Basic Horticulture-I XI PDF

Preface
Indian topography and agro climates are well suited for horticultural crops, which are considered
ideal for achieving sustainability of smallholdings, increasing employment, improving environment,
providing an enormous export potential and above all achieving nutritional security. Furthermore,
horticulture has the potential for improvement of wastelands as well as arid and semi-arid areas. The
country has recorded significant growth rate in horticultural output among various agricultural products
in the recent past. The horticulture sector contributes around 31 % of the GDP from about 14% of the
area and 38% of the total exports of agricultural commodities. Moreover, globally India ranks second
in the production of fruit and vegetables next to China.
Increasing horticultural production contributes to commercialization of the rural economy and creates
many off-farm jobs. It also provides ample opportunities for sustaining large number of agro-industries,
which generate substantial employment opportunities. Demand for horticultural produce is rising, both
in domestic and international markets. Many consumers today purchase a broad range of relatively
expensive commodities such as off-season produce, exotic fruits and vegetables, and organic produce.
Demand for horticultural produce is expected to rise further, fueled both by affluent urban consumers in
developing countries and consumers in developed countries. In addition, increasing urbanization and
the needs of growing cities to feed their population will require more attention toward horticultural
production. The foundation course on "Basic Horticulture-I" for class XI students has been introduced
with the following objectives:
z This is a basic course to equip students with knowledge and skills in the field of Horticulture.
Major topics covered in this book are introduction to horticulture, importance of horticulture
in human diet and national economy, principles of horticulture crop production technology,
principle and methods of plant propagation, essential plant nutrients, their deficiency symptoms
and toxicities, organic and inorganic manures and fertilizers and their methods of application,
water management, weed, major pest and diseases management, harvesting, handling, storage
of horticultural crops and traits and quality standards of horticultural products etc.
z Students will get an exposure to vocational/professional course on the production of fruits,
vegetables and flowers, which will motivate students to come up as entrepreneurs in the area
of nursery raising or commercial horticulture.
z This course is an effort to sensitize student in the field of horticulture. The course will be useful
and serve as guiding force for the students to choose career in the area of horticulture and they
may further pursue diploma/ degree in this area.
z This course has been designed to provide entry level job skills to the students and will help to
meet the human resource requirement for horticulture sector.
Vineet Joshi, IAS

Chairman, CBSE
i
Acknowledgements
Advisors
1. Dr. S. Ayyappan, Secretary, DARE and Director General (ICAR),
Krishi Bhavan, New Delhi, 110001
2. Sh. Vineet Joshi, IAS, Chairman, CBSE, Delhi
Special Acknowledgement
1. Dr. Rameshawar Singh, Project Director (DKMA), Directorate of
Knowledge Management in Agriculture, Krishi Anushandhan
Bhavan, Pusa, New Delhi
2. Dr. Jagdeep Saxena, Editor, ICAR, New Delhi
Authors
1. Dr. Suresh Kumar Upadhyay, Professor, Deptt. Of Horticulture,
CSKHPKV, Palampur-176 062
2. Dr. R.R. Sharma, Senior Scientist, Division of Fruits & Hort.
Technology, IARI, New Delhi-110012
3. Dr. Manish Srivastav, Senior Scientist, Division of Fruits & Hort.
Technology, IARI, New Delhi-110012
4. Dr. Hare Krishna, Senior Scientist, CIAH, Beechwal, Bikaner
(Rajasthan)
Editing & Coordination

1. Dr. Biswajit Saha, Associate Professor &Programme Officer, (Voc.
Education) CBSE, Delhi
2. Mr. Dharampal Singh, Former Director (EDUSAT & Vocational
Education), and Consultant (Agriculture), CBSE, Delhi
3. Ms. Pragya Gaur, Consultant, (Science), CBSE, Delhi
iii
Basic Horticulture - I
Class XI
Convener & Editor

Dr. S.K. Upadhyay
Authors :
Dr. S. K. UPADHYAY
Dr. R.R. SHARMA
Dr. HARE KRISHNA
Dr. MANISH SRIVASTAV
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THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
PREAMBLE
WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a 1[SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST
SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC] and to secure to all its citizens:
JUSTICE, social, economic and political;
LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;
EQUALITY of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the 2[unity and integrity of the Nation];
IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, do HEREBY ADOPT,
ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION.
1. Subs. by the Constitution (Forty-Second Amendment) Act. 1976, sec.2, for "Sovereign Democratic Republic
(w.e.f. 3.1.1977)
2. Subs. by the Constitution (Forty-Second Amendment) Act. 1976, sec.2, for 'unity of the Nation (w.e.f.
3.1.1977)
THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA

Chapter IV
A Fundamental Duties
ARTICLE 51 A
Fundamental Duties. It SHALL be the duty of every citizen of India
(a) to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National Flag and the
National Anthem;
(b) to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle for freedom;
(c) to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India;
(d) to defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so;
(e) To promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India
transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities; to renounce practices
derogatory to the dignity of women;
(f) to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;
(g) to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers, wild life and to
have compassion for living creatures;
(h) to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform;
(i) to safeguard public property and to abjure violence;
(j) to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity so that the nation
constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour and achievement.
*(k) a parent or guardian to provide opportunities for education to his child or as the case may be ward
between the age of six and fourteen years.
viii
Contents
CHAPTER - 1
Introduction to Horticulture 1-6
CHAPTER - 2
Importance of Horticultural Crops 7-14
CHAPTER - 3
Principles of Horticulture Crop Production Technology 15-30
CHAPTER - 4
Principles of Plant Propagation, Methods of Propagation
for Horticultural Crops 31-55
CHAPTER - 5
Essential Plant Nutrients, their Deficiency Symptoms and
Toxicities in Horticultural Crops 56-65
CHAPTER - 6
Organic and inorganic manures and their methods of
application in horticultural crops 66-80
CHAPTER - 7
Water Management in Horticultural Crops 81-87
CHAPTER - 8
Weed Management in Horticultural Crops 88-103
CHAPTER - 9
Major Pest and Diseases Management in Horticultural Crops 104-109
CHAPTER - 10
Harvesting, Handling and Storage of Horticultural Crops 110-123
CHAPTER - 11
Traits and Quality Standards of Horticultural Produce 124-131
ix
CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Horticulture
OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, students will be able to:
• Learn about the inception of horticulture and its distinguishing features
• Know about the various branches of Horticulture
INTRODUCTION
Horticultural Science is an exciting discipline with a variety of study areas and possible
careers. Not sure what horticulture is? Did you eat any fruits or vegetables today? Enjoy beautiful
landscaping in a park? Play golf at a well-managed course?
Horticulture affects everyone. It plays a very important role in society influencing our
lifestyle and general health in many ways. This includes the production of fruit and vegetables
which form a vital ingredient of our daily diet and the development of pleasant surroundings
for living and working, which create positive effects for emotional health. In this chapter, we
will discuss about horticulture, its distinguishing features and branches based on the crops
dealt.
WHAT IS HORTICULTURE?
According to Liberty Hyde Bailey, one of the most famous American scholars of horticulture,
"Horticulture is the growing of flowers, fruits and vegetables, and of plants for ornament and
fancy."
Horticulture is defined by Webster's

The term Horticulture is derived from two
dictionary as "the science and art of growing
Latin words i.e. Hortus meaning garden or
fruits, vegetables, and flowers." It is the
enclosure and Colere meaning to grow or to
intensive commercial production of high- cultivate. Garden in itself is a broad term.
value and high-yielding plants. But it also Garden is originated from the latin term
includes the cultivation of garden crops and Gyrdan meaning ‘to enclose’.
landscape ornamentals and the interaction of
science and art. Horticulture contributes to the economy, provides good nutrition, and is a valuable
spiritual and psychological therapy. Horticulture beautifies and enhances the environment.
1
The term Agriculture refers broadly to the technology of raising plants and animals .On the
other hand, Horticulture which is a part of agriculture is concerned with the raising of garden
crops.. Horticulture can also be defined as the branch of agriculture concerned with intensively
cultivated plants directly used by man for food, medicinal or aesthetic purposes.
In olden days, food crops like Paddy, Maize, and Wheat etc. were grown in open fields on
a large scale, while some crops of special interest like fruits, vegetables, flowers etc. were grown
in the back yard of houses in an enclosure. In cases where fruits, vegetables and flowers were
grown in areas other than backyards, they are protected by erecting walls, by raising live fences,
non-live fences etc. i.e. they are enclosed. As such, the term Horticulture in the original sense
referred to the cultivation of crops with in the protected enclosure, which is often called as a
garden (Crops grown in a protected
When fruits are grown in a definite area then that
enclosure). So, the culture of crops in gardens
part is called as an Orchard
is referred as Horticulture.
At present, fruits, vegetables, flowers etc. are grown not only with in the back yards, but
also in large areas in open fields on a commercial scale. Traditionally garden crops include
fruits, vegetables and flowers. But today's horticulture deals not only with the fruits, vegetables
and flowers but also with other important crops like spices, condiments, plantation crops,
medicinal and aromatic plants etc,. Besides cultivation of these crops, present day horticulture
also deals with the utilization and improvement of these crops. Hence, modern horticulture
may be defined as a part of agricultural science, which deals with the production, utilization,
and improvement of fruits, vegetables, flowers, ornamentals, plantation crops, medicinal and
aromatic plants etc.
MAIN DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF HORTICULTURE

i. Horticulture crops are used in a living state while others like grains etc. are not used
in a living state.
ii. Horticulture crops are comparatively more intensively cultivated than field crops.
iii. Horticulture crops have high water content.
DIVISIONS OF HORTICULTURE
Horticulture is divided in to the following divisions for convenience based upon the crops
dealt and also their purpose and utilization
1. Pomology: It is derived from two words i.e. Pomum meaning fruit and Logos meaning
discourse or study. Therefore, pomology is study or cultivation of fruit crops such as Mango,
2
Litchi, Citrus, Sapota, Guava, Grape, Banana, Pineapple, Apple, Pear, Peach, Plum and
Cherry etc.
2. Olericulture: It is derived from two words i.e. Oleris meaning Potherb and Cultra meaning
cultivation. Therefore, olericulture literally means potherb cultivation of Brinjal, Okra,
Tomato, Capsicum, Peas, Beans, Cucurbits etc.
3. Floriculture: It is derived from two words i.e. Florus meaning flower and Cultra meaning
cultivation. Therefore, floriculture means study of flower crops such as Rose, Jasmine,
Carnation, Aster, Marigold, Dahlia, Zinnia, Cosmos, Hibiscus, Balsam, Poinsettia,
Hollyhock, Gerbera, and Gaillardia etc.
3
4. Landscape gardening: It deals with the planning and execution of ornamental gardens,
parks, landscape gardens etc.
5. Post harvest technology: It deals with the processing and preservation of produce of
horticulture crops.
6. Plantation crops: These crops are cultivated in an extensive scale in large contiguous areas,
owned and managed by an individual or a company and whose produce is utilized only
after processing. Coffee, Tea, Rubber, Coconut, Cocoa etc. are some of the important
plantation crops.
7. Spices and condiments: This branch deals with the cultivation of crops whose produce is
used mainly for seasoning and flavouring dishes.
4
Spices: These are those plants the products of which are made use of as food adjuncts to
add aroma and flavour. For example, Pepper, Cardamom, Clove, Cinnamon, etc.
Condiments: These are those plants the products of which are made use of as food adjuncts
to add taste only. For example,Turmeric, Ginger, Red chillies, Onion, Garlic etc.
8. Medicinal and aromatic plants: It deals with the cultivation of medicinal plants, which
provide drugs and aromatic crops which yields aromatic (essential) oils.
Medicinal plants: These plants are rich in secondary metabolites and are potential sources
of drugs. The secondary metabolites include alkaloids, glycosides, coumarins, flavonoides
and steroids etc. Important medicinal plants are Periwinkle, Opium, Menthi, Cinchona,
Dioscorea Yam, Belladona, Senna, Sarpagandha, Aswagandha, Tulasi etc.
Aromatic plants: These plants possess essential oils in them. The essential oils are the
odoriferous steam volatile constituents of aromatic plants. Lemon grass, Citronella,
Palmrosa, Vetiver, Geranium, Davanam, Lavendor etc. are some of the aromatic plants
ACTIVITY/EXERCISE
Visit an orchard, vegetable farm, landscape garden and a processing unit. Observe and
write the differences in the respective specialized vocations being dealt. Further make your
5
observations on the use of spices and condiments in Indian
foods._________________________________________________________________________________
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) Define horticulture? Write the distinguishing features of horticulture crops.
2) Enlist the various divisions of horticulture. Differentiate between pomology and olericulture.
3) How do fruit crops differ from plantation crops?
FILL IN THE BLANKS

1. The word 'Horticulture' consists of two parts namely ……………and ……………..
2. Garden is originated from the latin term Gyrdan meaning ………………
3. A branch of horticulture which deals with the planning and execution of ornamental
gardens, parks, landscape gardens etc. is referred to as ……………………………….
4. Medicinal plants are rich source of ………………………….
5. Aromatic plants possess…………………..in them.
SUGGESTED FURTHER READINGS

