2016 IEEE PES Transmission & Distribution Conference and Exposition - Latin America (PES T&D-LA).

Morelia, Mexico

Harmonic and Supraharmonic Emission of

On-Board Electric Vehicle Chargers

J. Meyer, S. Mueller, S. Ungethuem X. Xiao, A. Collin, S. Djokic

Institute of Electrical Power Systems and HV Engineering, The Institute for Energy Systems
Technische Universitaet Dresden The University of Edinburgh
Dresden, Germany Edinburgh, UK
[email protected] [email protected]

Abstract— The number of fully electric cars is expected to Due to the single-phase connection of most on-board
increase significantly in the near future in many countries. They chargers, distributed EV charging on a large scale can have
are commonly known as electric vehicles (EVs) and use power also a significant impact on unbalance. This is not considered
electronic-based rectifiers for charging their batteries. These in this paper, but further details can be found e.g. in [14].
circuits may significantly impact power quality in LV and MV This paper presents the results of an ongoing research
distribution grids, in particular the distortion at frequencies project, which was started more than 3 years ago. Most of the
below 2 kHz (harmonics) and above 2 kHz up to 150 kHz EV types which are presently of importance in the German as
(supraharmonics). While harmonic emission of EVs strongly well as the European markets have been measured in the
depends on the supply voltage distortion, emission of
laboratory in terms of their harmonic and supraharmonic
supraharmonics at switching frequency and its multiples is
mostly determined by the design of the EV’s filter circuits. This
emission. The measurements of the EV chargers are carried out
paper presents the results of testing and analyzing the harmonic using an automated test setup, which is described in Section 2.
and supraharmonic current distortion of 19 different on-board Section 3 discusses the impact of the supply voltage distortion,
EV chargers, representing a significant portion of EVs currently which is typical for public LV grids, on the harmonic emission
available on the German and European markets. The analysis is of the EV chargers. Next, magnitudes at switching frequency
based on extensive measurements performed at a test stand that (supraharmonic emission) are presented. The paper finishes
is capable of reproducing almost any supply voltage waveform with selected results from a field test that has been carried out
with a desired distortion. The paper finishes with selected results in an urban network representing an expected future
from a field test with almost 100% EV penetration connected to a penetration level of one EV per household.
feeder in an urban LV grid.
II. MEASUREMENT FRAMEWORK
Keywords— electric vehicle, harmonics, low voltage network, The emission spectra of 19 different types of EVs have
nonlinear loads, supraharmonics
been measured in the laboratory: 14 EVs with single-phase
I. INTRODUCTION charger, 1 EV with two-phase charger and 4 EVs with three-
phase charger. This covers about 80 % of the EV types
The number of electric vehicles (EVs) in Germany is
presently licensed in Germany.
expected to strongly increase within the next decade due to the
anticipated electrification of the road transportation sector. The The measurements have been carried out in the frequency
government envisages 1 Million electric cars in 2020. The EV range between 50 Hz and 150 kHz. The setup is shown in
batteries are charged by direct current (DC), which is provided Fig. 1 and consists of a test stand, a measurement device and a
by a rectifier. Due to its topology and its control, the rectifier fully automated measurement program developed in
power electronic circuit will typically cause a distortion of the MATLAB. Table I summarizes the specifications of the test
charging current, which in turn can influence the distortion of stand and the parameters which can be varied. The test setup
the supply voltage. allows the simulation of different grid conditions by varying
At low frequencies (harmonics), the current emission is the magnitude and distortion of the supply voltage, as well as
mainly determined by the supply voltage distortion and the
network impedance. This impact on Power Quality is studied
for example in [1] - [5]. Another comprehensive survey of the
harmonic emission of EV chargers is provided in [6].
Supraharmonic emission is caused by the switching
frequency of the chargers. It can cause malfunction of
electronic devices, particular with touch technology, noise due
to excitation of mechanical resonances or additional thermal
stress which can reduce the lifetime of equipment. Further
information on supraharmonics in general as well as of EV
chargers can be found e.g. in [7] – [13]. Fig. 1. Fully automated measurement and test setup

