague by
.J
142 Expioring syllabus desigll
asking students ro tespond to each of the StatementS according ro the key

that accompanies the form.
Total the responses for each statement and then rank these from highest ro
lowest.
Evaluation
Did this task provide you with information which could be useful ro you in
adopting or adapting a syllabus for the learners who were surveyed?
What are some of the ways the useful information might be used in syllabus
design'
Do these learners seem ro favour (1) a traditional (2) a communicative, or
(3) an eclectic or 'mixed' approach ro instruction'
\'(Ihat similarities or differences are there between the two groups of
students?
Are there any students whose tesponses are seriously at odds with those of
their peers'
Were you surprised by an)' of the tesults you obtained'
Were there any mismatches between the preferences of your students and
your own preferences?
� TASK 1 2 6
Aim
To compare preferences of different teachers.
Resources
A copy of the survey form \·ou used in the above task, modified so that it is
applicable ro teachers (e.g. item 1 might now read 'I like ro get my students
ro practice sounds and pronunciation').
Procedure
Get the language teachers (or a sample of teachers) to complete the form.
If you think it desirable, share the results you obtain with your colleagues,
and nOte their reactions.
Evaluation
\ilhat similarities or differences are there between the responses provided
by the teachers'
How do you account for these similarities or differences?
Were you surprised by any of the responses'
\"xlhat did you learn about your colleagues from this task '
D i d you share the results with your colleagues'
If so, what were their reactions?
Did any of your colleagues indicate that they might modify their practices
or beliefs as a result of the exercise'
General principles 1 43
� TAS K 127
To explore the possibility o f developing more flexible grouping arrange

ments.
Resources
A survey form such as the one used in Task 1 15, or one adapted from those
presented in Sections One and Two.
Procedure
Administer the survey to a range of students in your own and colleagues'
.
classes.
Analyse the results and see whether the learners might be subdivided for
parts of the teaching day according to their responses to the survey.
Discuss the results with your colleagues.
Evaluation
How feasible would it be, in your institution, to subgroup learners
according to their preferences, needs, and interests for different parts of the
teaching day?
What would be the likely impediments to such an experiment?
Are these chiefly pedagogical, ideological, or administrative?
� TAS K 1 2 8
Aim
To explore the relationship between syllabus goals and the goals of
language teachers.
Resources
Syllabus outlines, documents, and statements from your teaching institu
tion.
The language goal survey form overleaf.
Procedure
Study the syllabus outlines, documents, and statements from your
institution, and assign a number from 1 (low) to 5 (high) to each of the
goal statements on the form according to their perceived prominence
in the syllabus documents.
Ask the teachers in your institution to indicate the importance of the
goal statements by rating each from 1 to 5 .
Evaluation
Are there any mismatches between the teachers' ratings and those you
derived from the syllabus documents?
If there are mismatches, can you think of any ways in which these
might be resolved?
1 44 Exploring syllabus design
Our language program has been designed to achieve the following

goals:
1 to contribute to the intellectual, personal, and vocational
development of the individual
2 to acquire the competence to use English in real-lile situations
for the development and maintenance of inrerpersonal
relati onships, and to take part in interpersonal encounrets
thtough the sharing of factual and attitudinal information
3 to develop and maintain a sense of confidence and self-worth
4 to develop the skills needed to acquire, record, and use
information from a variety of aural and written sources
5 to develop mastery over English as a wrirten system and to
have some knowledge of how it works at the levels 01
phonology, morphology, and syntax
6 to increase, through a common language, the possibility of
understanding, friendship, and co-operation with people who
speak English
7 to foster the developmenr of critical thinking skills, and skills in
'learning how to learn'
8 to develop the skills and attitades to use English for creative
and imagina�ive purposes
9 to develop the English needed to get a job requiring the use of
English
1 0 . 3 Syllabus products
� TASK 1 2 9
Aim
To examine the selection and sequencing 01 grammatical elements in a
syllabus you are currently using.
Resources
A detailed syllabus outline or list of conrenrs from a coursebook you
are currently using for beginning students.
The list of conrenrs (opposite) from Contemporary English, Book 1.
Procedure
Compare the list of contenrs with the syLlabus outline or coursebook you
are �urrenrly using.
Evaluation
\'\'hat are the similarities and differences between the tWO sets 01
contents?
How would you account for these?