Bal, J.S. (2007). Fruit growing Kalyani Publishers,Ludhiana, India.
Chattopadhyay, T.K. (2012). A textbook on Pomology, Vol. 1 (Fundamentals), Kalyani publishers,
Ludhiana, India.,
Singh, J. (2012). Basic Horticulture. Kalyani publishers, Ludhiana, India.,
http://www.angrau.ac.in/
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CHAPTER 2
Importance of Horticultural
Crops
OBJECTIVES
• Explain the importance of horticultural crops in day-to-day life of human beings and
its impact on national economy
• Develop an appreciation of nature and the environment
INTRODUCTION
Do you know it is dangerous to your health if the right content of food is not consumed?
Well, let's face it. Bad eating habit(s) contributes about 35 -40 per cent of death globally.
Several diseases are also associated with imbalanced diet. That is why it is important for
one to know the right food to eat at the right time. It may sound needless to talk about this as
some of us pretend we already know the health benefits of eating fruits and vegetables, yet, how
well do we do as people to practice it? How often do we do this? That is why, as human as we
are, it is important we keep reminding ourselves in order not to deviate. Fruits and vegetables
are essential building blocks of any diet. Not only are they loaded with vitamins and minerals
which are essential for healthy living, but also satisfy you as part of balanceddiet. By increasing
an intake of fruits and vegetables, one is gradually reducing the risk of becoming ill, as this
would boost the immune system as well as building resistance to common diseases and infections
like: cardio-vascular diseases, kidney failure, stroke, hole-in-heart, and osteoporosis among
others. Furthermore, it leaves you looking better and feeling great, as part of a healthy diet,
which can be an all-round improvement for your well-being.
For the economy to flourish there must be an increase in productivity which highly depends
on a healthy working force. The alternative is an increase in fruits and vegetable consumption.This
is because of the natural goodness contained within these ultimate healthy foods that will provide
the necessary energy to fuel you through the day and give you the drive and determination to
progress through a course exercise to improve overall fitness.
Having said that, fruits can act as a substitute for sugary snacks, which otherwise deplete
energy and lead to numerous other health problems.The natural sugar contained in fruits is
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essential for the effective maintenance of the immune system and the body's natural defense
mechanisms, as well as increasing fruits in the diet as a healthy snacking alternative.
Vegetables on the other hand, should account for a substantial proportion of each meal, to
ultimately improve your diet and by ensuring a substantial role they play within your diet; you
should end up seeing the benefits in your skin, hair and general health. On top of this, an increase
in fruit and vegetable intake can leave you feeling physically better and more alert, increasing
attention span and reducing fatigue. However, fruit consumption may have a side effect if not
properly washed and rinsed and vegetables as well, if not well cooked. Therefore, maximum
attention must be given to its preparation to avoid any damaging effect. Why not try introducing
more vegetables and fruits into your diet today by doing a straight swap of fruits for sugary
snacks and introducing vegetables to boost any meal as part of a nutritious and healthy balanced
diet.
Fruit and vegetables have long been touted for their health benefits. In India, the virtues of
horticulture now include the ability to lift rural communities out of poverty.
IMPORTANCE OF HORTICULTURAL CROPS IN HUMAN DIET

From human nutrition point of view, horticulture is most important to our daily living.
Many of the horticulture crops and their products find place in our meals and diet. Human body
requires vitamins, minerals, proteins, energy etc. for its health. All these are supplied by
horticultural crops. Fruits and vegetables are the chief sources of vitamins, minerals,
carbohydrates, fats, proteins etc. are recognized as protective foods as they are necessary for the
maintenance of human health. No doubt these can be obtained by consuming meat, fish, egg etc.
but for vegetarians the consuming of vegetables and fruits is the only solution for getting these
essential nutrients for making a sound body with appropriate health.
Deficiency of any minerals and

nutrients is depicted by the human A person should consume atleast120 g of fruits and 300
body by giving typical symptoms. g vegetables per day as per Indian Council of Medical
The great majority of people obtain most Research, but the consumption of fruits and vegetables
of their carbohydrates and proteins from per capta in India is still low. However, the respective
cereals and pulses but their diets must also availability of fruit and vegetables is 172 g and 350 g
contain significant amount of fruits and per day in our country. In countries like Italy, France and
vegetables to ensure that they get the USA the consumption is 308, 232 and 223 g / day
vitamins which are not provided by the respectively.
staple cereal foods.
8
Vitamins: These are the important constituents of fruits and vegetables and are
indispensable part of human diet. Although required in very minute quantities, they are absolutely
essential for the maintenance of health. The deficiency of any vitamin from the diet for considerable
period may lead to diseased state or disorder conditions. Fruits and vegetables supply several
vitamins.
Vitamin-A: It is essential for normal growth, reproduction and maintenance of health and
vigour. It affords protection against cold and influenza and prevents night blindness. The
deficiency of this vitamin results in cessation of growth in young children, night blindness, drying
up of tear glands in the eyes, eruption of skin (Rashes on the skin) and brittleness of the teeth
Sources: Fruits-Mango, Papaya, Dates, Jackfruit, Walnut etc. Vegetables-Greens like palak,
spinach, amaranthus, fenugreek, carrot, cabbage, lettuce, peas, tomato etc.
Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) : Tones the nervous system and helps in proper functioning of the
digestive tract. Its deficiency in human diet results in Beri-beri, paralysis, loss of sensitivity of
skin, enlargement of heart, loss of appetite ,loss of weight and fall in body temperature.
Sources: Fruits-Orange, pineapple, jack fruit, cashew nut, walnut, dry apricot, almond,
banana etc,. Vegetables-Green chilli, beans, onion, sweet potato, tomato (red), leaves of colocasia.
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin): This vitamin is required for body growth and health of the skin.
The deficiency of this vitamin causes sore throat, anorexia cataract, and loss of appetite and
body weight and also development of swollen nose.
Sources: Fruits- Bael, papaya, litchi, banana, apricot, pomegranate, pear etc. Vegetables-
Cabbage, cauliflower, potato, peas and beans, methi, lettuce, asparagus, green chillies, leafy
vegetables etc,.
Vitamin -C (Ascorbic Acid): This

vitamin promotes general health and healthy
Antioxidants are naturally occurring substances
gums, prevents scurvy disease which is
found in most plants and have the potential to help
characterized by pain in the joints and
combat heart diseases and fight cancer
swelling of limbs (rheumatism), bleeding of
gums, tooth decay and keeps the blood
vessels in good condition.
Sources: Fruits: Amla, guava, ber, citrus, strawberry, pineapple etc. Vegetables: Tomato,
palak, menthi, cabbage, green chillies, spinach, potatoes, peas and beans and carrot etc,.
Vitamin-D: This vitamin is necessary for building up of bones, preventing rickets and
diseases of teeth.
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Sources: All green leafy vegetables are rich in this vitamin.
Vitamin-E: Ithas an important effect on the generative functions and promotes fertility.
Sources: Green lettuce and other green vegetables, as well as almonds, cashewnut, walnut
etc.
Vitamin-K: This vitamin prevents blood clotting.
Sources: All green leafy vegetables and nuts are rich in this vitamin.
Minerals: Human body requires minerals like P, Ca, Iron, and Iodine etc. for maintaining
good health.
Calcium : It is essential for development of bones, regulation of heartbeat, controlling blood

clots.
Sources: Fruits- Acid lime, Orange, Fig, Dried apricots, wood apple etc. Vegetables-
Cabbage, greens, beans, carrot, onions, peas, tomatoes, agati, spinach drumstick leaves etc.
Iron: It is required for production of haemoglobin and it is constituent of red blood

corpuscles. Its deficiency causes anaemia, smooth tongue, pale lips, eyes and skin and frequent
exhaustion.
Sources: Fruits- Custard apple, Guava, Pineapple, Straw berry, Grape, Black currents, dried
dates etc. and Vegetables like Carrot, Drumstick leaves, beans and agave etc.
Phosphorus: It is essential for maintaining the moisture content of tissues and for
development of bones.
Sources: Fruits-Guava, Grape, Jackfruit, Passion fruit, Orange and vegetables like Carrot,
Chilli, Drumstick leaves, Beans, cucumber and onion.
Proteins: These are body building foods. These are essential for growth of the body. The
deficiency of proteins in the body causes retarded growth and increases susceptibility to diseases
and causes lethargy.
Sources: Fruits- Cashewnut, almond, pecannut, walnut etc. Vegetables like peas and beans
are rich in proteins.
Enzymes: These are required for controlling several metabolic activities in the body.
Sources: Papaya-Papain and Pineapple-Bromelin.
Fibre and roughages (Cellulose and pectin): Fruits and vegetables supply roughages. These
are required for digestion and prevention of constipation.
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Sources: Fruits contain low content of fibre. Guava and anola are better sources compared
to other fruits. Leafy vegetables are rich in fibre content
Energy foods: Fruits and vegetables contain Carbohydrates and fats there by supply energy
to human body. Those fruits (Banana, Dates, Apple etc.) and vegetables (Potatoes, Sweet potato,
Beans, Peas etc.), which contain carbohydrates, are called as energy foods. Nut fruits like Walnut,
Cashew nut and almond etc. supply proteins besides energy.
IMPORTANCE OF HORTICULTURE IN THE NATIONAL ECONOMY

India is the 2nd largest producer in the world, with 76 million tones of fruits occupying an
area of 6.70 million hectare and 156 million tones of vegetables from an area of 8.98 million
hectare. In all, horticulture crops occupy an
Presently, the horticulture sector contributes
area of 23 million hectare and are said to
around 31 % of the GDP and 38% of the total
annually yield 257million tones of crops.
exports of agricultural commodities from
Horticulture sector not only impact the
around 14% of area.
immediate life but play a very important role
in the Indian economy by proving to be an important source of income for the rural population.
Fruits and vegetables are not only used for domestic consumption and processing into various
products(Pickles, preserves sauces, jam, jelly squashes, etc.) but also substantial quantities are
exported in fresh and processed form,
o Globally, second largest producer of fruits
bringing much-needed foreign exchange for
and vegetables
the country. These groups of crops also
o Largest producer of mango, banana,
provide ample scope for achieving bio-
coconut, cashew, papaya, pomegranate etc.
diversity and diversification to maintain
o Largest producer and exporter of spices
ecological balance and to create sustainable
o Ranks first in productivity of grapes,
agriculture and can make an impact on the
banana, cassava, peas, papaya etc.
national economy in the years to come.
Table: Area and production of Horticultural Crops.
Particulars Area (million hectare) Production (million tones)

Fruits 6.70 76.4
Vegetables 8.98 156.3
Flowers 0.25 76.7
Plantation Crops 3.58 16.36
Spices 3.21 5.95
Aromatic Plants 0.50 0.56
Total 23.22 257.3
Source: www.nhb.org.in
11
1. Horticultural produces contribute to national wealth. They are the important exportable
commodities in many countries. Through export of horticultural produce, our country is
earning foreign exchange. India is exporting flowers to America, Netherlands, Germany,
Japan, UK; Onionsto Malayasia, UAE, Singapore, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh; vegetables to
Sri Lanka, America, UAE, Spain, Saudi
Arabia, Bangladesh, U.K., Kuawait,; Fresh Export growth of fresh fruits and vegetables
grapes to UK,Netherlands, UAE, in term of value is 14% and of processed fruits
Bangladesh, Germany; Fresh fruits to and vegetables is 16.27%
Bangladesh, UAE, Saudi Arabia, UK and Sri
Lanka.; Processed vegetables to Egypt, Srilanka, UAE, America and Turkey and Mango
pulp to Saudi Arabia, UAE, Netherlands, Kuwait and Germany and Pickles and Chutneys
to UK, America, UAE, Spain etc.
Table: Export of Horticulture Produce in India (APEDA Website)
Product Quantity (MT) Value (Rs. Lakhs)

Floriculture 30926.02 36532.15
Fruits / Vegetable Seeds 15205.81 28776.35
Fresh Onions 1309924.82 172299.80
Other Fresh Vegetables 729810.62 129893.77
Walnut 5841.56 23108.40
Fresh Mangoes 63441.29 20974.30
Fresh Grapes 108584.56 60288.15
Other Fresh Fruits 271347.82 73586.20
Dried and Preserved Vegetables 138464.03 70018.80
Mango Pulp 150499.06 62082.91
Other Processed Fruits & Vegetables 459514.68 211785.85
2. Increased production of horticulture crops is possible in comparison to other agronomical

crops because trees have a longer life and their production increases with advancement
in age provided a proper care is taken. Similarly vegetables can also be grown 3 to 4
times each year giving the products all the time they are grown. More number of crops
can be grown from same piece of land, whereas, cereal crops bind the land for a longer
time. Furthermore, spices, medicinal, aromatic and flower crops are high value crops as
these crops fetch more prices in the market.
3. Horticultural crops are more profitable since the average income per unit area is more in
comparison to agriculture crops. One hectare area of horticultural crops may generate
income to the tune of Rs. 10,000 to Rs. 1,00,000 and even more, depending upon nature and
value of crops.
12
4. With the support of horticulture, many agro-industries can spring up in villages itself. It is
an acceptable fact that horticulture can come in a big way to solve the problem of
unemployment. Source of other industries such as rubber, oil, gum, dyes, chemicals etc.
raw material for fruit and vegetable-processing plants, hence becomes a solution to reduce
unemployment.
5. Horticultural crops provide gainful employment for small farmers and agricultural labour
in doing field operations like fruit picking / harvesting, grading, packing, selling etc.through
out the year. One hectare of fruit production generates 860 man-days per annum as against
143 man-days for cereal crops. Some industrial attribute crops and cultural intensive crops
like grape, banana and pineapple, generate much large employment ranging from 1,000 to
2,500 man-days per hectare. The processing industries are labor intensive and offer high
employment potential in collection centers, grading, packing, loading / unloading, storages
(ware houses and cold storages) transport, marketing and processing units.
Entertainment
Roaming in the gardens, orchards or places well planted with flowerbeds etc. gives mental
peace to the people. One enjoys fresh air and natural beauty, sheds of tension making him fresh.
Paradise means garden. The hanging garden of Babylon (one of the 7th wonders of the world)
and the Versailles garden of 17th century are unique examples.
Medicines
The parts like stem, leaf, flowers, roots and even the fruits of horticulture plants are used to
make drugs, chemicals, insecticides, germicides etc. For example, rose water is used to cure
eyes ailments. Similarly saffron is imported ingredient of many medicines, papain is a digestive
enzyme, citrus fruit like sweet lime is used for liver ailment, rind of pomegranate and pectin
from guava used for stomach upset, bark of arjun trees for heart troubles, neem water for skin
irritation and allergies etc.
Aesthetic value and religious importance
Aesthetic value and religious importance is the unique factor distinguishing it from
agricultural activities. Mango leaves, wood, banana leaves etc. are used for religious functions.
Similarly the plantation of banana tree in the court yard or tulsi plantation is said to bring
prosperity as per Hindu religion. Leaves of bael are famous for offering to Lord Shiva. Worshiping
tree is considered pilgrimic action. This aspect of horticulture has lead to its universal popularity.
ACTIVITY/EXERCISE
Make a check list of fruits and vegetables being consumed by you in your daily diet and
write the observations on the important fruits and vegetables required to meet daily requirement
from nutrition point of view.
13
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1) Fruits and vegetables are protective food. Justify the statement.
2) What is the importance of horticulture in Indian economy?
3) Write an account on the medicinal properties of horticultural crops.
4) Discuss in brief the importance of fruits in daily diet of human beings.
5) Identify the causes due to which the following disorders develop and enlist the fruits and
vegetables as their remedial measures:
Sr. No. Disorder Causes Remedial measures
1. Paralysis
2. Pain in joints and
swelling of limbs
3. Night blindness
4. Sore throat, loss of appetite
5. Anaemia
FILL IN THE BLANKS

1. Per capita consumption of fruits and vegetables in India is …………g and …………g
respectively.
2. Night blindness is due to the deficiency of………………….and can be corrected by taking
………………………………..fruits and vegetables.
3. Energy providing fruits are ……………. and ………………………………
4. ………………vitamin prevents blood clotting.
5. India is the largest producer and exporter of ………………………….
6. Total area under fruits in India is ………… and production is…………………
7. India ranks ………………in the production of fruits and vegetables.
8. ……………..and………………are required for digestion and prevention of constipation.
9. Proteins are called as ……………………….food.
10. ………………fruit is the richest source of vitamin C and can be used to avoid scurvy.