978-1-5090-2875-7/16/$31.00 ©2016 IEEE

 2016 IEEE PES Transmission & Distribution Conference and Exposition - Latin America (PES T&D-LA). Morelia, Mexico

TABLE I. SPECIFICATIONS OF THE TEST STAND IEC 61000-4-7 [16], the 10-cycle values of the harmonic
AC-Grid simulator
current and voltage (RMS magnitude and phase angle) are
Rated power 45 kVA, three-phase stored. For the analysis of emission above 2 kHz, intervals of
Maximum line-neutral voltage 380 V 200 ms are used to calculate RMS values of 200-Hz-bands as
Frequency range DC up to 156 kHz recommended in the Annex of IEC 61000-4-7 for the
Adjustable parameters, Waveform; Magnitude / RMS value;
frequency range 2 – 9 kHz. Phase angles are not considered
individual for each phase Phase angle; Frequency for supraharmonics, as these are not linked to the power
Source impedance Variable absolute value and X/R-ratio frequency and consequently are of limited use.
The test procedure for a single EV consists of more than
Charging boxes for electric vehicles 3,000 test points, which belong to different test sequences.
Charging current control ICB 6 A up to 32 A Beside the variation of the harmonic distortion (magnitude and
Connectors Type 2 socket phase angle of individual harmonics) of the supply voltage, the
Earthing-pin plug magnitude of supply voltage and the unbalance (three-phase
chargers only) are also varied. Finally, the input impedance of
the short circuit power (SCP). All measurements have been the EV is determined by a frequency sweep analysis [5].
performed without any additional source impedance.
Consequently SCP is only determined by the internal III. HARMONIC EMISSION
impedance of the power amplifier and the connection cables. This section compares the harmonic current emission of the
Waveform and magnitude of the voltage at the output terminal measured EVs. In order to ensure the comparability of the
of the power amplifier were kept constant by an internal results, a charging current of 16 A has been used for each EV.
control. For most of the EVs, this corresponds to the rated charging
The test procedure is fully automated. A unique tagging of current. Only a few three-phase chargers have a rated current
the test points enables a fast and efficient analysis of the data. of 32 A. The operating state where the EVs draw its maximum
Data has been sampled at 1 MS/s and high precision clamps current (constant current mode) is most characteristic and
with a bandwidth of 100 kHz has been used for current dominates the duration of the charging cycle for almost all of
measurement. In accordance with IEC 61000-4-30 [15] and the EVs. Consequently, only the emission in this operating

Fig. 2. Harmonic spectrum of all EVs at sinusoidal supply voltage

(a) 3rd harmonic current (b) 5th harmonic current (c) 7th harmonic current
Fig. 3. Characterization of the 3rd, 5th and 7th harmonic current of 19 EVs at sinusoidal supply voltage
 2016 IEEE PES Transmission & Distribution Conference and Exposition - Latin America (PES T&D-LA). Morelia, Mexico