Are there any not�ble omissions in . your own syllabus ? What are these?
Is the sequencing appropriate? If not, could any of the items be
re-sequenced?
Unit Verb Phrase Noun Phrase Prepositional Phrase Sentence
ONE is: isn't (is nOl i a : an: the; i t on: in: near: of What . . . ? I
that: this Where " , ?
singular nouns Is . . , ?
numerals
TWO are: aren't they Are , . . ? 7

plurals and
THREE can ( permission) very \vith: from be+N+adj? 13

adjectives How old , . . ?
(colours) What colour . , . ?
( nationality words, Who • . • ?
he: she
article+ profession
FIRST REVIEW AND COMPLEMENTAnoN UNIT I: you: we: these: those 19
FOUR am her: his; my: under so 23

your (poss. adj.) What • • . like?
I: you
(months)
FIVE present progressive her: him: them: us to What . . . doing? 29

poslmodlfication al flhe moment)
with prep. phrase
SIX can: can't (ability) the time past; to What time . . • ? 35

How?
but
SECOND REVIEW AND COMPLEMENTATION UNrr our: their: possessive pronouns 41
SEVEN Present Simple at (time) then 45

(3rd person by (transpon) Does . . . ?
singular)
EIGHT Present Simple Do . . . ? 51

(other persons, How much . . . ? (price,
NINE has: have no (as det., How much • . . ? 57

never each (quantity)
once/twice a week. How many . . • ?
etc. How often , • • ?
TEN stative verbs another on (day, 63

present simple other in (pan of day)
with frequency in (season,
words after: before
(Rossner, Shaw, Shepherd, Taylor, and Davies 1 979)

� TASK 1 3 0
fum
To critique the selection and presentation of grammatical items in a
coursebook you are currently using.
Resources
A coursebook you are currently using or have recently used.
Procedure
Srudy the selection and presentation of grammatical items from a
representative selection of units or chapters in the coursebook.
Evaluation
How are the grammatical items introduced?
Is there adequate contexrualization for rhe items? (Are they presented and
practised within a meaningful or communicative context ?)
� TASK 1 3 1
Aim
To examine the Integration of grammatical, functional, and notional
components in a syllabus '"ou are currently using.
Resources
A detailed syllabus outline or coursebook you are currently using or have
recently used which incorporates grammatical, functional, and notional
elements.
Procedure
Extracr from the syllabus outline or coursebook a list of the grammatical,
functional, and/or notional elements which are covered.
Compare these lists and nOte the wavs in which the elements are related and
integrated.
Evaluation
How are the elements related ?
Are the relationships arbitrar\' or not?
How well are the elements interrelated from your own perspective?
If there are any elements which are not related in a satisfactory or
com'incing wa)" can you think of ways in which this could be improved?
� TASK 1 3 2
Aim
To compare grammatical sequences in your syllabus with those proposed
by SLA researchers.
Resources
A s�·lIabus outline containing graded grammatical structures. The follow
ing table showing stages of acquisition for selected grammatical items.
Stage Item Example
2 SVO word order I like Chinese' food.

I can swim.
3 Adverbs in initial/final position Now. I must go.

Yes/no questions with do Do you like this?
4 Yes/no questions with inversion Have you a car?

To infinitive I want to go . .
5 3rd person singular He works in a factory.

Wh- questions with do Where do you work?
6 Question tags He's German. isn't he?