Ludhiana, India.,
http://www.angrau.ac.in
14
CHAPTER 3
Principles of Horticulture Crop

Production Technology
OBJECTIVES
• Select the appropriate location for raising desirable horticultural crops under a given
climatic conditions.
• Select the suitable lay out plans for different horticultural crops.
• Plan various key operations for establishing new orchard/garden.
• Manage the horticultural crops by making efficient uses of available resources.
• Decide on the most appropriate cultivation system for a given situation.
INTRODUCTION
As you might be aware after studying chapter I that, 'Horticulture' deals with a large number
of plant species. Traditionally, it includes fruits, vegetables, and ornamental plants. It deals
with a combination of the botanical and agricultural aspects of plants. Thus, one may define
horticulture as the culture and biology of garden crops, including both the aesthetic and the
scientific dimensions. Basic principles of physics, chemistry, and biology are used by
horticulturists to understand and manipulate plant life. Therefore, it is essential to understand
the fundamental principles of horticultural crop production in order to grow them successfully
and fetch economic returns.
PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT PRODUCTION

The commercial production of fruits is known as orcharding. Grape plantations are called
vineyards, and the cultivation of grapes is called viticulture. Similarly, citrus orchards are typically
called citrus groves and the cultivation of citrus is known as citriculture. Orcharding and other
types of fruit growing require high capital investment for years on a fixed site, without immediate
return.
SELECTION OF SITE
Selection of suitable site is the first step for establishing an orchard on commercial scale.
Selection may be made based on the following criteria;
15
• The land chosen for orchard should be in proximity to main road and market.
• It should have proper irrigation facilities and have a good soil and climate suitable
for growth and production of fruit trees.
• Experience of the fruit growers and research stations in the locality should be taken
into account for the acclimatization of the fruits under consideration.
• Adequate water supply should be available round the year.
Any mistake in selection of site cannot be altered after planting while modifications in
other factors are possible.
Preliminary Operations for establishing an orchard
After selecting the suitable location and site, some preliminary operations have to be
done. Trees are felled without leaving stumps or roots. The shrubs and other weedy growth
are also cleared. Deep ploughing is essential to remove big roots. The land should be
thoroughly ploughed, leveled and manured. Leveling is important for economy of irrigation
and preventing soil wash. In the hills, the land should be divided into terraces depending
upon the topography of the land and the leveling is done within the terraces. Terracing protects
the land from erosion. If the soil is poor, it would be advisable to grow a green manure crop
and plough it in situ so as to improve its physical and chemical conditions before planting
operations are taken up.
Planning of an orchard
A careful plan of the orchard is necessary for the most efficient and economic management.
The following points should be considered in preparing the plan.
1. Optimum spacing to accommodate maximum number of trees per unit area.
2. Stores and office building in the orchard should be constructed at the centre for proper
supervision. .
3. Wells should be located at convenient places in different parts at the rate of one well for 2
to 4 hectares.
4. Each kind of fruit should be planted in a separate block.
5. Fruits ripening at the same time should be grouped together.
6. Pollinizers should be provided in deciduous fruits.
7. Irrigation channels should be laid along the gradients for most economical conduct of water.
For every 30m length of channel, 7.5 cm slope should be given.
16
8. Roads should occupy minimum space for the economy of transport. The clearance between
wind break and first row of trees is advantageous for the road.
9. Short growing trees should be allotted at the front and tall at the back for easy watching
and to improve the appearance.
10. Evergreen trees should be in the front and deciduous ones behind.
11. Fruits attracting birds and animals should be close to the watchman's shed.
12. A good fence is essential. Live fencing is economic and cheap to other kind of fences. The
plants suitable for live fencing should be drought resistant, easy to propagate from seed,
quick growing, have dense foliage, should stand severe pruning and should be thorny.
Agave, Prosopis juliflora, Pithecolobium dulce and Thevetia if closely planted in 3 rows would
serve as a good live fencing.
13. Wind breaks, rows of tall trees planted close together around the orchard, are essential to
resist velocity of wind which causes severe ill-effects particularly moisture evaporation
from the soil. Since the wind breaks are very effective in reducing the wind velocity and
minimizing the damage to the fruit trees and to other crops, their presence in regions where
strong winds prevail is of paramount importance. A wind break ordinarily has its maximum
effectiveness for a distance about four times as great as its height but has some effect over
twice about that distance.
The most effective windbreak is a double row of tall trees alternately placed. There should
be at least as much as space between the windbreak and the first row of the fruit trees as between
fruit trees. It is preferable to dig a trench of 90 cm deep at a distance of 3m from the windbreak trees
and prune and cut all the roots exposed and again fill up the trenches. This may be repeated for
every 3 or 4 years in order to avoid the competition between the wind breaks and fruit trees for
moisture and nutrition. Trees suitable for windbreak should be erect, tall and quick growing,
hardy and drought resistant and mechanically strong and dense to offer maximum resistance to
wind. The trees which are suitable for growing as wind breaks are Casuarina equisetifolia, Pterospermum
acerifolium, Polyalthia longifolia, Eucalyptus globulus, Grevillea robusta, Azadirachta indica etc.
LAYOUT SYSTEMS OF PLANTING

Lay-out means locating the position of trees, roads and buildings in the orchard being
established, and systems of lay-out refer to the orderly ways of planting the trees. It is desirable
to have the trees planted in systematic way because
• Orchard operations like interculture and irrigation are carried out easily.
• It enables equal distribution of area under each tree.
17
• It results in least wastage of land.
• It makes supervision more easy and effective.
• There is room for systematic extension of the orchard.
There are mainly five systems of planting of fruit trees. In all these systems, trees are planted
in rows.
A. Square system
In square system the trees are planted in four corners of a

square keeping the same distance between row to row and plant to
plant in the same row. This is the most commonly followed system
and is very easy to layout. This system permits inter cropping and
cultivation in two directions.
B. Rectangular system
In rectangular system the trees are planted in the same way as in

a square system except that the distance between rows to row will be
more than the distance between plant to plant in the same row. The
wider alley spaces available between rows of trees permit easy
intercultural operations and even the use of mechanical operations.
C. Quincunx or Diagonal system
Basically, quincunx or diagonal system is the same as the square

system except for the addition of a tree in the center of each square. This
will accommodate double the number of plants, but does not provide
equal spacing. The central trees are known as filler crop and the others as
main crop. The central (filler) tree chosen may be a short lived one. Papaya,
Guava, Lime, plum and peaches are a few examples of filler crops in orchards with trees like
mango, jackfruit and tamarind. This system can be followed when the distance between the
permanent trees is more than 10m. As there will be competition between permanent and filler
trees, the filler trees should be removed after a few years when main trees come to bearing.
D. Hexagonal/ septuple system
In the hexagonal system, the trees are planted at the corners of an

equilateral triangle. Six such triangles are joined together to form a
hexagon. Six trees are positioned at the corners of this hexagon with a
seventh in the center all arranged in the three rows.This system provides
18
equal spacing but it is difficult to layout. This system accommodates 15% more trees than the
square system. The limitations of this system are that it is difficult to layout and the cultivation
is not so easily done as in the square system.
E. Contour system
In a hilly area, a lot of depressions, ridges, furrows and place surface are found. But when
plating is done a line is made by connecting all the points of same elevation across the slope
from a base line. Thus spacing is maintained on this row.
The main purpose of this system is to minimize land erosion and to conserve soil moisture
so as to make the slope fit for growing fruits and plantation crops. Terrace system on the other
hand refers to planting in flat strip of land formed across a sloping side of a hill, lying level
along the contours. Terraced fields rise in steps one above the other and help to bring more area
into productive use and also to prevent soil erosion. The width of the contour terrace varies
according to the nature of the slope. If the slope becomes stiff, the width of terrace is narrower
and vice-versa. The planting distance under the contour system may not be uniform.
In the recent past, a new trend has been observed among the growers i.e. adoption of high
density planting system. This has gradually becoming imperative due to shortage of land and
labour.
High density planting system
High density planting (HDP) can be defined as "accommodation of the maximum possible
number of the plants per unit area to get the maximum possible profit per unit of tree volume
without impairing the soil fertility status". This technique was first established in apple in Europe
during sixties and now majority of the apple orchards in Europe, America, Australia and New
Zealand are grown under this system.
Examples of successful HDP in fruit crops: There are quite a good number of success
stories of HDP in fruit crops under Indian conditions. Some of them are being listed below with
their technical details;
19
Table 1. Performance of fruit crops under HDP.
S. No. Crop Variety Density Spacing (m) Yield (t/ha)

(Plants/ha)
1. Banana Basarai 4,444 1.5x1.5 78.0
2. Papaya PusaNanha 6,400 1.25x1.25 103.6
3. Pineapple Kew 63,758 0.22x0.6x0.75 118.8
4. Guava Lalit 5,000 1x2 55
5. Mango Amrapali 1,600 2.5x2.5 22
CHOICE OF FRUIT TREES

The next step of orchard establishment is choice of fruit crops. The choice of fruit crops is
governed by various soil and climatic conditions as indicated in Table 2;
Table 2. Choice of fruit crop as affected by soil and climatic conditions.
Climatic/soils conditions
Climatic conditions
Temperate region Apple, pear, peach, walnut, apricot, almond etc.
Tropical region Papaya, banana, sapota, coconut, cashewnut,
mangosteen, citrus
Subtropical region Mango, litchi, pomegranate, loquat, grape,
pomegranate
Temperate fruits in subtropical region Low chilling peaches, apples, plums and pears
Arid region Ber, bael, mulberry, aonla, date palm, phalsa etc.
Semi-arid region Jamun, woodapple, fig, custard apple, khirni
Cold desert Apricot, Pistachionut, apple, chilgoza, prunes
Cold sandy desert Chilgoza nut
Arid temperate zone Oleaster
Soil conditions
Coastal sands Coconut
Sandy soils Ber, date palm, fig, mulberry, phalsa
Loamy soils Most of the major fruit crops
Clayee soils Jamun
Alkaline soils Guava, date palm, coconut, olive, phalsa
Acidic soils Raspberry, blueberry, fig, gooseberry
Salt affected soils Date palm, ber, aonla, bael
20
All major fruits are clonally propagated by means of cutting, grafting, budding and
micropropagation. In modern orcharding, fruit crops are grown as a composite plant. The upper
part, which forms aerial part is called as scion, while the lower part, which makes the root system
is termed as rootstock. In some cases a third part i.e. interstock, which is used for overcoming
incompatibility between the scion and stock is also employed. In most cases, the commercial
varieties are used as scion, and the rootstock is of a different species or variety. Rootstocks are
known to influence vigour, yield, early bearing, fruit size, and impart tolerance to various soil,
climatic and pests & diseases. Some of the important rootstocks of fruit crops are being mentioned
below;
Table 3. Rootstocks of fruit crops.
Fruit crop Rootstocks

Apple M9, M27, MM111, MM106
Ber Jharber (Ziziphusnummularia), Boradi (Z. rotundifolia)
Citrus Rangpur lime, KarnaKhatta, Rough lemon, Trifoliate orange, Flying Dragon
Grape Salt Creek, Dogridge, Ripario, Temple
Guava Psidium friedrichsthalianum, P. pumilum
Mango Kurukkan, Olour, Vellaikolmban
Sapota Khirni
Walnut Paradox (Juglans hindsi x J. regia)
Fig Ficus glomerata
Spacing
The distance between trees and rows varies with climatic conditions, soil type, rootstock,
cultural practices, training & pruning, system of planting, fruit crop and varieties to be planted.
The most commonly followed spacing for commercial fruit crops are given below;
Spacing (m) Tree number/hactare Fruit crop

2x2 2500 Dwarf papaya, dwarf banana
3x3 1111 Tall papaya, Tall banana, grape
4x4 625 Hazel nut
5x5 400 Peach, pomegranate
6x6 277 Citrus, apricot, almond
21
7x7 204 Plum, guava
8x8 156 Aonla, ber, bael, litchi
9x9 121 Sapota
10x10 100 Mango, walnut, cherry
12x12 68 Tamarind, pecan nut, jamun
Farm operations like pruning and training of trees and thinning of fruits are unique to
pomology and are regular features of an orchard.
Training: It is a physical technique that control the shape, size, and direction of plant growth
Pruning: It is a judicious removal of plant part to improve shape, influence growth, improve
flowering, fruitfulness and fruit quality or to repair injuries.
Training systems
Training is practiced to give the shape or build strong framework of the tree in order to
support maximum crop of good quality. Selection of training systems depends upon the agro-
climatic situation of the region. Generally, three training systems viz., Open Centre or Vase,
Central Leader and Modified Leader System are followed for canopy management of fruit plants
in different regions.
Orchard cultivation
Orchard cultivation refers to the careful management of the orchard soil in such a way that
the soil is maintained in a good condition suitable to the needs of the tree with least expenses.
METHODS OF SOIL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

a. Clean culture
This type of cultivation is extensively followed in India. This involves regular ploughing
and removal of weeds.
b. Clean culture with cover crops
This type of soil management involves raising of a cover crop or green manure after
removing the weeds. In India, green manure crops like Sunhemp, Cowpea, Daincha, Lupins etc.
are more commonly used. Legume cover cropping in grape, mango, guava and other fruit crops
is becoming a common practice in the management of orchards. Cowpea and French beans grow
well under guava and sapota tree.
22
c. Mulching
This is one of the important soil management practices. Crop residues like straw, cotton
stalks, leaves, saw dust, pine needles, coir dust arid other materials like polythene films or
certain special kinds of paper are spread in the tree basins and in inter spaces between trees.
Main objective of mulching is to conserve soil moisture and to control the weed growth.
d. Sod
In this method, permanent cover of grass is raised in the orchard and no tillage is given.
This type of orchard cultivation is followed in USA and Europe.
e. Sod mulch
This is similar to sod with the only difference is that the vegetation is cut frequently and the
cut material is allowed to remain on the ground.
Intercropping
Most of fruit crops are a slow-growing tree and takes at least three-four years to come to
flowering and fruiting. Intercrop like legumes in pre-bearing stage of trees not only provide
more income but also improve health of the trees. Vegetables or leguminous crops like pulses,
beans, berseem, etc. can be successfully grown during the initial stages. The recommended
intercrops for some important horticultural crops are given as under.
Crop Age Intercrop