state is analyzed in this paper. Usually the harmonic emission respective harmonic voltage. Both impacts have to be taken
varies due to changes in the charging state or due to a into account for a realistic assessment of the impact of EV
limitation of charging current, but this is not further considered charging. Oversimplified considerations might result in an
in this paper. overestimation. Further details on the cancellation
A. Emission behaviour at sinusoidal supply voltage B. Impact of supply voltage distortion
For each EV, a reference measurement has been performed Measurements which are performed using sinusoidal
with mains impedance set to zero and ideally sinusoidal supply supply voltage do not reflect realistic conditions. Particularly in
voltage. These test conditions correspond to the requirements public LV grids a distinctive flattened top of the supply voltage
for harmonic emission measurements according to IEC 61000- waveform can be observed. This is caused by the bulk of
3-2 [17]. Compliance with IEC 61000-3-2 Class A single-phase connected electronic devices with two-pulse
requirements is mandatory in order to introduce an EV onto the rectifiers, which draw their current during the time when the
European market. voltage cycle is around its maximum/minimum value.
Fig. 2 presents the absolute harmonic currents for the odd Therefore, further measurements of the harmonic current
orders up to 19. The current magnitudes generally decrease emission have been performed using a flat top voltage
with increasing order and differ significantly between the waveform derived from the specifications in IEC 61000-4-13
different EVs. Considerable emission of 500 mA and more is [19]. Fig. 4 a) compares the harmonic current emission
observed for some EVs up to the 7th harmonic. With more than magnitudes of three different EV types and selected odd
1.5 A for two EVs, the 3rd harmonic has the highest emission. harmonics. It can be clearly seen that harmonic current
Fig. 3 presents the phasors of the 3rd, 5th and 7th harmonic emission can significantly differ between sinusoidal and flat
current in the complex plane. For the 3rd harmonic order, the top supply voltage, particularly for the 3rd, 5th and 7th
individual phasors with higher magnitudes are mostly located harmonics. For the 5th current harmonic, an increase can be
in the 3rd quadrant. This means no significant cancellation of observed for all three EV types. The 3rd and 7th harmonic
3rd harmonic currents between different types of EVs and, current increase for EV A, but they decrease for the EVs B and
consequently, an increase of the total 3rd harmonic current in C.
the network has to be expected in future. As the 3rd harmonic in The dependency of the harmonic current emission of EVs
a three-phase system is dominated by its zero sequence on supply voltage distortion has two main reasons. Firstly, the
component, a further increase of the neutral conductor currents EV’s grid-side (passive) filter circuit, which is needed to
have to be expected, too. Based on the phase angle diversity reduce the supraharmonic emission, draws a harmonic current
presented in Fig. 3 b) and c), the potential of cancellation if the supply voltage contains a respective harmonic voltage.
between different types of EVs is considerably higher for the This behavior is also known as secondary emission and can
5th and the 7th current harmonics. also be observed e.g. for a simple resistive load. Secondly, the
It should be noted that the final impact on the harmonic internal active power factor correction (PFC) control which,
voltage magnitudes, which can disturb other equipment, is depending on the control algorithm, tries to bring the current
mainly determined by different cancellation effects [18], waveform and the supply voltage waveform into alignment.
namely the phase angle of the current emission of other The contribution of each phenomenon to the changes in
equipment (primary cancellation), like electronic household harmonic currents is specific for each EV type. Fig. 4 b)
appliances in residential grids and the magnitude and phase illustrates this behavior for one EV by using 5th harmonic
angle of the existing background voltage distortion (secondary voltage as an example. The change of the 5th harmonic voltage
cancellation). Consequently, even an increase of the harmonic has the highest impact on the 5th harmonic current, but slight
current up to a certain level could result in a reduction of the changes of the other harmonic orders can be observed, too.

(a) Impact of a “flat top” distorted supply voltage (b) Impact of 5th harmonic voltage
Fig. 4. Harmonic spectrum at different supply voltage distortions
 2016 IEEE PES Transmission & Distribution Conference and Exposition - Latin America (PES T&D-LA). Morelia, Mexico

(a) Spectrum of four different EVs up to 50 kHz (b) Switching frequencies and magnitudes of all EVs
(EV A, EV B, EV C, EV D)
Fig. 5. Supraharmonic emis sion
(80 dBµA = 10 mA; 100 dBµA = 100 mA; 1220 dBµA = 1 A; … )