Adverbs in sentence I can always go.
internal position
Table 5
Procedure
Compare the sequence of items in your syllabus with that suggested
by research into speech-pr.ocessing constraints.
Evaluation
What similarities and differences are there?
Provide a justification for the ordering of items in your syllabus (assuming
that it differs from the order set out in the above table).
Given the context in which you are teaching, would it be possible or
desirable to modify your syllabus in the light of currently available data
from SLA research ?
10.4 Experiential content

You will recall that experiential content refers to the topics, themes,
situations, settings, and so on which provide a context for the linguistic
content. The selection of experiential content is one task where there is
potential for negotiation between learners and teachers.
� TASK 1 3 3
Aim
To explore the possibility of basing the selection of content on the interests
of the learners.
Resources
A content survey form.
Procedure
Construct a content survey form (see overleaf) containing a range of topics
of interest and relevance to your students, for which you have resources,
and which you are prepared to teach.
148 Exploring syllabus design
Indicate which of the following tOpics you would like to study by

placing a circle around the appropriate number. (1 'I would
·
=
not like to study this tOpic at all'; 5 'I would like to study this
=
tOpic very much'.)

1 Summer holidays in England 2 3 4 5
2 Wedding invitations 1 2 3 4 5
3 Bob Dylan 1 2 3 4 5
5 Bus and train timetables 1 2 3 4 5
6 Describing a house 1 2 3 4 5
7 Camera-operating instructions 1 2 3 4 5
8 The Olympic Games 1 2 3 4 5
9 Stamp-dispensing machines 1 2 3 4 5
1 0 Ernest Hemingwa)' 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 Recipe - making hamburgers I 2 3 4 5
12 Apollo moon landing I 2 3 4 5
13 Cassene player - how to use I 2 3 4 5
1 4 Comparing cars I 2 3 4 5
1 5 Job advertisements 1 2 3 4 5
1 6 Motorcycles 1 2 3 4 5
1 7 Road accident report 1 2 3 4 5
1 8 The stOry of tea I 2 3 4 5
Administer the survey to your students, roral the results, and rank the
tOpics from most to least popular.
Discuss the results with your students.
Evaluation
\'(Ihat SOrt of consensus was there among the srudents?
Were you surprised by any of the results?
In what ways might you use the information you obtained to modify the
syllabus you are currently using?
� TASK 1 3 4
Aim
To explore the problem of grading experiential content.
Resources
The survey form and results of the activity in Task 1 3 3 .
Procedure
It is not immediately apparent how tOpics such as those listed in the sample
survey form can be graded.
Make a list of those criteria which could be used to grade and sequence the
experiential content.
Evaluation
Which cri.teria might most usefully be used to grade content in your own
situation?
Is it possible to develop thematic links between some of the items and use
these to sequence the items ?
10.5 Tas ks and activities

� . TAS K 1 3 5
Aim
To examine the extent to which the syllabuses you use incorporate
procedural elements.
Resources
The syllabus documents and outlines used in 10.l.
Procedure
Study the syllabus outlines used in your institution and complete the
following table by ranking the elements from 1 (most prominent) to 7
(least prominent) according to your perceptions of their importance in
the syllabus."
Element Rank
Real-world learning goals
'"
Grammatical items
Functions
Notions
Situations
Topics and themes
Learning tasks and activities
Table 6
Evaluation
What proportion of the syllabus is devoted to processes, and what to
products ?
In your opinion, is there a lack of balance in the syllabus documents ?
If so, can you think of any ways in which this might be redressed? List these
options.
Which of the options you have listed could be effected by you, the
classroom teacher, and which require the involvement of others?
� TASK 1 3 6
Aim
To explore the distinction between real-world and pedagogic tasks and
activities.
/
Resources
A sample list of tasks, either from a syllabus you are currently following or
a coursebook.
Procedure
Following the disrinction made in 4.3 between real-world and pedagogic
tasks, divide the sample list of rasks from your syllabus or course book inro
those which the learner might be called upon in real life to perform, those
which would not be performed in real life, and those which cannot be
assigned to either group.
Evaluation
Is the syllabus or coursebook basically orienred towards the teaching of
real-world or pedagogic tasks, or is there a balance between the two? What
justification is or might be offered for the inclusion of the pedagogic tasks?
Were there any tasks you found difficult to assign to one or orher category?
If so, why?
What insights, if any, did this task give you into the assumptions about
language and learning underlying your own syllabus?
� TASK 1 3 7
Aim
To apply tne task-based procedure used here to your own situarion.
Resources
The list of tasks used in Task 1 3 6.
Procedure
Following the procedure used in this secrion, write up each of the tasks you
have selected in terms of 'Aim') 'Resources', 'Procedure') and 'Evaluation',
Evaluarion
Did you have any difficulties with any of the tasks? If so, what were they?
What caused the problems'
Did you find that it was more difficult to formulate an aim than listing
resources and describing procedure? If so, why do you think this was so?
Did you find this a useful exercise? Why or why not?
\'\'hat insights, if any, did it provide you inro the nature of the syllabuses or
coursebooks you are using?
� TASK 1 3 8
Aim
To apply criteria for judging the worth of tasks to your own situation.
Resources
The list of tasks used in Tasks 1 3 6 and 137.
The following table adapted from Candlin (1 986) :
Criteria Rating
1 promote attention to meaning. purpose, negotiation