Mango Upto 7 years Leguminous vegetables, Papaya (filler)
Grapes Upto 8 months Snake gourd or bitter gourd in pandal
Apple, pears Upto 5 years Potato, Cabbage
Banana Upto 4 months Sunhemp, onion
Tapioca Upto 3 months Onion, beans, lab-lab, black gram
Turmeric Upto 3 months Small onion, coriander
Arecanut Upto 10 years Pineapple
Coconut Upto 3 years Banana, tapioca, vegetables
Multi-tier system of cropping
The system comprise of a combination of perennial and annual plant species as different
components in the same piece of land arranged in a geometry that facilitates maximum utilization
23
of space in four dimensions (length, width, height and depth) leading to maximum economic
productivity of the system. Certain horticultural plants like coconut and arecanut are grown for
about 50 years in a particular land. It takes nearly 4 to 7 years for the above trees to reach the
bearing stage. Adequate alley spaces (nearly 75%) are available in between these trees. Hence,
these vacant spaces can be profitably used for raising other crops, thereby increasing the
employment opportunities and profit. An ideal combination of crops for multitier cropping in
coconut and arecanut plantations is as follows.
Tier Crop
First (Top) Coconut or arecanut
Second Pepper trained over the trunk of coconut or arecanut trees
Third Cocoa or cloves planted at the centre of four arecanut or coconut
Fourth (ground) Pineapple, ginger and dwarf coffee
Crop regulation
Fruit crops like guava and pomegranate has three main flowering and fruiting seasons or
bahars, ambebahar (spring season flowering), mrigbahar (June-July flowering) and hasthbahar
(September-October flowering). Theses crops flowers continuously when watered regularly. For
commercial production, only one crop in a year is desirable. Therefore, by crop regulation, the
tree is forced to rest and thereby produces profuse blossoms and fruits during the required
bahar. Selection of the bahar depends mainly on the availability of irrigation water, risk of damage
by diseases and pests and market factors.
For bahar treatment, operations like withholding irrigations, root exposure, root pruning
and spray of chemicals (thiourea, NAA or potassium iodide) are practiced to induce leaf drop
and cessation of growth during the period of the unwanted bahar. The recommended doses of
fertilizers are applied immediately after pruning and irrigation is resumed. This leads to profuse
flowering and fruiting. The fruits are ready for harvest 4-5 months after flowering.
PRINCIPLES OF VEGETABLE CULTIVATION

As compared to orcharding, the vegetable industry is characterized by its flexibility. Because
most vegetables are grown as annuals, shifts in cultivars and crops can be readily made. There
are three main categories of vegetable production: home gardening, market gardening, and truck
gardening. In addition, there are several small, specialized production types including vegetable
forcing, production for processing and seed production.
From ease in recommending the general cultivation practices, vegetable crops have also
been classified based on method of cultivation. In this method all the crops, which have similar
24
cultural requirements are grouped together. For instance, cucurbits (musk melon, water melon,
bottle gourd, ridge gourd, cucumber etc.), cole crops (cauliflower, cabbage, broccoli), root crops
(beet root, carrot, radish), bulb crops (onion and garlic) not only have similar cultural requirements
for the group but the crops in each group usually belong to same family.
There are some principles required in the production of vegetable crops which are very
important and well known to the grower. These principles are:
1. Production of vegetables does not involve a long time investment as does in the orchard
of guava, mango, or apple.
2. Vegetable growers/farmers are not bound to produce the same crop each year like
his counterparts, who grow fruit crops.
3. Vegetable growing lacks the stability which is methodically developed over a period
of years like an orchard thus, getting into vegetable production is a fast process and
getting out may even be faster.
4. Vegetables can be grown by people with limited experience. Only skillful farmers
sustain their vegetable production.
5. The land for production of vegetable crops is flexible and adjustable. It is much easier
for vegetable growers/farmers to change production from one crop to another than
for fruit crop grower.
6. Cooperative efforts and organizations are somewhat more difficult with vegetable
crop producers than fruit growers. Vegetable/grower/farmers have no long period
for making plans. Vegetable production is seasonal.
7. Vegetable production requires more intensive production management per unit area
and time.
Vegetable nursery raising
Most vegetable species are grown from seeds, but some important ones (e.g. pointed gourd,
colocasia, basella, ivy gourd etc.) are propagated by vegetative methods. Among those grown
from seeds, a significant number mainly those with small seeds (e.g. tomato, brinjal, cauliflower,
cabbage etc.) are usually first sown in nursery beds, boxes or containers and are transplanted at
a later stage. Nursery raising have several advantages like economy of seeds, uniformity of
growth and selection of vigorous & healthy seedlings for transplanting.
Field establishment
Land Preparation: In preparing land for vegetable production, factors such as ecological
location, mode of cropping, season, crop disposition, and the type of vegetables to be grown
25
should be taken into consideration. The land should be first cleared off of existing vegetation
followed by leveling and suitable tillage operations
Planting: Vegetables can be propagated either by direct sowing or by transplanting methods.
Direct sowing: Vegetables are sowed either by broadcasting or by seed drilling methods.
In broadcasting, seeds are spread over the prepared land by throwing small quantities of the
seeds into the air close to the surface of the prepared land. This is followed in Celosia and
Amaranthus. Seed drilling method is followed for planting small seeded vegetables in rows.
Shallow furrows are made at the spacing recommended for the crop and the seed drilled along
the furrows. This method can also be used for some leafy vegetables such as Celosia and
Amaranthus.
Transplanting method: Vegetable seedlings are first raised in the nursery for a required
period of time before they are transplanted on the field. Seedlings are transplanted in the morning
or in the evening to avoid transplanting shock.
SOME ROUTINE OPERATIONS

Thinning: Thinning of vegetable is done to reduce the number of seedlings per stand.
Supplying or gap filling: This is the practice of providing missing stands of vegetables
planted by direct sowing as a result of poor emergence or when seedlings are damaged by
pests.
Staking: This is usually required for vegetables with climbing growth habit such as fluted
pumpkin, or those with weak stems such as tomato. Stake can be made from bamboo or other
available wood. The support allows the plant to carry more load without touching the soil thus
enhancing the quality of the fruit.
Mulching: A mulch is a layer of plant residue or other materials like plastic or paper,
which is applied to the surface of the soil in order to reduce evaporation, run-off or to prevent
weed growth. The purpose of mulching is to conserve soil moisture.
Watering: Young vegetable seedlings in the nursery or in the field should be watered in
the early morning or in the evening. Watering should be done before transplanting particularly
in the evening. Likewise, over-watering can be very harmful and can encourage the development
of pathogenic diseases and also cause mechanical damage to the seedlings.
Fertilizer application: Vegetables must be provided with ample supplies of nutrients such
as nitrogen. Application of N fertilizer has been shown to increase yield. In some tropical leafy
vegetables, fertilizers such as FYM and other sources of P and K can be applied as pre-plant
basal dressing or after the plants have become established as post planting application.
26
Weeding: Weeds can be managed using cultural, physical, chemical and biological methods.
Weed seeds and rhizomes can be killed using physical method during land preparation by
burning. Mulching of soil can also smother weeds. Hoeing, pulling and roguing are carried out
during the early stages of growth. Chemical weed control is applied in commercially grown
vegetable crops.
PRINCIPLES OF FLOWER CULTIVATION

In a garden there are certain operations that are to be followed judiciously for successful
cultivation of ornamental plants. Most of these operations, such as transplanting, pruning,
pinching, etc., are of vital importance for the growth of the plants. Some other operations, such
as topiary or shearing of hedges, are designed to enhance the ornamental or aesthetic value of
the plant material.
Some routine operations
Soil Sterilization: This is an essential operation to eliminate soil-borne diseases, caused

mainly by fungi. Soil can be sterilized with 2 per cent formalin (or formaldehyde). The formalin
solution is mixed thoroughly with the soil and this is covered with tarpaulin or gunny bag for 48
hours. Some fungicides such as benlate, captan, bavistin, brassicol, and blitox (0.1 to 0.2 per cent
solution) are also used for soil sterilization.
Seed Sowing: Sowing of seed is an important operation for annuals, biennials, and some
herbaceous perennials, as seeds of most of them are very minute and need special care during
sowing. The seeds of trees are quite bold and do not require as much care as is required for
annuals.
Pricking: Pricking out, also known as thinning out, means removing the seedlings from
their original container and replanting into individual pots or transferring into beds to give
them more growing space.
Planting and Transplanting: Planting and transplanting are two important operations. The
time of planting depends on the climate of the area. Deciduous plants are transplanted during
the dormant season when they are in leafless condition. This is done only on the hills and at
places having cold winter. The other season of planting is spring when new growth takes place,
provided the plants can be given sufficient care and irrigation during the ensuing summer.
Under Indian conditions, the best period is to transplant during the rainy season, provided there
is no water-logging. The pits should be dug before the rains start.
Planting of shrubs and trees: During digging the pits for planting, the surface soil should
be kept separately and not to be mixed with the rest of the soil. After digging the pit, the soil is
27
returned to the pit mixed with the requisite quantity of manure, the surface soil going on the top.
While planting, a small hole is made at the centre of the pit and the plant is placed with the ball
of earth. The plant should not be placed deeper than when it was in the nursery. After
transplanting, the earth around the root should be finned thoroughly. A basin should be made
on the ground around the plant for watering.
Transplanting: There are generally four types of transplanting in a garden: (1) Transplanting
a potted plant to ground, (2) Transferring a potted plant to another pot, (3) Potting a ground
plant, and (4) Transplanting of large trees and shrubs from the ground to another suitable location
poses problems. For lifting very large trees, the help of tree-lifters or cranes and trucks will be
needed.
Shading: Shading and protection of plants is an important operation in a garden, especially

in places having hot summers and severe winters. The newly planted seedlings or plants need
shade from the scorching summer sun. In places, where frost is likely to kill the plants these
should be given proper protection. The seedlings in the nursery also need shading.
Stopping or Pinching: The operation of pinching or stopping involves the removal of the
growing-point of a shoot along with a few leaves. The two main purposes of this operation are to
encourage branching to produce a bushy growth, and/or the production of flower-buds on the
branch which is pinched. Pinching is done mostly in annuals and herbaceous perennials and is
hardly required for any flowering trees. The plants which need pinching include dahlia,
chrysanthemum, carnation, brachycome and marigold.
Deshooting: Deshooting involves the removal of shoots that are not wanted. Some flowering
annuals and herbaceous perennials produce numerous side shoots and if all of them are allowed
to flower, the size and quality of the flowers will be greatly reduced. Deshooting of carnations
grown for cut flower trade and chrysanthemum for exhibition purposes are common practice.
Defoliation: The removal of foliage is known as defoliation. This is done mainly with a
view to induce flowering in certain plants. Sometimes, this can also be done to reduce transpiration
loss during periods of moisture stress and also during transportation of certain plants such as
roses. Defoliation can be achieved by the removal of leaves by hand or by the use of chemicals
and by withholding water. In jasmine, it is a common practice to defoliate the plants after pruning
just prior to the flowering season.
Staking: Plants in the garden, either in pots or on ground, need support at least for a part
of, or throughout, its life. Stakes may be of various kinds. The most common stakes used in India
are made of either whole bamboo or split bamboo of various sizes depending upon the type of
plants to be staked. Some other types of stake which are commonly available under Indian
28
conditions and can be used as stakes for herbaceous plants are the dried stems of jute, cotton
and pigeon pea.
Pruning: The planned removal of branches, twigs, limbs, shoots, or roots is termed as
pruning. Even the removal of a dried flower can be termed as pruning. Each pruning is done
with a view to increase the usefulness of a plant.
Wintering: This may be considered as an alternative to root pruning. In hotter parts of

India, it may not be wise to resort to root pruning. In such places ornamental plants are
"wintered". During resting period, the water supply to the plant to be wintered is stopped for
a few days and the roots are exposed to the sun by removing the surface soil around the trunk.
After wintering, the roots are covered with the same soil enriched with farm yard manure and
copiously watered.
Clipping or Cutting of Hedges and Edges: To keep the hedges in symmetry, good health,
and beauty, constant vigilance and regular shearing or pruning are needed. A sharp pair of
pruning shears is used for clipping the herbaceous twigs. But to cut woody branches, secateurs
or pruning saws will be required.
Topiary: The art of clipping and shearing shrubs and small trees and sometimes even
herbaceous perennials into ornamental or abstract shapes is known as topiary. The term is derived
from the ars topiaria meaning ornamental gardening. Shapes such as globe and dome can be
given without the help of any pre-fabricated moulded wire model. But difficult shapes such as
bird, animal, etc., are to be obtained by preparing a rough outline with wires and then training
the shrub along the frame and clipping carefully over years to get the desired shape.
ACTIVITY/EXERCISE
1. Visit orchards situated in your area and try to find out which system of planting is
being followed there. Compare the practices being followed in those orchards with
modern practices, which you have learnt in this chapter.
2. Plan a suitable scheme for an orchard, along with important fruits and their varieties,
suitable intercrops, on 10 hectare of land in your region.
3. You can visit vegetable gardens of your locality and try to find out, which system of
vegetable growing is practiced, predominantly.
4. Choose some ornamental flowering plants like marigold or carnation and separate
them in two sets. Apply pinching and deshooting practice to two different sets of
plants, separately. Compare the size of flowers formed as a result of such practice.
29
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1) Name the important systems for layout of fruit orchard. Explain each briefly.
2) What is high density planting? Cite some successful examples of HDP in fruit crops.
3) Write the most commonly followed spacing for different commercial fruit crops.
4) Enlist different methods of soil management practices in fruit crops.
5) Enlist different types of vegetable production system.
6) Name vegetable crops, which are usually transplanted in field for cultivation.
7) Differentiate between pinching and deshooting.
8) What do you mean by topiary?
9) How soil is sterilized to get rid off of fungi and other pests?
10) Name an ornamental crop, which is defoliated for improved flowering.
FILL IN THE BLANKS