In order to study the dependency of the harmonic currentns narrowwbband Power Line Communication (PLC) applications,
on the harmonic voltages in a more comprehensive and e.g. for meter reading. Care has to be taken that the non-
systematic way, the harmonic fingerprint method can be used e . intentio nal emission of the EV chargers does not interfere with
Further information on the application of this concept as basis the PLC communication.
for the development of harmonic models can be found in [5]. As the origin of the switching frequency emission is a
voltage source, the respective currrrent injected into the grid
IV. SUPRAHARMONIC EMISSION depend s on the ratio between the source impedance of the
Fig. 5 a) exemplarily presents the current spectrum of four charger and the grid impedance at the switching frequency. A
different EV types in the frequency range between 2 kHz and compar ison of the measurements at different grid impedances
50 kHz. Depending on the design of the charger circuit and its during this work has shown that the supraharmonic current
actiive PFC control, the emission spectrum may show different emissio n for some of the EVs differs in presence of a grid
behavior. EV C has a distinctive peak without any significant impedance by up to 30 %. Therefore, this effect has to be taken
leakage at its switching frequency (27 kHz). This indicates a into account for the development of realistic models and is
switching frequency emission which is rather constant in discuss ed further in the paper conclusions.
frequency and magnitude. For EV D, the switching frequency
(10 kHz) and its multiples at 20 kHz, 30 kHz and 40 kHz are V. FIELD RESULTS
clearly visible, but contain a considerable leakage. This is A. Des cription
mainly caused by variations in the emission magnitude and/or
For the field studdy, a LV grid, which supplies an urban
the frequency within the power cycle. For EV A and EV B, the
residen tial area in Dresden, Germany, was selected. The
switching frequency cannot be clearly identified. The lack of
MV/LV transformer has a rated power of 630 kVA and
current peaks in the results for EV A suggests an efficient grid-
supplies about 400 households (HH) (three-phase connection)
side filter circuit and/or a control regime which continuously
by four feeders. A part of this network consists of five two-
changes the switching frequency. In order to find the true
family houses (10 HH) and a public lighting system (PL)
reasons for the characteristic of the spectra, a time intensive in-
connectted to a junction box (JB). For the field study, each HH
depth analysis of the hardware and software of the respective
got a s ingle-phase charging EV from the local utility for one
chargers has to be carried out. This often requires the help of
weekend. The ten EVs belong to fouur different types. While the
manufacturers, who usually treat this information as
EV of H HH2 was connected to a socket in the garage (to phase
confidential.
L2), all other EVs were supplied by dedicated charging boxes
Fig. 5 b) presents the magnitude of the RMS value of the
(CB), w hich are connected to the house connection boxes
emission of all measured EVs for which the switching
(HCB). One CB cann serve two EVs. Fig. 6 shows the single
frequency could be clearly identified (12 out of 19). Even for a
line diagram and the corresponding short circuit power values
single EV, the supraharmonic emission at switching frequency
for each HCB. The grid represents a strong urban network,
is often not constant during the complete charging cycle. It
because the lowest short circuit power is still four times greater
maay vary in magnitude as well as frequency. Consequently,
than th e short circuit power that corresponds to the reference
Fig. 5 b) presents the highest magnitude that occurs during the
impedance acc. to IEC 60725 (about 570 kVA). Further details
constant current charging mode, which dominates the charging
of the s tudy can be foound in [20].
cycle. Further details on the characteristics of the switching
The measurements have been divided into three parts: a
frequency emission of the EVs can be found in [7].
coordinated charging (half day) following a pre-defined
The frequencies, as well as the magnitudes, of the different
schedule for the connection/disconnection of the EVs, an
EVs vary in a large range, which underlines the diversity
uncoor dinated (random) charging with a uniform distribution
between the chargers of the different manufacturers. Some of
of the charging boxes to the three phases (one weekend) and a
the EVs have emission in the frequency range between 35 kHz
referennce measurement without any EVs for one week. During
and 95 kHz, which is also used in several countries for
 2016 IEEE PES Transmission & Distribution Conference and Exposition - Latin America (PES T&D-LA). Morelia, Mexico

Fig. 6. Single-line diagram and short circuit power of the studied low v oltage grid

the coordinated charging, every two minutes a car was currentts higher than 100 mA. While a 3-sec-averaging interval
connected to the phase L1 starting at HH10. The state with has been selected for the coordinated charging, a 1-min-
nine cars (HH1, HH3 – HH10) being connected to one phase averaging interval has been chosen for the uncoordinated
was kept for ten minutes. After that, the EVs were charging and the reference measurement. The PQ Box 100
disconnected step by step with a delay of two minutes. During measur ed magnitudes and phase angles for all odd harmonic
the uncoordinated charging, the residents connected the EVs as voltages and currents up to the 50th order. Its locations are
they liked without any constraints. indicated in Fig. 6 as red dots. The supraharmonic
The harmonic measurements have been performed using 19 measur ements were carried out by two DEWE 2600
PQ-Box 100 instruments, which comply with IEC 61000-4-30 instruments. Their locations are indicated as blue dots in Fig. 6.
Class A. The measurement instrument used has a Due to its dimensions, the DEWE 2600 were only used during
magnitude/angle accuracy of better than 5%/3° for harmonic the coo rdinated measurements. A sampling rate of 1MS/s has

(a) Current of ndividual EVs and prevailing phase (b) Current at junction box duriing step-wise (c ) Voltage drop beetween junction box and HCB5
angle of residential customers connection of all EV s and current magnitude at junction box
Fig. 7. Third current harmonic of EVs and household loads and their impact on th e third voltage harmonic.