2 encourage attention to relevant data
3 d raw objectives from the communicative needs of learners
4 allow for flexible approaches to the task
5 allow for different solutions depending on skills/resources of
learners
6 involve learner contributions, attitudes, and affects
7 are challenging but not threatening
8 require input from all learners
9 define a problem to be worked on by learners
1 0 involve language use in solving task
1 1 allow co-evaluation by learners and teachers
1 2 develop capacities to estimate consequences
1 3 provide opportunities for metacommunication
1 4 provide opportunities for language practice
1 5 promote training for problem-sensing and problem-solving
1 6 promote sharing of information and expertise
1 7 provide monitoring and feedback
1 8 heighten learners' consciousness and reflection
1 9 promote critical awareness about data and about language
learning
20 offer a high return on investment and are cost-effective
Table 7
Procedure
Select a representative sample of tasks. Provide a rating from 1 (low) to 5
(high) for each of the above criteria according to how well they represent
the tasks you have selected.
Evaluation
What did this exercise tell you ( 1 ) about the learning tasks you examined
(2) the criteria for judging the worth of tasks?
How might you utilize this information in syllabus modification and
improvement?
� TASK 1 3 9
Aim
To apply criteria for judging the worth of tasks to your own situation.
Resources
The list of tasks used in Tasks 136, 137, and 138.
The following table adapted from Raths (1971):
Criteria Rating
1 permit learners to make informed choices and reflect on