1. Quincunx system of laying out orchard is also termed as…………………system.
2. Recommended spacing between two tamarind plants is…….m.
3. ……………………………….. is judicious removal of plant part to improve shape,

influence growth, improve flowering, fruitfulness and fruit quality or to repair injuries.
4. Bahar is practiced in fruit crops like……………………… and

…………………………
5. Vegetatively propagated vegetable crops are…….., ……………… and

…………………
6. The purpose of mulching is to conserve …………………………
7. Pricking out is also known as ………….. out.
8. The removal of …………. is known as defoliation.
30
CHAPTER 4
Principles of Plant Propagation,

Methods of Propagation
for Horticultural Crops
OBJECTIVES
• Gain knowledge of basic plant propagation techniques
• Gain a greater understanding of plant processes and lifecycles
• Develop skills in the art of budding and grafting
• Start agribusiness in nursery production of horticultural plants.
INTRODUCTION
Propagating new plants is both a science and an art. The study of it can provide a lifetime
of challenges and opportunities to learn more about this fascinating craft, or a basic knowledge
of it can provide the students with the skills and techniques to start their own business in nursery
production of horticultural plants since the demand for planting material of horticultural plants
is ever increasing. It can be of great fun to grow your own plants. You may already have some
experience growing different plants. Plant propagation is the multiplication of plants by both
sexual and asexual means. To start with, start growing a few tomato plants from seeding in
kitchen garden, to the conservationist growing endangered species of orchids in test tubes, to
the commercial nurseries that grow the millions of annuals, perennials, bulbs, shrubs and trees
sold every year, a working knowledge of plant propagation makes all of these endeavors possible.
This chapter will give the students greater confidence in producing plants from seed, cuttings,
grafting, budding, layering and specialized vegetative structures along with essential skills to
work in the horticulture industry.
What is Plant Propagation?
Plant Propagation is defined as the multiplication of plants by both sexual and asexual
means.Propagation is an art of multiplication of plants. The horticultural plants are propagated
both by sexual and asexual methods.
Most of the horticultural plants are now propagated through grafting and budding,few
through cuttings, layering, seeds and micro-propagation. The propagation methods are broadly
classified as sexual,asexual and micro-propagation.
31
The study of plant propagation has three different aspects:
o A Knowledge of mechanical manipulations and technical skills- art of propagation.

o A knowledge of plant growth and structures- science of propagation.
o A knowledge of different kinds of plants and their methods of propagation
The details of methods are presented below:
Sexual Propagation
Sexual propagation is the raising of plants

by means of seed which is formed due to the
fusion of male and female gametes within the
ovule of a flower. Plants that are produced from
seeds are called seedlings. In ancient times when
the asexual methods of plant propagation were
not known, this was the only commercial method
for plant propagation. Papaya, phalsa and
mangosteen, vegetable crops and flowers are still being propagated by seed.
Advantages
• Seedling trees are generally long-lived, bear more heavily and all comparatively more
hardy.
• This is the only means of reproduction, where asexual propagation is not possible or
economical e.g. Papaya, phalsa, mangosteen etc.
• To develop new varieties, hybrids are first raised from seed and it is essential to
employ this method in such cases.
• It has been responsible for the production of chance seedlings of highly superior
merits.
• Polyembryonic character exists in many fruit plants such as in some citrus species
and some mango varieties which give rise to more than one seedling from one seed.
The nucellar seedlings are true to type. Therefore, polyembryomic varieties can be
propagated by seeds.
• Rootstocks upon which the fruit varieties are budded or grafted are mostly raised
from seeds.
• Seedlings are cheaper and easy to raise.
32
• Easily transported to distant places e.g. seeds
• Does not require high technical knowledge and skilled labour.
Limitations/disadvantages
• Seedling trees are not uniform in their growth, yielding capacity and fruit quality.
• Seedling trees have long juvenile period and take more years to bear the first crop.
• Seedlings become large for economic management.
• It is not possible to maintain the exact character of any superior selection.
• Seed propagation can not be applied in many plants e.g. banana
• It is not possible to avail the modifying influence of rootstock on scion or scion on
rootstock.
• Since seed-borne viruses exist in a number of fruit plants and the multiplication of
such plants by seed is not recommended.
Asexual propagation
Propagation of plants through any vegetative parts is called vegetative or asexual
propagation. The goal of vegetative propagation is to reproduce progeny plants identical in
genotypes to a single source plant.
Advantages:
• Vegetatively propagated plants are true to type, uniform in growth, yielding capacity
and fruit quality.
• Vegetatively propagated plants come into bearing earlier.
• Uniformity in fruit quality makes harvesting and marketing easy.
• Modifying influence of rootstock on scion can be profitably availed off.
• It is possible to regulate the tree size, fruit quality, precocity etc. according to one's
requirements by using different rootstocks.
• Cross pollination can be effected by grafting shoots of other suitable varieties
(pollinizers) on some of the branches of self-unfruitful variety.
• Grafting can be used to encourage healing of tree wounds caused by rodents,
implements.
• Composite tree can be raised.
• One can correct to some extent the initial mistakes of planting inferior or unsuitable
varieties.
33
• Fruit plants producing seedless fruits such as banana can only be multiplied through
vegetative means.
Limitations
• No new variety can be evolved by means of the vegetative method of propagation.
• Sometimes, it is more expensive.
• Vegetatively propagated plants are comparatively short lived.
Methods of Asexual Propagation:
Plant Propagation by Cutting: A portion of a stem, root or leaf is cut from the parent
plant and is placed under certain favourable environmental conditions to form roots and shoots.
Thus a new independent plant is produced which in most cases identical with the parent
plant.
Stem-cuttings: Propagation by hardwood cuttings is simple and cheapest method of

multiplication. Hardwood cuttings are easily handled and transplanted. One-year-old mature
shoots are collected during November-February. Grape, fig, pomegranate,
currant,gooseberry, some plums and apple are propagated by hardwood cuttings. Many
deciduous ornamental shrubs are started readily by this type of cuttings. Some common
ones are privet, forsythia, wisteria, honeysuckle, willow, poplar, dogwood, Potentilla,
Sambucus, and Spiraea. Rose rootstocks are propagated by hardwood cuttings.Weak and
fast growing shoots with long internodes should not be used for this purpose. Length of
Naphthelene Acetic Acid (NAA) and Indole-3-Butyric

Acid (IBA) are the two most commonly used root
promoting hormones used.
cuttings should be between 10 and 45cm. It should contain at least 2 buds. Just on the base of
shoot below the node a straight cut is given while on the top of the cutting, 1-2cm above the bud
a slanting cut is given. This helps maintain the polarity of the shoot and if rain occurs, water
does not accumulate on the tip of cutting.
Semi-hardwood cuttings are mostly used in evergreen fruit plants-mango, guava, lemon
and jackfruit. Many broad-leaved evergreen shrubs such as Camellia, Pittosporum, Rhododendron,
Euonymus, evergreen azaleas and holly are commonly propagated by semi-hard wood cuttings.
The available shoots during June-July have not attained the full maturity and are 5-9 months
old. Such shoots are used for propagation purpose. Length of cuttings should be 7-20cm. It is
better to retain 2-4 leaves on the top of cuttings. Treating cuttings with 5,000ppm IBA gives
better results.
34
A novel technique for rooting semi-hardwood cuttings has been perfected. It is known
as bottom heat technique. Semi-hardwood cuttings of mango, guava and aonla are prepared
during December and treated with IBA 5,000ppm. These cuttings are inserted in rooting
medium in a chamber maintained at 30±2°C, and 30-90% cuttings get established in this
method.
Soft wood cuttings: Cuttings are prepared from the soft succulent new spring growth of species
which are 4 to 6 months old. Many ornamental woody plants can be propagated by softwood
cuttings. Typical examples are the hybrid French lilacs, Foresythia, Magnolia, Spiraea, maples.
Nerium, crotons, Eranthemum, Graftophyllum etc can also be multiplied through this type of
cuttings.
Herbaceous stem cuttings: This type of cuttings is taken from succulent herbaceous green house
plants. For example, Chrysanthemum, Coleus, Carnations, Geraniums, Cactus and many foli-
age plants are multiplied through herbaceous cuttings.
Softwood cuttings and herbaceous cuttings are not used to propagate fruit plants. Only
2-3 months old shoot and very tender shoots are utilized.
Leaf Cuttings: Certain plants with thick and fleshy leaves have the capacity to produce plant-
lets on their leaves. In leaf cuttings, the leaf blade with or without petiole and axillary bud is
used for starting new plants. Adventitious roots and shoots form at the base of the leaf and
form in to a new plant. However, the original leaf does not become a part of the new plant.
Frequent watering and high humidity and bottom heating are desirable for better and rapid
rooting of leaf cuttings. Sand or sand and peat moss (1: 1) are satisfactory rooting media for
leaf cuttings. For leaf cuttings, depending on the species the whole leaf blade, leaf blade
sections or the leaf with petiole is used. Begonia, African violets and peperomia are propa-
gated by leaf cuttings.
Leaf-bud cutting: A leaf-bud cutting consists of a leaf

blade, petiole and a short piece of stem with attached
axillary bud of actively growing leaf Black raspberry,
blackberry, boysenberry, lemon, camellia, maple and
rhododendron are readily propagated by leaf-bud
cuttings as well as many tropical shrubs and most
herbaceous greenhouse plants usually started by stem
cuttings.
Root cuttings: As the name indicates, roots of the plant are utilized as propagating material.
Roots 1 cm thick and 10-15cm tall are used. In temperate fruits, such kind of roots are prepared
35
in December and kept in warm place in moss grass or wet
sand for callusing and transplanted during February-March
in open beds. Blackberry and raspberry are commercially
propagated by this method. This method is also advocated
in pecan nut, apple, pear and peach.
Propagation by layering
Layering is the method of propagation in which

roots are developed on a stem while it is still attached to the parent plant. After proper
rooting, the stem is detached and becomes a new plant for growing on its own roots. The
high success of layering is obtained by ringing or wounding, etiolation (absence of light),
use of rooting hormone (IBA, NAA) and favourable environmental condition (temperature
and humidity).
The layering can be natural means of propagation as in black raspberries and trailing
blackberries or can be artificially created by different means. The layering techniques generally
employed in fruit plants are:
Tip-layering: In tip-layering, rooting takes place near the tip of current season's shoot which
is bent to the ground. It is commonly followed in black berries, raspberries and dewberries.
The stem of these plants complete their life in two years. During first year, vegetative growth
takes place while in the second year fruiting takes place. After harvesting plants are heavily
pruned which give rise to number of lateral shoots. The tips of these shoots are buried 5-10 cm
deep in soil. Rooted layers are detached and planted in soil during spring.
36
Serpentine layering: It is modification of simple layering in which one-year-old branch is alter-
natively covered and exposed. The stem is girdled at its lower part. The exposed part of stem
should have at least one bud to develop a new shoot. After rooting, the sections are cut and
planted. Muscadine grape is commercially propagated by this method.
Buds above ground
Rooting from buried node
Air-layering: In this method, roots are formed in the aerial part of the plant. The stem is girdled
and rooting hormone (IBA) is applied to upper part of cut. The moist rooting medium (moss
grass) is wrapped with the help of small polythene strip (200-300 gauze, transparent). This method
is commonly known as goottee. Many plants like litchi, kagzi lime, jackfruit, guava and
cashewnut as well as Ficus species, Croton, Monstera and philodendron are propagated through
air-layering. February-March and June-July are the ideal periods for air-layering. Rooting in air
layers generally commences within 25-30 days and layers are ready for transplanting within 3
months.
37
Mound layering/stooling: In this method, the plant is headed back to 15cm above the ground
level during dormant season. The new sprouts will arise within 2 months. These sprouts are
then girdled near base and rooting hormone (IBA), made in lanolin paste is applied to the upper
portion of cut with moist soil. These shoots are left as such up to two days for proper absorption
of rooting hormone (IBA) before they are covered with moist soil. The concentration of rooting
hormone varies from plant-to-plant but in general 3,000-5,000ppm is most commonly used. The
rooting of shoots is observed within 20-30 days. After 2 months, the rooted shoots are separated
from mother plants and planted in nursery. Apple and pear root stocks and guava are commer-
cially propagated by this method. However, this method is also advocated in other fruits like
plum, cherry, hazelnut, pecannut, mango, jackfruit and litchi.
Trench layering: Trench layering consists of growing a plant or branch of a plant in a

horizontal position in the base of trench and filling in soil around the new shoots. Roots are
developed at the base of new shoots, so produced. Rootstocks of apple, pear and walnut are
usually propagated by trench layering.
38
Plant propagation by grafting
Grafting is an art of joining parts of two independent plants in such a manner that they
unite and grow together into single independent plant. The part of graft combination which is to
become the upper portion or the shoot system or top of the new plant is termed as scion and the
part which is to become the lower portion or the root system is the root stock or under stock or
some time stock.
In case of grafting, a bud stick consisting of two or more buds is