(a) Current of ndividual EVs and prevailing phase (b) Current at junction box duriing step-wise (c ) Voltage drop beetween junction box and HCB5
angle of residential customers connection of all EV s and current magnitude at junction box
Fig. 8. Fifth current harmonic of EVs and household loads and their impact on thhe fifth voltage harmonic.
 2016 IEEE PES Transmission & Distribution Conference and Exposition - Latin America (PES T&D-LA). Morelia, Mexico

shown in the paper reveals among others that the current

emissio n between 4 and 25 kHz sliightly decreases as a result
of the EV charging. The reason for this effect is the input
impeda nce of the EVs, which acts as a filter for this frequency
range. In general, most of the supraharmonic current flows
betweeen the individual devices and does not propagate very
far into the grid [21]. Consequently, it has greater effect on the
electron ic equipment connected closely to the source (same
househ old) than on the equipment in more distant customer
installa tions.
(a) Charging times (b) supraharmonic current spectrogram
Fig. 9. Supraharmonic current emission and respective charging times VI. CONCLUSIONS
been used and raw sample data have been stored. For the The paper presents a survey of the harmonic and the
current measurements the samee high precision clamps with a supraharmonic emission of single-phhase on-board EV chargers,
bandwidth of 100 kHz has been used. which aare common in Germany. Although all chargers utilize
active PFC circuits, some of them show a considerable
B. Harmonics harmon ic current emiission, particularly for the 3rrd, 5th and 7th
Fig. 7 a) and Fig 8 a) present the 3rd and 5th current harmon ic. The magnitudes and phase angles of the current
harmonic phasors measured for the individual EVs under harmon ics depend significantly on the distortion of the supply
realistic supply voltage distortion. The different EV types are voltage (background distortion). This should be considered in
distinguished by colors. The prevailing location of the current future revisions of respective emission limit standards like
emission of the households is highlighted by the blue cross- IEC 61000-3-2. Due tto the circuit design of the chargers (high
hatched sectors. Fig. 7 b) and 8 b) show the path of the total frequen cy switchinng of active PFC), a significant
supraharmonic emission can be observed for many of the
3rd and 5th harmonic current at the junction box for the
analyzed chargers. Thhis underlines the need for compatibility
stepwise connection of the EVs to phase A during the
levels and emission limits in the frequency raannge between
coordinated charging. The blue star indicates the emission just 2 kHz and 150 kHz. The laboratory measurements of the
before connecting the first EV. Finally, Fig. 7 c) and 8 c) studied EVs are available in the equiPment hArmoNic
present the time characteristic of the magnitude of the 3rd and DAtabase (PANDA), which can be accessed via
5th harmonic current and the voltage drop of the 3rd and 5th http://ppanda.et.tu-dresden.de [22].
harmonic between the last household connection box (HCB 5) A fifield study has shown that a high penetration of EVs can
and the junction box JB (cf. to Fig 6). significantly impact the harmonic and the supraharmonic levels
The 3rd harmonic currentss of the EVs have a similar in the ggrid. Due to different levels of harmonic cancellation,
location like the emission of the households (Fig. 7 a)). and the strong influence of grid iimpedance and other loads
Connsequently, no considerable cancellation between the connectted to the network, it is hard to quantify the impact on
households and the EVs exists and the 3rd harmonic voltage harmon ic voltage. The presented analysis showed both positive
increases (Fig. 7 c)). The prevailing phase angle for the 5th and negative effects and further work is required to better
harmonic current of the household loads differs by about 90° understand the full extent of possible system responses.
to the phase angle of the EVs (Fig. 8 a)). This shifts the total A kkey issue for realistic simulations is a sufficiently
5th harmonic current from the fourth to the third quadrant. Due accurate model of the individual EVs, and the ability to
to the phase angle of the dominating background harmonic reprodu ce interactions with other (e.g. domestic) equipment.
voltage this results in a slight compensation effect in the 5th As the grid-side filter circuits of the EV chargers can
harmonic voltage along the feeder, even if the 5th harmonic significantly impact the network harmonic impedance (e.g.
reductio n of first parallel resonance), not only the harmonic
current increases (Fig. 8 c)). It is also evident from the figures
emissio n, but also the input impedance of EV chargers should
that the total 3rd and 5th current harmonic at the junction box
be cons idered in such simulations.
are strongly dominates by the EVs.
C. Supraharmonics ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Fig. 9 a) presents the connection times of each individual Thiis work was supported by the German Federal Ministry
EV during the coordinated charging. EV_A corresponds to for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Building and
HH1 and EV_J to HH10 respectively. Fig. 9 b) shows the Nucleaar Safety (projeect ElmoNetQ, FKZ: 16EM1052).
spectrogram of the charging current, which was measured at
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