consequences of their choice
2 assign active rather than passive roles to students
3 ask students to engage in inquiry into ideas, applications of
intellectual processes, or current problems
4 involve learners with realia
5 completion may be accomplished at diflerent levels of abilily
6 ask students to appty existing skills or knowledge to a new setting
7 require students to examine topics or issues typically ignored
8 involve risk of success or failure
9 require students to rewrite. rehearse, polish initial efforts
1 0 involve students i n application and mastery 01 meaninglul
rules, standards, or disciplines
1 1 give students a chance to share planning, carrying out of a ptan,
or results of an activity with others
1 2 relevant to expressed purposes of students
Table 8
Procedure
Select a representative sample of tasks. Provide a rating from 1
(low) to 5 (high) for each of the above criteria according to how
well they represent the tasks you have selected.
Evaluation
What did this exercise tell you (1) abour the learning tasks you
examined (2) the criteria for judging the worth of tasks?
How might you utilize this information in syllabus modification
and improvement?
Were these criteria more or less useful in judging the worth of tasks
than the set of criteria provided by Candlin?
Can you identify why one set of criteria was more useful than the
other?
� TASK 1 40
Aim
To determine the criteria used for grading tasks in a syllabus or coursebook
you are currently using.
Resources
A selection of tasks from a syllabus or coursebook.
Procedure
Study the tasks and, with reference to the material provided in 4 and 8, list
those factors which seem to have been used by the syllabus designer!
coursebook writer in grading the tasks.
-
Rank thes e factors from most to least significant.
Evaluation
Are the factors used in grading the tasks basically linguistic, non-linguistic,
or a combination of the two ?
Could the order in which the tasks are presented be changed or not?
Would it be ( 1 ) possible (2) desirable to modify the order? Why, or why
not?
What inferences can you derive from the ways in which the items are
presented about the attitude of the syllabus designer!coursebook writer to
the classroom teacher (e.g. is there any evidence from the way the activities
are presented and graded that the syllabus is_meant to be 'teacher-proof') ?
� TASK 1 4 1
Aim
To apply Widdowson's concepts of 'rehearsal' and 'investment' to your
own syllabus.
Resources
As for Task- 140.
Procedure
Examine a representative selection of tasks from your syllabus or
coursebook in the light of Widdowson's distinction between 'rehearsal'
and 'investment' type tasks (refer to 4.6).
Evaluation
. What percentage of tasks are aimed at 'investment' and what percentage at
'rehearsal' ?
What, if anything, does this reveal about the attitudes of the syllabus
designer! coursebook writer on the nature of language and learning?
Is the balance of investment and rehearsal type tasks consistent with the
goals of the syllabus, or are there inconsistencies ? What are these?
Are there any ways in which any inconsistencies or imbalances could. be
redressed?
Do you think that Widdowson's distinction is a useful one?
10.6 Objectives
In this section, we shall apply some of the ideas developed and presented in
5 and 9.
� TASK 1 4 2
Aim
To explore the reformulation of syllabus content as objectives.
Resources
Syllabus outlines.
The following table:
Focus Example
Grammatical Learners will use present perfect appropriately in contrast

with the simple past.
Your examples;
Functional LearQers will make polite requests.

Your examples:
Notional Learners will express causality.

Your examples:
Topical Students will enquire about train departure times to

specified destinations.
Your examples:
Macroskill Students will underline the main point in a written passage.