inserted into the stock whereas in budding only single bud with
or without wood is inserted into the stock.
Methods of grafting: There are two main types of grafting- attached scion methods of
grafting and detached scion methods of grafting.In attached scion methods of grafting, the scion
is still attached to the mother plant till the graft union takes place where as in detached scion
methods of grafting the scion is separated from the mother plant just before grafting. Inarching
or approach grafting is most important method under attached scion methods of grafting.
Inarching / Approach grafting: The distinguishing feature of this method of grafting is that
two independent plants on their own roots (self sustaining) are grafted together. This method
provides a means of establishing a successful union between certain plants which are difficult to
graft by any other method as the two plants will be on their own roots till the formation of
successful graft. Examples are Guava, mango, sapota.
Veneer grafting: This method of propagation holds promise for large scale commercial
propagation. The method is simple and can be adopted with success. Eight months to one year
old seedlings are used as rootstocks. In this method, a downward and inward 3-4 cm long cut is
39
made in the smooth area of the stock at a height of about 20 cm. At the base of cut, a small shorter
cut is given to intersect the first so as to remove the piece of wood and bark. Proper selection and
preparation of scion are of utmost importance. The scion should be of matching thickness with
the stock, preferably a terminal non-flowered shoot of 3 to 4 months maturity. Remove the leaf
blades from the selected scion shoot on the mother plant keeping the petiole intact, about 7 to 10
days prior to detaching. This helps in forcing the buds to swell and in increasing the grafting
success. The scion stick is given a long slanting cut on one side and a small short cut on the other
so as to match the cuts of the rootstock. The scion is inserted in the rootstock and the graft union
is then tied with polythene strip. The rootstock should be clipped in stages when the scion takes
and remains green for more than 10 days.It is used widely for grafting plants such as Avocado,
Mango etc.
Epicotyl (Stone) Grafting: This method of grafting is done on the epicotyl region of the
young seedlings; hence the name epicotyl grafting. This method is simple, economical and
useful for multiplication of mango plants in large number in a less time. Fresh mango stones are
sown in the nursery beds. Germinated seedlings of 10-15 days old with tender stems and coppery
leaves are lifted along with stones. The roots and stones are dipped into 0.1 per cent Carbendazim
solution for 5 minutes after washing the soil. The seedling stems are headed back about 6-8 cm
above the stone. A vertical split (about 3-4.5 cm longitudinal cut) is made into the middle portion
of the seedlings. A wedge shaped cut is given on the lower side of scion. The scions should be 4-
5 months old and 10-15 cm long containing plumpy terminal buds. The scion is then inserted in
the cleft of the seedlings and tied with polythene tape. Immediately thereafter, the grafts are
planted in polybags filled with the mixture of soil and farmyard manure (1:1). The polybags are
watered and then kept in the shade protecting from sun and heavy rain. The successful grafts
40
should be shifted to open space or may be planted in nursery beds when their leaves become
green. The most suitable time for stone grafting is July. Examples are Cashew, mango etc.
Soft wood grafting: This method is similar to that of cleft or wedge grafting. In the past,
this technique has been used for in situ orchard establishment under dry land conditions as the
grafting operation is performed using cleft/wedge method on the newly grown top portion of
the plant one year after the establishment of rootstock in the field. In this method, 3 to 8 months
old seedlings are used as rootstocks. The scion shoots of the thickness equal to that of rootstocks
are defoliated 7-10 days prior to grafting. The graft should be secured firmly using 1.5 cm
wide, 150-gauge polythene strip. The best time for the success of softwood grafting is July and
August.
Cleft grafting: This method is employed in the nursery when the rootstock is quite thicker
than the scion. It can be done successfully in the rootstock having a diameter of 3-10 cm. A
vertical split (5 cm) is made in the rootstock with a sharp knife. The scion should be one year old,
about 15-20 cm long and having 3-4 buds above the
slanting cuts. For preparing the scion, two slanting cuts
(5-6 cm) each are given on the opposite sides. The scion
is inserted into the split of the rootstock in such a way
that the cambium of both stock and scion coincides.
Careful tying is necessary to avoid displacing the scion
and separating the cambiums. The graft union is then tied
with the help of 150 gauge polythene strip. Sprouting of
scion shoots starts within 3 weeks of grafting. The
polythene strip is removed after about 6-8 weeks of
grafting. The sprouts arising below the graft union should
be removed periodically. The best time for cleft grafting
is December- February in temperate fruits.
Steps in cleft grafting
41
Tongue Grafting
This method is highly effective and widely employed for the propagation of peach
and pear. In this method, the diameter of the scion and the rootstock should be equal. In this
method, a flat slanting cut, about 5 cm long is given at the base of the scion so that the lowest bud
is about midway along the cut but on the opposite side. A downward pointing tongue is made
in the upper half of the slanting surface. A slanting cut, corresponding in length to that of the
scion, is made upwards through the stock 15-20 cm above the ground. An upward pointing
tongue is made in the upper half of this slanting surface. The
cut surfaces of the scion and stock are now placed together so
that the tongues interlock and the cambial regions are in close
contact. This interlocking of tongue gives greater surface for
the root stock and scion come into contact with each other to
make the strong union. Careful tying is necessary to avoid
displacing the scion and separating the cambiums. The graft
union is then tied with the help of 150 gauge polythene strip.
Sprouting of scion shoots starts within 3 weeks of grafting. The
periodical removal of sprouts below the graft union should be
carried out. The polythene strip is removed after about 6-8
weeks of grafting. Examples are apple, pear, peach, plum,
apricot, almond, cherry, kiwi fruit, pecan nut etc.The best time
for tongue grafting is December- Februaryin temperate fruits. Steps in Tongue grafting
Plant Propagation by Budding
Budding is also a method of grafting wherein only one bud with a piece of bark and with or
without wood is used as the scion material. It is also called as bud grafting. The plant that grows
after union of the stock and bud is known as budding.
Generally grafting is performed during dormant season whereas

budding is done during active growing season
Methods of budding:
T-Budding (Shield budding): This method is known as T-budding as the cuts given on the
stock are of the shape of the letter T, and shield budding as the bud piece like a shield. This
method is widely used for propagating fruit trees and many ornamental plants. This method is
generally limited to the stock that is about 0.75 to 2.50cm in diameter and actively growing so
that the bark separate readily from the wood. Example is Rose and Citrus.
42
Inverted T- Budding: In heavy rainfall areas, water
running down the stem of the stock may enter the T cut,
soak under the bark and prevent healing of the bud piece.
Under such conditions, an inverted T budding may give
better results as it is more likely to shed excess water.
Inverted T budding procedure is same as that of T-
budding except the horizontal cut on the stock is made
at the bottom of the vertical cut rather than at the top.
Patch Budding: In this method a regular patch of

bark is completely removed from the stock plant and
is replaced with a patch of bark of the same size
containing a bud from the desired mother plant. For
this method to be successful the bark of the stock and
bud stick should be easily slipping .The diameter of the
stock and bud stick should be preferably by about the
same (1.5 to 2.75cm). Examples are Pecan nut and walnut. Steps in patch budding
43
Ring budding: The bud is prepared by taking a ring of a bark, 3cm long with the bud in the
centre. In the root stock, two transverse cut 1.5cm apart are made and these are connected with a
vertical cut and a ring of bark is removed. The prepared scion bud with the ring of bark is fitted
in the exposed portion of the rootstock and tied. Example is ber.
Double working: It is practiced for several purposes (i) to over come incompatibility
between the stock and scion. Incompatible stock and scion may be united by means of a piece of
interstock that is compatible to both (ii) to secure resistance to drought or cold by providing a
disease or cold resistant trunk by means of double working. (iii) To obtain resistance to pest and
dwarfing effect by using a pest resistant stock and a dwarfing stock and (iv) top working of
grafted orchard trees is essentially a double working; here the tree trunk as an intermediate
stock may exert certain influences on the new top.
Top working: Top-working for changing a variety is generally done on long lived species,
growing in a healthy condition. Short lived species, old trees or diseased trees are not suitable
for top working; in such cases new planting is considered more economical and useful than top
working.
Micro-propagation
Micro propagation (tissue culture or invitro culture) refers to the multiplication of plants,
in aseptic condition and in artificial growth medium from plant parts like meristem tip, callus,
embryos anthers, axillary buds etc. It is a method by which a true to type and disease free entire
plant can be regenerated from a miniature piece of plant in aseptic condition in artificial growing
medium rapidly throughout the year. This method is gaining popularity because of advantages
over other conventional methods.
Advantages
• Large-scale multiplication in lesser time and space

• Production of virus-free plants
• Year-round production of plants
• Highly beneficial in those fruits where vegetative propagation is difficult
• In dioecious fruit plants, production of female plants is possible through micro-
propagation. Papaya, is a good example.
Under micro-propagation, different plant parts are cultured. Based on explant, different
in-vitro methods are used for propagating fruit plants. They are shoot-tip culture, meristem-tip
culture, embryo culture and ovule culture.
44
Tissue culture technique has been perfected in banana. Shoot tips excised from rhizomes
of sword suckers are suitable explants and MS medium supplemented with sucrose (3%), and
gelite (0.25%) is the best. Shoot tips and micro-cuttings are highly suitable explants for faster and
disease-free production of grape. Salt-tolerant rootstock of grape has increasing demand and in-
vitro propagation has been successfully used. Seed-propagated papaya often shows high
variability, undesired ratio of male and female plants. Shoot tip culture technique has been
successfully used in producing female plants in papaya.
Micro-propagation has been referred to as the most ideal method for propagation of
strawberry and blackberry. Scientists in India and abroad are trying hard to perfect micro-
propagation in mango, coconut, litchi. However, the success is limited.
Micro-propagation, however, has its limitations. The facilities required are very costly. It
requires technical skill, pathogen/disease if appeared in culture may be multiplied to very high
levels in a short time and establishment of laboratory produced plants in field is a difficult task
until properly hardened.
APOMOXIS
The embryo is generally produced by sexual reproduction but there are certain cases in
which the embryo is produced by an asexual process. This is of great value as the resulting plant
can be reproduced by seed propagation in almost the same manner as it would be by any other
vegetative method. The seedlings produced through apomixes are known as apomictic seedlings.
Apomictic seedlings are identical to their mother plants and similar to the plants raised through
other vegetative means, as it has the same genetic make-up as that of the mother plant. Hence,
propagation by means of apomictic seedlings is equivalent to vegetative propagation. The
phenomenon in which an asexual reproductive process occurs in place of the normal sexual
reproductive process of reduction division and fertilization is known as apomixis.
Kinds of apomixis:
Obligate apomixis: Plants that produce only apomictic embryos are known as obligate
apomicts.
Facultative apomixis: Plants that produce both apomictic and sexual seedlings are called
facultative apomicts.
Types of apomixis:
Recurrent apomixis: In this the embryo develops from the diploid egg cell (diploid
parthenogenesis) or from some other diploid cells of the embryo sac, with out fertilization (diploid
45
apogamy). As a result, the egg has the normal diploid number of chromosomes, as in the mother
plant. e.g, Onion, raspberry, Apple etc. In some plants apomixis occurs without the stimulus of
pollination, in others pollination is necessary for embryo development.
Non-recurrent apomixis: In this type, the embryo develops directly, either from the haploid
egg cell (haploid parthenogenesis) or some other haploid cells of the embryo sac (haploid
apogamy). In this case haploid plants are always produced. As the plants produced by this
method contain only one set of chromosomes, these are sterile and the process is not continued
for more than one generation. Non-recurrent apomixes does not commonly occur and is primarily
of genetic interest. e.g. Solanum nigrum, Lilium spp.,etc.
Adventitious apomixis (Adventitious embryony or nucellarembryony): In this type of

apomixis the embryo does not develop from the cells of the embryo sac, but develops from any
diploid sporophyticcell, eg.,cells of the nucellus (usually), integument etc. Hence, the diploid
cells of the sporophyte giverise directly to diploid new embryos. This type of apomixis is found
in citrus, where fertilization takes place normally and a sexual plus a number of apomictic
(nucellar) embryos develop. In opuntia also this type of apomixis occurs.
Vegetative apomixis (Bulbils): In this case the flowers in an inflorescence are replaced by
bulbils or vegetative buds, which often sprout into new plants while they are still on the mother
plant. This type of apomixis is found in some species of Allium, Agave, Diascorea, Pao etc.
Poly embryony: This is a type of apomixis.The phenomenon in which two or more embryos
present with in a single seed is called polyembryony. When such seeds are sown, more than one
seedling arises from the seed. Of them one is from the zygote (Sexual seedling).The others are
asexual or apomictic seedlings. The reasons for this phenomenon are many. The origin of these
extra embryos or seedlings varies.
a) From nucellus-Nucellarmbryony as in citrus and mango
b) From seed coats (integuments) or antipodals or synergids -rare-mango.
c) Occasionally more than one nucleus develops with in the embryo sac (in addition to
the usual and regular nucleus).
d) Cleavage of the embryo during the early stages of development is common occurrence.
What ever may be the place of origin, the common thing is, these embryos arise from the
maternal tissue of the plant. Example are Citrus, Mango, Jamun, Rose, apple etc. The poly
embryonic seedlings are uniform and true to parent like other vegetatively propagated plants.
They are derived by mitosis, and come from maternal tissue (not by meiosis), but they have the
characteristics of sexual seedlings like juvenility, vigour, freedom from virus diseases. Examples
are Citrus, Mango, Jamun, Rose apple.
46
How to differentiate the poly embryonic and sexual seedlings: It is difficult to differentiate
in the nursery. Generally more vigorous seedlings are considered to be polyembryonic. By
rejecting about 10% of weaker and weakest seedlings, one can have fairly uniform poly embryonic
seedlings.
Standardized and commercial methods of propagation in fruits
Name of fruits Methods of propagation
Standardization Commercial
Acid lime Seed, budding, air layering Seed
Avocado Grafting (cleft, side, whip), Layering, T-budding
chip budding and cutting
Aonla Budding (patch, shield) Patch budding
Bael Root cutting, budding, (Patch Patch budding
and Shield), air layering
Ber Cutting, air layering, budding, Ring and T-budding
(T, I, ring and forkert)
Carambola Seed, approach grafting Seed
Custard apple Soft wood grafting T-budding, Inarching, Offshoots
Date palm Seed, Offshoots Offshoots
Fig Cutting, budding and air layering Hard wood cuttings
Grape Hard wood stem cutting, chip Hard wood stem cuttings
budding, layering and
micropropagation
Grapefruit Seed and budding (patch, shield) T-budding
Guava Cutting, air layering and budding Stooling, Inarching
Jamun Seed and budding Shield and Patch budding
Karonda Seeds, soft wood stem Seeds, Air layering
cuttings in mist
Lemon Seed and layering Air layering, hard wood
stem cuttings
Litchi Air layering, splice grafting, Air layering
budding
47
Longan Seeds, inarching, tongue Air layering
grafting, air layering
Loquat Budding, grafting, seed Inarching
and air layering
Mandarin Seeds and budding T/shield budding
Mango Inarching, side and Veneer Inarching, Veneer grafting
grafting, budding, stool layering
and cutting, cleft grafting
Passion fruit Stem cutting, cleft grafting Seeds
Persimmon Grafting and budding` Crown grafting
Phalsa Seeds and cutting Seeds
Pomegranate Budding (chip, patch and forkert), Hardwood stem cuttings
air layering, inarching and Air layering
Pummelo Seed and budding Seed, T-budding
Sweet orange Seed and budding T-budding
Propagation by specialized vegetative structures
Some fruit plants have natural structures-runner, sucker, offset, rhizome and crown-for
propagation.
Runner: It is a specialized stem which is produced

from the leaf axil at the crown of plant and prostrate
horizontally. The roots appear at one of the nodes having
contact with soil. After root formation in the new plant, the
contact with the mother plant is automatically detached and
new plant can be separated and planted. Strawberry is the
typical example which is commercially propagated
through runners.
Suckers: A sucker is a shoot which arises on a plant below the