Your examples:
Table 9
Procedure
Study the content specifications in your syllabus. Find examples of
grammatical, functional, notional, topical, and macroskill content and
express these in the form of objectives. (We have already seen that complete
objectives consist of three parts: tasks, conditions, and standards. For this
activity, focus only on the task element.)
Insert your examples at the relevant points in the above table.
Evaluation
How useful do you imagine it might be to have the syllabus content
formulated in terms of what learners are able to do'
Do you think the objectives are of any value if they are formulated solely i n
terms o f task, o r do you think conditions and standards should also be
added?
Is the emphasis in your syllabus on grammatical, functional, notional, or
macroskill objectives?
Are there other content areas which have not been included in the above
table (e.g. content which has a cognitive, cultural, or learning-how-to-Iearn
focus) ? What are they?
� TASK 1 43
(For syllabuses specified in terms of objectives)
Aim
To identify the type of objectives specified in your syllabus.
Resources
Sets of objectives from your syllabus.
Sample objectives from other sources such as those provided in 9.
Procedure
Compare the objectives in your syllabus with those provided in 9.
Note whether the objectives in your syllabus specify what learners should
be able to do in the real world, in the classroo"m, or in both contexts.
If both, estimate the relative balance between the two types.
Evaluation
Is this balance a reasonable one, given the overall aims or goals of your
syllabus ?
If not, is there any way in which the imbalance might be redressed?
� TASK 1 44
Aim
To explore the relationship between tasks, conditions, and standards.
Resources
As for Task 143.
Procedure
Note whether your objectives contain conditions and standards.
If they do, decide whether these are appropriate ( 1 ) to the tasks (2) to the
learners.
If they do not, insert conditions and standards into the statements of
objectives.
Evaluation
Is it possible to write blanket statements of conditions and standards which
might apply to a cluster of tasks, or are the conditions and standards
peculiar to each task?
How useful and/or important do you think it is to specify conditions and
standards ? (Refer to your response in Task 142.)
I
� TASK 1 45
Aim
To identify those facrors which might affect the difficulty level of an
objective.
Resources
Sets o f objectives from your syllabus outlines or coursebooks. (If the
content has been specified in terms of objectives, use these, otherwise use
objectives you have developed in preceding tasks.)
Procedure
Study the objectives in detail, and make a list of those facrors which might
affect the difficulty level of the objectives.
Compare your list with the one below.
Factors affecting the dif{iClilty of an objective
1 complexity of the language to which the learner is exposed
2 grammatical complexity of the language
3 speed at which the language is spoken
4 'authenticity' or otherwise of the text
5 amount of visual and non-verbal support provided
6 length of response demanded of the learner
7 number of speakers on the tape
8 degree of intelligibility demanded of the learner
9 familiarity of the subject matter
10 amount of stress placed upon the learner
1 1 complexity of the objective in terms of the number of steps involved
12 relevance of the objective to the learner
Evaluation
What are the similarities/ differences between the lists?
Which facrors seem most prominent in determining the difficulty of
objectives?
Which of those relate ro conditions and which to standards?
What are the simiI:uities and differences between these lists and the factors
you listed for determining task difficulty in Task 5 8 ?
What does this tell you about 'task-based' and 'objectives-based' sylla
buses? Do you think there is a difference between
. these twO syllabus types
or not? If so, what are they?
� TASK 1 4 6
Aim
To explore the grading and sequencing of objectives.
Resources
As for Task 145.
Procedure
List the. .objectives in the order in which they might be .taught.
Evaluation
Which factors were most important to you in determining the sequencing
of the objectives ?
Were there factors other than difficulty which influenced you in your
grading? If so, what were these?
,
Glossary
analytic syllabus: a syllabus based on non-linguistic units such as tOpics,

themes, settings, and situations. Learners are exposed to holistic 'chunks'
of language and are required to extract patterns and regularities from
these.
communicative approaches: approaches to language teaching in which the
focus is on processes of communication rarher than on structural,
functional, or notional items.
curriculum: principles and procedures for the planning, implementation,
evaluation, and management of an educational programme. Curriculum
study embraces syllabus design (the selection and grading of content) and
methodology (the selection of learning tasks and activities).
function: the communicative use to which an utterance or longer piece of
language is put. Examples of functions include: apologizing, greeting,
describing, defining, contradicting.
goal: the broad, general purposes behind a course of study. Goals can be
couched in terms of what the teacher is to do or what the learner is to do.
Examples of goals:
'To develop conversational skills.'
'To develop skills in learning-how-to·learn.'
'To teach l earners basic grammatical structure.'
'To prepare learners for tertiary study in a foreign language.'
grading: the arrangement of syllabus content from easy to difficult.
methodology: the study and development of learning tasks and activities.
needs analysis: techniques and procedures for obtaining information from
and about learners to be used in curriculum development.
notion: the concepts expressed through language. Examples of notions
include: time; freqency; duration; causality.
objective: a statement describing what learners will be able to do as a result
of instruction. Formal objectives are meant to have three parts: an
activity (what learners will do); conditions (under what circumstances),
and standards (how well they will perform).
Example:
Learners will give an otal presentation (activity); speaking for five
minutes from prepared notes (conditions); in a manner which is
comprehensible to native speakers unused to dealing with non-native
speakers (standard).
Glossary 1 59
process syllabus: a syllabus which focuses on the means by which

. . _co mmunicative skills will be brought about.
product syllabus: a syllabus which focuses on the outcomes or end
pro �ucts of a language programme.
sequencing: determining the order in which syllabus content will be taught.
Content can be sequenced according to difficulty, frequency, or the
communicative needs of the learners.
structure: a sequence of grammatical items which form a pattern. The
terms structural and grammatical are often used interchangeably to refer
to syllabuses in which items are selected and graded largely on
grammatical grounds.
synthetic syllabus: a syllabus in which the content is divided into discrete
lists of items which are taught separately. The task for the learner is to
reintegrate the elements in communication.
syllabus: a specification of what is to be taught in a language programme
and the order in which it is to be taught. A syllabus may contain all or any
of the following: phonology, grammar, functions, notions, topics,
themes, tasks.
task: a unit of planning/teaching containing language data and an activity
or sequence of activities to be carried out by the learner on the data.
/
Further Reading
Anderson, A. and T. Lynch. 1988. Listening. Oxford: Oxford Universiry

Press.
An excellent introduction to the principles and practices of selecting and
grading listening tasks.
Brown, G. and G. Yule. 1 98 3 . Teaching the Spoken Language. Cambridge:
Cambridge Universiry Press.
This book is a useful complement to the volumes by Anderson and
Lynch, and Bygate in this series.
Bygate, M. 1 9 87. Speakillg. Oxford: Oxford Universiry Press.
Provides a clear introduction to the development of speaking and oral
interaction skills along with classroom tasks and activities.
Brumfit, C. ]. (ed.). 1 984. General English Syllablls Design. Oxford:
Pergamon.
Provides a range of views on the nature of syllabus design by some of the
leading figures in the field.
Clark, J. L. 1 987. ClirriCIIlum Renewal in School Foreign Lallguage
Leaming. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Chapters 6 and 7 give a detailed account of rwo major syllabus planning
projects and show how theoretical principles are reflected in syllabus
guidelines.
Richards,]. and T. Rodgers. 1 986. Approaches and Methods in Language
Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge Universiry Press.
This book describes the implications for syllabus planning of the
different approaches and methods currently in use.
Widdowson, H. G. 1 98 3 . Learning Purpose and Language Use. Oxford:
Oxford Universiry Press.
This book gives a detailed analysis of the issues behind the specific versus
general proficiency de b ate, and sets Out the implications of the debate for
syllabus design and methodology.
Bibliograp h y
Abbs, B., C . Candlin, C. Edelhoff, T. Moston, and M . Sexton. 1979.

Challenges: Student's Book. Harlow: Longman.
Allen, J. P. B. 1 984. 'General purpose language teaching: a variable focus
approach' in C. ]. Brumfit (ed.) 1 9 84a.
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Ackn9wledgements
The publisher would like ro thank the following for their permission ro reproduce
material that falls within their copyright:
Addison-Wesler Publishing Companr for an extract from Lallgllage and COlltellt
( 1 986) by B. Mohan.
Allen & Unwin for an extract from Psychology in Foreign Lallguage Teaching
( 1 9 8 1 ) by S. McDonough.
Cambridge University Press for extracts from Teaching the Spoken Language
( 1 983) by G. Brown and G. Yule; Commullicative Methodology ill Lallguage
Teachillg: The Roles of Fluellcy alld Accuracy by C. Brumfit (1984), and The
Cambridge Ellglish Course, Book 1 (1984) by M. Swan and C. Walter.
CILT (Centre for Information on Language Teaching) for extracts from Syllabus
Guidelilles ( 1 984) by J. Clark and J. Hamilton.
Commonwealth of Australia Department of Education for an extract from A
COllrse Olltlille: A Resource for Plalll/illg Adult Migrallt Courses by E. Wylie and J.
Sunderland.
Commonwealth of Australia Deparrment of Immigration and Ethnic Affairs for an
extract from Listell to Australia (1985) by M. Jones and R. Moar.
Commonwealth of Australia National Curriculum Resource Centre for extracts
. from Language Teaching Course Design: Trends and Issues ( 1 985) by D. Nunan,
and Using Learner Data ;11 Designing Language Courses ( 1 985) by D. Nunan and
J. Burton.
Longman Group lor extraCtS from Challellges: SlIIdellt's Book ( 1 979) by B. Abb.s,
C. Candlin, C. Edelhoif, T. lvloston, and M. Sexton, and Secolld Lallguage
Grammar ( 1 987) by W. Rutherford.
lvlacmillan (London and Basingstoke) for an extract from Contemporary English,
Pupil's Book 1 by R. Rossner, P. Shaw, J. Shepherd, J. Taylor, and P. Davies.
Simon and Schuster fat an extract from Issues ill ESP. Lancaster Practical Papers in
English Lallguage Educatioll, Vol. 5 by T. Hutchinson and A. Waters.
State of Hawaii Department of Education for an extract from Hawaii English
Program, Report No. 2 ( 1 975).
�;ashington State Office of the Superintendent of Public Instruction for an extract
lrom the Washillgtoll State Adult Refugee ESL Master Plall (Revised) by D. R.
Calloway.
The publisher would also like to thank the following Oxford University Press
authors for agreeing to the reproduction of extracts from their books:
D. Howe for an extract from Ellglish Today! (1985).
1. Pearson for an extract from English in FocHs: Biological Science (1978).
N. S. Prabhu for an extract from Second Lallguage Pedagogy ( 1 987) .
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Editors: C N Candlin and H G Widdowson