ground. However, in practice, shoots which arise from vicinity of the
crown are also referred to as suckers. Pineapple is usually propagated
through suckers. In banana, 2 types of suckers are produced-water
sucker and sword sucker. Water suckers are broad leaved while sword
suckers are pointed and in the shape of a sword.
48
For propagation purpose, sword suckers are preferred over water suckers.
Offset: It is a lateral shoot or branch which is developed from base of the main stem. The
date palm and pineapple produce such type of lateral shoots by which they can be propagated.
Plant propagation by division: It is a method of propagation of plants using cut section of

a particular part like rhizome, tuber and tuberous root etc.
Rhizome: A rhizome is a modified stem structure in which the main axis of the plant grows
horizontally just below or on the surface of the ground. Banana is a typical example where
rhizome is cut into pieces in such a way so that each piece contains at least 3 lateral buds (eyes)
for propagation.
Ginger rhizome Turmeric rhizomes
Crown: It designates that part of a plant at the surface of ground from which new shoots are
produced. In strawberry plant, where leaves are seen in groups, is offenly referred to as 'crown'
of plant. Similarly, at the top is the crown of pineapple plant, which can be used for propagation
purpose.
Corm: The bulb consists predominantly of modified leaves; the corm is a modified stem.
Food is stored in this compact stem, which has nodes and very short internodes and is wrapped
up in dry, scaly leaves. When a corm sprouts into a new shoot, the old corm becomes exhausted
of its stored food and is destroyed as a new corm forms above it. Several small corms, or cormels,
arise at the base of the new corm. The cormels may be separated from the mother corm at maturity
(die back) and used to propagate new plants. e.g. Amorphophallus, Colocasia, Gladiolus etc.
Gladiolus corm
(Source: Plant facts Ohio state university)
49
Stolon: It is a term used to describe various types of horizontally growing stems that
produce adventious roots when come in contact with the soil. These may be prostate or sprawling
stems growing above ground. In propagating plants by stolon, the stolon can be treated as a
naturally occurring rooted layer and can be cut from the parent plant and planted separately.
For example, Mint, Bermuda grass etc.
Stem tuber: A tuber is specialized swollen underground stem which possesses eyes in
regular order over the surface. The eyes represent the nodes of the tuber. The arrangement of the
nodes is spiral, beginning with the terminal bud on the stolon to produce a new plant, the tuber
is divided into sections so that each section has a good amount of stored food and a bud or eye.
Propagation by tubers can be done either by planting the tubers whole or by cutting them into
section, each containing a bud or eye. For example, Potato.
Stem tuber of Potato
Root tuber of Sweet potato
50
Tuberous roots: These are thickened tuberous growth that functions as storage organs.
These differ from the true stem tuber, in that they lack nodes and internodes. Buds are present
only at the crown or stem end. Fibrous roots are commonly produced towards the opposite end.
Most plants with fleshy roots must be propagated by dividing the crown so that each section
bears a shoot bud. For example, Dahlia, Begonia, Sweet potato.
Offset: It is a short thickened horizontal branch growing out of the crown ending at the
apex with a tuft of leaves and a cluster of leaves below. These are special type of branches or
lateral shoots which are produced from the base of main stem of parent plant. The offset often
breaks away from the mother plant and the daughter starts a new independent life. For
example,Pistia, Agave, Water hyacinth, Cycas, Dracaena etc.
Propagation by seed
Papaya, phalsa, kagzi lime and jamun are usually propagated by seeds. Seeds are also
used to raise rootstock seedlings in many fruit crops such as citrus and mango. This method
being the easiest and cheapest is generally employed on a commercial scale in the fruit crops. In
mango and citrus, nucellar seedlings can be used to raise true-to-type plants. Seed propagation
is essential for breeding new plant type, conserving gene pools. Propagation by seed requires a
thorough knowledge of seed viability, its storage, time of sowing, factors responsible for
germination and care of germinated seedling is essential.
The condition in which the seed can germinate immediately upon the absorption of water
in the absence of any internal germination barrier, the embryo (or seed) is said to be quiescent.
While those seeds which fail to germinate even though the embryo is alive, moisture is absorbed
and favourable condition are provided are known as dormant seeds.
In most of the fruit crops, there may be natural or chemical dormancy. The dormancy in
seeds of ber, guava and walnut is due to presence of hard seed coat which inhibits penetration of
water and oxygen required for germination. Presence of chemical inhibitors (abscisic acid) is
responsible for dormancy in seeds of most of temperate fruits (apple, pear, peach and walnut).
Besides ABA, higher concentration of pectin, gum, tannin and amino acids (trypophan) are also
responsible for dormancy in seeds of temperate fruits.
How to overcome dormancy
Seed dormancy due to hard seed coat can be overcome by softening the seed coat and other
covering. It can easily be done either by scarification, stratification or by use of chemicals and
hormones.
51
Scarification: It is the process of breaking, scratching, altering or softening the seed covering
to make it permeable to water and gases. Scarification can be achieved mechanically, or by hot
water and acid.
In mechanical scarification, cracking of seed with hammer, rubbing with sand paper or
cutting with a file without injury to embryo is generally employed to break the dormancy (ber,
peach and walnut).
Impermeable seed coat of guava can be softened by hot water scarification. Seeds are placed
in hot water at 77°-100°C. They are immediately removed from hot water and allowed to soak
gradually in cool water for 12-24hr.
Acid scarification consists of treating guava seeds with concentrated sulphuric acid for 3
minutes, ber for 5-6 hr and strawberry seeds with 0.25% nitric acid or hydrogen peroxide results
in higher germination.
Stratification: It is the method of handling of dormant seeds, in which, the imbibed

seeds are subjected to a period of chilling to after-ripen the embryo. This term originated as
the nurserymen used to place seeds in stratified layers interspaced with a moist medium
such as soil or sand out of door or in pits during winter. The term moist chilling has been
used as synonym to stratification. Stratification can be achieved by refrigeration of dormant
seed.
Dormant seeds of temperate fruits like apple, cherry, pear and apricot are generally placed
in layers of sand in a box at a temperature of 1°-5°C. Depending upon the seed type, treatment
time varies from 1-5 months for breaking dormancy of seeds.
The seed dormancy due to presence of growth inhibitors can be broken by placing the
seeds in running water. It results in leaching of inhibitors. The freshly extracted seeds of strawberry
and grape if placed in running water for 7-12 days result in increased germination.
Chemical treatments: Many freshly harvested dormant seeds usually respond to soaking
in potassium nitrate solution. This technique is largely used in seed testing laboratories
where seeds are placed in petri-dishes containing 0.2% solution of potassium nitrate. The
seeds of peach and grape, treated with 5,000ppm of thiourea show enhancement in their
germination.
Use of hormones: The seed dormancy can also be overcome by the treatment of growth
regulators. Treatment of seeds of apple, cherry, peach, strawberry and hazelnut with 100-500ppm
of GA3 for 24-48hr improves germination and better growth of seedlings. Ethrel (5,000ppm)-
treated seeds of guava and strawberry also show better germination and growth of seedlings.
52
Treatment of apple and peach seeds with 10-20ppm solution of benzyle adenine (BA) is effective
for higher seed germination.
Seed sowing
The fruit seeds are sown in seed bed, polythene bags or in situ. Seeds of tropical and
subtropical fruits are sown during monsoon (June-July) or in the beginning of spring (February-
March). Generally seeds of mango and jackfruit are sown during June-July while those of guava,
ber and aonla during February-March. Seeds of temperate fruits are generally available during
June-October and their sowing should be done after the dormancy period is over. In citrus,
mango, loquat, litchi and jackfruit, seed viability is very less, so these should be sown immediately
after extraction. In north India, seeds of different citrus types are available during winter months.
Germination of seeds is low due to prevailing low temperature. Hence use of polythene sheet
on seed beds during December-January is useful in increasing germination percentage and faster
growth of seedlings.
The seeds are usually sown at a depth 3-4 times of their size. It should be a little deep in
light soils while shallow in heavy soils.
Nowadays, sowing of seeds in polythene bags, earthen pots and pans is becoming popular.
It is usual practice to sow papaya seeds in polythene bags. For epicotyl grafting, mango stones
are also sown in polythene bags.
While raising the plants in polythene bags, care should be taken that root system develops
properly. It has been observed a number of times that the roots get twisted and there is difficulty
in establishment of the plants in field due to poor anchorage.
In-situ sowing: In walnut, pecan nut, jackfruit and ber, the tap-root system is very vigorous.
So during the process of transplanting, root system is disturbed which ultimately affects their
establishment in the field. Therefore, for these fruits, sowing of seeds in-situ is recommended. In
rocky soils, in-situ sowing of mango seeds and grafting later on is recommended.
Seed storage: Based on storage behaviour, seeds are classified as orthodox or recalcitrant.
The orthodox seeds can tolerate loss of moisture and their longevity can be increased by preserving
them at low temperature. These include the seeds of apple, ber, custard-apple, date palm, fig,
grape, guava, lemon, lime, mandarin, mulberry, papaya, passion fruit, peach, pineapple, plum,
phalsa, pomegranate and sweet orange. Recalcitrant seeds do not withstand desiccation and
need a critical level of moisture to survive. Such seeds can be stored for relatively short period
ranging from a few weeks to a few months. Seeds of fruits which show recalcitrant behaviour are
avocado, barbados cherry, carambola, breadfruit, durian, jackfruit, litchi, mango, mangosteen
53
and rambutan. Seeds of most of the tropical and subtropical fruits cannot be stored for a long
period. However in controlled temperature and humidity, storage period can be prolonged.
Cryopreservation: It is the method of storage of material in liquid nitrogen maintained at a

temperature of -196°C. Successful cryopreservation of material involves the application of
chemicals known as cryoprotectants. The most commonly used chemicals are glycerol and DMSO
(Dimethyl sulphoxide). This method has recently been used in preservation of embryos of coconut
and jackfruits under in-vitro systems.
ACTIVITY/EXERCISE
1. Describe and explain the conditions needed for successful plant propagation from
stem and leaf cuttings
2. Make three different types of stem cuttings.
3. Demonstrate knowledge of propagating plants by layering/grafting/budding in fruit
plants growing in your farm/nearby orchard.
4. Visit nearby fruit/flower nursery and find out the methods of propagation being
used by nurserymen for the multiplication of various fruits and flowers.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) Define asexual propagation. How does it differ from sexual propagation?
2) Asexual propagation is advantageous in horticulture, why? Also write its limitations.
3) Enlist different types of layering and describe air layering giving suitable examples.
4) Differentiate between the followings:
a. Grafting and budding
b. Softwood and herbaceous cuttings
c. Leaf cuttings and leaf bud cuttings
d. Stratification and scarification
e. Mound layering and trench layering
5) How seed dormancy can be overcome?
FILL IN THE BLANKS

1. Two most commonly used rooting hormones are ……………and ………………
2. Strawberry is commercially propagated through ………………..
54
3. Grafting is generally performed during……………..season and budding
during………………season.
4. Seed germination can be improved by the application of ………………growth

regulators.
5. Inverted T budding is generally done in areas experiencing…………….rains.

Bose, T.K., Mitra, S.K., Sadhu, M.K. and Das, P. 2001. Propagation of Tropical and
Sutropical Crops. NayaProkash Publishers, Calcutta.
Chadha, K.L. 2001. Handbook of Horticulture. Indian Council of Agricultural Research. New
Delhi.
Chattopadhyay, T.K. 1999. A Text Book of Pomology. Vol. I-IV. Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana.
Gill, S.S., Bal, J.S. and Sandhu, A.S. 1985. Raising Fruit Nursery. Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana.
Hartmann, H.T., Kester, D.E.and Davies, F.T. 1993. Plant Propagation. Prentice Hall of India Pvt.
Limited, New Delhi.
Kunte, Y.N., Kawthalkar, M.P.andYawalkar, K.S. 2005. Principles of Horticulture and Fruit
Growing. Agri-Horticultural Publishing House, Nagpur.
Sharma, R.R. 2002. Propagation of Horticultural Crops (Principles and practices).
Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana.
http://www.iihr.ernet.in
55
CHAPTER 5
Essential Plant Nutrients, Their Deficiency

Symptoms and Toxicities
in Horticultural Crops
OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, the students should be able to learn about:
• Essentiality of plant nutrition
• Classification of essential nutrients on the basis of their requirement to plant
• Identify and diagnose common plant nutrient deficiency andtoxicity symptoms
INTRODUCTION
Plants, like all other living things, need food for their growth and development.The plant
nutrients are essential for optimum plant growth. Nutrients are naturally present in the soil.
Now, certain questions may arise in your mind. Why does plant need nutrients? How many
nutrients are required for the growth and development of the crop? What are their functions and
effects on plant growth and development? What will happen if there is deficiency of these
nutrients? How will we identify and diagnose the deficiency symptoms of a particular nutrient
in the soil? You can face several questions of this category. Each nutrient assists with different
plant functions that allow the plant to grow and reproduce. Each plant nutrient is needed in
different amounts by the plant, and varies in how mobile it is within the plant. It is useful to
know the relative amounts of each nutrient that is needed by a crop in making fertilizer
recommendations. In addition, understanding plant functions and mobility within the plant
should prove useful in diagnosing nutrient deficiencies. The knowledge of the specific role of
the essential elements in normal growth and development of the plant, their deficiency symptoms
and amount required for the optimum crop production is considered necessary to understand
soil fertility better and to adopt scientific use of fertilizers. Plant nutrients taken up by crops
during the growing season may come from many sources including soil, synthetic fertilizers or
manure, and also crop residues. Most soil conditions across the world can provide plants with
adequate nutrition and do not require fertilizer for a complete life cycle. However, man can
artificially modify soil through the addition of manures and fertilizer to promote vigorous growth
and increase yield. It is essential to apply balanced quantity of nutrients through man-made
fertilizers. An element present at a low level may cause deficiency symptoms, while the same
element at a higher level may cause toxicity.
56
What is Plant nutrition?
Plant Nutrition is the study of the chemical elements and compounds that are necessary for
plant growth, and also of their external supply and internal metabolism.During the first half of
the 19th century, it was found that element are absorbed by roots principally as inorganic ions in
soils and these are derived mostly from mineral constituent of soil. The term Mineral Nutrition
generally refers to an inorganic ion obtained from soil and required for plant growth.
The process of absorption,