Oxford University Press

Oxford New York Toromo

and associated companies in

OXFORD is a [r <l de m<lrk of Oxford University Press

© Oxford University Press 1988

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored

Printed in Hong Kong

BRITlSfl CO' ':C\ i. 1.m..'"Y.1ES

Ace No.), :."" /fiO ':"P ,'i''''''

The author and series editors VI

Section One: Defining syllabus design. 1

Section Two: Demonstrating syllabus design 73

7 Selecting and grading conrenr 85

8 Selecting and grading learning tasks 96

Section Three: Exploring syllabus design 135

David Nunan is currently Director of the National Curriculum Resource

syllabus design 'and methodology. We shall see that the traditional

The scheme consists of three sub-series of books covering areas of enquiry

This principle of cross-tefetence which links the elements of the scheme is

If language teaching is to be a genuinely ptofessional enterprise, it requires

whereby in seeking to be more effective in their pedagogy they provide at

Defining syllabus design

[n language teaching, there has been a compararive neglect of sysremaric

1.2 A general curriculum model

It is possible to srudy 'the curriculum' of an educational institution from a

1.3 Defining 's yllabus '

1 ... I would like to draw attention to a distinction ...between

2 [The syllabus] replaces the concept of 'method', and the syllabus

3 . ..the. syllabus is simply a framework within which activities can

4 We might ... ask whether it is possible to separate so easily what

6 . . . curriculum is a very general concept which involves

7 Since language is highly complex and cannot be taught all at the

programme, and methodology, which is concerned with the 'how'. (Later,

1.4 The role of the classroom teacher

identifying learners' communicative needs 0 12345

In a recent study of an educational system where classroom teachers are

If we had consensus on just what it was that we were supposed to teach in

2.2 Basic orientations

Learning a language, it was assumed, entails mastering the elements

During the 1970s, communicative views of language teaching began to be

A given syllabus will specify all or some of the following: grammatical

In the rest of this book, we shall be making constant references to and

Element Orientation Reference

Structures Product Language

2.3 Learning purpose

Assumptions about the learner's purpose in undertaking a language course,

'I want to be able to talk to my neighbours in English.'

For which of the above would it be relatively easy to predict the

Techniques and procedures for collecting information to be used in

Information will need to be collected, not only on why learners want to

Learner analysis is based on information about the learner. The central

Sample needs analysis survey form.

Age: Country of Origin:

Family: M.S.\X'.D. No. of Children: ___ Ages:_ _ _ _ __

Other relatives in Ausrralia:

Education: No. of years:

Why study finished:___________

Employment: Main occuparion: ____________

First language: ____ Orhers spoken: _

language, they will automatically be able to use it in genuine communica

It is not that the structUral syllabus denies the eventual communica