translocation and assimilation of nutrients Difference between plant nutrition and
by the plants is known as mineral fertilization
nutrition. Nutrients are chemical elements, Plant nutrition means need for basic chemical
which are absorbed by the plants in more elements for plant growth whereas fertilization
and less large quantities to transform light refers to the external application of synthetic
energy into chemical energy and to keep plant nutrients to supplement the nutrients
up plant metabolism for the synthesis of naturally present in the soil.
organic materials.
Criteria of Essentiality:
Arnon& Stout proposed criteria of essentiality, which was refined by Arnon (1954).
According to this criterion, an element is considered as essential when-
1. A deficiency of the element makes it impossible for the plant to complete its life cycle.
2. Its deficiency can be corrected or prevented only by supplying this element.
3. The element is directly involved in the metabolism of the plant.
Essential Nutrients: An essential nutrient is one required by an organism for normal growth
and development, but which it cannot manufacture on its own. There are 17 elements which are
essential for plants namely, carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phosphorus(P),
potassium(K), calcium(Ca), magnesium(Mg),sulphur(S), Iron(Fe), manganese(Mn), zinc(Zn),
copper(Cu), molybdenum(Mo), chlorine (Cl), boron (B) and Nickel (Ni) . Ni is recently added as
an essential nutrient. There is a dispute among plant physiologists concerning the role of nickel
in plant nutrition. Since many physiologists exclude it as essential, in some textbooks, lists consist
of only 16 essential inorganic nutrients.
Classification of essential elements: Over 95 percent of the dry weight of a flowering plant
is made up of three elements namely, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen which are taken by the
plant from the air and water. The remaining 5 percent of the dry weight comes from chemicals
57
absorbed from the soil. Roots absorb the chemicals present in their surroundings, but only 14 of
the elements absorbed are essential for plant growth. These 14 elements, along with carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen, are called the 17 essential inorganic nutrients, or elements. All elements
are needed in specific amounts.
Therefore, depending upon the quantity of nutrients present in plants, these elements can
be grouped into three categories:
1. Basic Nutrients- Of the 95% of total dry matter of plants, carbon and oxygen constitute
45% each. Example:- total dry matter produced by rice crop in one season is about 12
t/ha in which 5.4 t is oxygen, 5.4 t is carbon and 0.7 t is hydrogen.
2. Macronutrients - The nutrients which are required in larger quantities for better growth
and development of the plant are known as macronutrients. They include N, P, K, Ca,
Mg, and S. Among these, N, P and K are called primary nutrients whereas Ca, Mg,
and S are known as secondary nutrients. They are known as secondary nutrients due
to their secondary importance to the manufacturer of primary nutrient fertilizers.
3. Micronutrients- The nutrients which are required in small quantities are known as
micronutrients or trace elements. They are Fe, Zn, Cu, B, Mo, Mn and Cl. These are
also known as trace/minor/rare elements which are very efficient. Their deficiency
and excess can be harmful to the plants.
Plants use elements in differing

NON-MINERAL NUTRIENTS
amounts and forms e.g. some as cations
Three elements, carbon (C), hydrogen
and others as anions. Almost all elements
(H), and oxygen (O), are considered to be non-
are used in a variety of ways- mineral nutrients because they are derived from
air and water, rather than from soil minerals.
1. Catalysts for enzymatic
Although they represent approximately 95% of
reactions (either as part of the plant biomass, they are generally given little
enzyme structure or as attention in plant nutrition because they are
regulators or activators), always in sufficint supply.
2. Regulators of the movement of water in or out of the cell and maintenance of turgor
pressure
3. Regulators of membrane permeability,
4. Structural components of the cell or of electron receptors in the electron transport

system, or as buffers (which maintain the pH within cells).
58
Based on the functions, the nutrients are classified into four groups:
1. Elements that provide basic structure to the plant- C, H, O.
2. Elements useful in energy storage, transfer and bonding- N, S, P. These are accessory
structural elements which are more active and vital for living tissues.
3. Elements necessary for charge balance- K, Ca, Mg. These elements act as regulator
and carriers.
4. Elements involved in enzymes activation and electron transport- Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, B,
Mn, Cl. These elements are catalyzers and activators.
The importance of all the 17 essential elements lies in their specific function or roles in
various biochemical or biological system essential for growth and development of plant. As
each nutrient perform specific function, its adequate and deficient supply lead to development
of visual deficiency symptoms in plants. The deficiency symptoms generally appear on specific
plant parts i.e leaves, stem or roots. Deficiency symptoms are the first indication of non
availability of nutrients in soil and hence the specific and general functions and visual deficiency
symptoms of the essential plant nutrients will help in better understanding of fertilizer or
nutrient need of plants. The major functions and deficiency symptoms of essential plant nutrients
are as under:
Mobile nutrients are nutrients that Immobile nutrients(B, Ca,Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, S,
are able to move out of older leaves and Zn) are not able tomove from one plant
to younger plant parts when part to another and deficiency symptoms will
supplies are inadequate. Mobile initially occurin the younger or upper leaves
nutrients include N, P, K, Cl, Mg, and be localized. Zn is a partial exception to
and molybdenum (Mo). Because this as it is only somewhat immobile in the
these nutrients are mobile, visual plant, causing Zn deficiency symptoms to
deficiencies will first occur in the initially appear on middle leaves and the
older or lower leaves and effects can naffect both older and younger leaves as the
be either localized or generalized. deficiency develops.
Functions, deficiency symptoms and toxicities of essential plant nutrients:
Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen: These are the major constituents of organic compounds
like carbohydrates and fats found in the plants and provide energy required for growth and
development. They are rarely limiting as a nutrient and there are no specific symptoms
Nitrogen
It is a constituent of proteins, enzymes, vitamins and plant hormones. It imparts vigorous
59
vegetative growth and dark green colour to plants, produces early
growth, delays maturity of plants, and governs the utilization of
potassium, phosphorus and other elements. Its deficiency results in
drastic reduction in vegetative growth, stunted shoots and roots with
thin, upright and spindly appearance. Chlorosis is first observed on older
leaves. Leaves are thin, fragile, small, pale- yellowish in colour and
defoliate prematurely. Flowering, fruit-bud formation and fruit setting
are reduced. Woody fruits without any flavour are formed. Excess levels
result in abundant foliage with dark green colour, making plants more
susceptible to pest and disease attack. Yields are low. Fruits are poorly
coloured with poor eating quality and storage properties. It delays fruit maturity. P uptake
is low.
Phosphorus
It is found in younger parts-flowers, maturing fruits and seeds. It

enhances maturity of crop, root growth and development, activity of
rhizobia and formation of root nodules. Its deficiency leads to stunted
roots and shoots with abnormally small leaves with dull dark green
colour, which later turns into bronze colour. Older leaves prematurely defoliate. Flowering is
delayed, fruit-bud formation is reduced, and yields are with poor quality. Excess of P results
in interveinal chlorosis in younger leaves and marginal scorch of older leaves followed by
necrosis, tip die back, heavy leaf shedding and death of shoots. It results in Zn, Cu, Mn and Fe
deficiency.
Potassium
Young leaves, root tips and meristematic tissues are very rich
in K. It is involved in cell division, synthesis and translocation of
carbohydrates and synthesis of proteins in meristematic tissues. K
plays a unique role in osmotic regulation, opening and closing of
stomata. It has a beneficial effect on symbiotic N 2 fixation by
leguminous plants and increases resistance of plants to various
abiotic and biotic stresses. It improves the colour, flavour and size of
fruits. Deficiency symptoms first appear on recently matured leaves. Marginal burning of leaves
starts from tip which turns reddish-brown in colour and eventually die giving a scorched, ragged
appearance. Shoots are thin with poor growth. Excess of K leads to Mg, Mn, Zn and Fe deficiency
by affecting their uptake.
60
Calcium
Calcium occurs mainly in the leaves as calcium pectate. It plays an important role in cell
division, elongation, maintenance of membrane integrity, development and functioning of roots
and root apices, respiration, uptake of N, Fe, B, Zn, Cu and Mn. Since Ca is not freely mobile, its
deficiency first appears on the shoot tips. Terminal buds fail to grow and eventually die. Leaves
are distorted with margins curled downwards or upwards, Fruits crack, roots are abnormally
short, thick and crooked. Excess Ca produces alkalinity and reduces the availability of nutrients
such as P, K, Mn, Fe and Zn.
Magnesium
It is a constituent of chlorophyll, protoplasm, chromosomes,

etc. It is a catalyst in several enzymes and is essential for formation
of carbohydrates, oils, fats and vitamins. Deficiency symptoms first
appear in older leaves. The most prominent symptom is yellowing
of leaf margins that progresses through the interveinal tissue
towards the rib. The veins and adjacent tissues remain green.
Excessive Mg levels may result in either K or Ca deficiency in plants.
Sulphur
Sulphur is present abundantly in leaves. It is a constituent of

cystine, methionine, proteins and fatty acids. It increases root growth,
nodule formation and stimulates seed formation. Chlorosis is first
observed on the young leaves in sulphur deficient plants. Shoot
growth is restricted. Leaf area and fruiting is reduced. Leaves fall
early. Excess of Sulphur results in reduced leaf size, leaf burning or
mottling with a yellow or bronzed colouration, accompanied by leaf
abscission.
Iron
Iron acts as a catalyst in formation of chlorophyll and in

several enzymes. It is a key element in various reactions of
respiration, photosynthesis and reduction of nitrates and
sulphates. In its deficient plant interveinal chlorosis is first seen in
young terminal leaves. In severe cases, the new leaves unfold
completely, devoid of green colour but veins usually turn green
Iron deficiency symptoms-
later. The fine network of veins is distinctively green against a yellowing of youngest leaves
61
yellow back ground. Plants seldom show Fe toxicity symptoms as solubility of Fe in the soil
solution is rather low.
Zinc
It is required for synthesis of tryptophan, a precursor of auxin,

Indole acetic acid. It is essential for carbon dioxide evolution and
utilization, carbohydrate and phosphorus metabolism, and synthesis
of proteins. Its deficiency leads to short internodes, small narrow
leaves, interveinal chlorosis and shoot and branch dieback. In advanced
stage, small, narrow, terminal leaves are arranged in whorls giving Zinc deficient mango shoots
rise to a typical 'rosette' or little leaf symptoms. Root growth is have shortened internodes,
resulting in leaf rosetting.
restricted. The symptoms disappear as the season advances. Soils
derived from parent material rich in zinc or impregnated with seepage water from Zn ore,
excessive fertilization with Zn in acid soils causes toxicity in plants. Toxicity of Zn can be reduced
by liming or by adding superphosphate to the soil, thus reducing the solubility and absorption
of Zn.
Manganese
Manganese accumulates in leaves more than seeds and stalk tissue. It

plays an essential role in respiration, nitrogen metabolism, chlorophyll
synthesis and breakdown. Deficiency symptoms appear soon after the leaf
is fully expanded and persists throughout its life. It is characterised by a
pattern of leaf chlorosissome what between that caused by magnesium and Manganese deficient
iron deficiency. High acidity leading to greater solubility of Mn; addition orange; leaves develop
a mottled pattern of
of acid forming fertilizers and regular application of MnS04 over many years light and dark green.
or poor soil aeration cause Mn excess in soils.
Copper
It is required in oxidation-reduction reactions, photosynthesis, respiration, carbohydrate/

nitrogen balance, chlorophyll and vitamin A formation, biosynthesis and activity of ethylene in
fruit ripening. Dieback, gum pockets at nodes of twigs and brownish excrescence on fruits, twigs
and leaves are common in copper deficient plants. Chlorotic and small leaves sometimes also
show brown or bronze areas. Fruits have thick peel, lack juice and are insipid with a tendency of
cracking or splitting of rind. Excess of copper results in reduced plant and root growth with less
branching, more thickening and abnormally dark root-lets.
62
Boron
It plays a part in flowering, fruiting, photosynthesis, hormone

movement and action, cell division, differentiation and
development, sugar translocation, pollen germination, pollen tube
growth, rooting and active salt absorption. In its deficiency, terminal
buds fail to open or abort and twigs die-back. Leaves are darker
green, boat like, brittle and abscise early, starting from the shoot
tips. Fruits are malformed, hard, misshapen with rough skin. Corky
Boron deficient papaya fruits
areas develop in cortex and browning in core region. In some develop bumps.
cultivars, fruits crack. Available B content of 0.5 ppm in soil may
cause a deficiency in some plants but leaves (>5 ppm) become toxic for normal plant growth.
Molybdenum
The Mo plays an important role in nitrogen metabolism. It is

constituent of two major plant enzymes namely, nitrogenous and nitrate
reductase. It helps in fixation of atmospheric nitrogen in legume crops.
Deficiency symptoms develop on leaves as yellow spots. In late summer,
large yellow spots are apparent with gum and corky cells forming on
the lower leaf. Fruit yield is adversely affected. Mo toxicity is not reported
in plants
Chlorine
It is involved in the oxygen evolution in primary reactions of photosynthesis, cell

multiplication and turgor production in guard cells. Chlorosis, necrosis, unusual bronze
discolouration of foliage and wilting of plants is seen in Cl deficient plants. High levels of Cl
result in depressed growth, chlorosis, burning of tips and margins of leaves, bronzing, premature
yellowing and abscission of leaves.
Nickel
It is an essential part of enzyme in nitrogen metabolism. Leaf tips with dead spots.
These deficiency symptoms can be overcome by supplying nutrients artificially. Nutrients

can be supplied to vegetables by organic manures and chemical fertilizersin appropriate
quantities. Organic manures not only add the essential nutrients to the soil but they also improve
the soil texture and structure. Nitrogen is applied in the form of farmyard manure and
inorganic fertilizers such as urea, ammonium sulphate, calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN)
etc. Phosphorus is applied in the form of phosphate such as single super phosphate, rock
63
phosphate, di-ammonium phosphate etc. Potash is applied in the form of sulphate or chloride
of potassium etc. For controlling of micronutrient deficiency, several water soluble fertilizers
specific to micronutrients are available like borax (for boron).
Activity
Visit nearby fruit and vegetable farms and collect samples of plants showing some
abnormalities. Try to diagnose the symptoms associated with nutrient deficiency and prepare
herbarium.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Write the criteria of essentiality of an element. Classify all essential nutrients on the
basis of their requirement.
2. Write five nitrogenous andphosphatic fertilizers along with their percent N and P2O5
contents.
3. Classify all essential nutrients on the basis of their mobility in plant system.
4. Write the functions and deficiency symptoms of nitrogen, calcium, zinc and boron in
plants.
5. Define the following terms
a) Mobile nutrients b) essential nutrient c) Macro nutrient
d) Secondary nutrient e) Fertilization f) Mineral nutrition
FILL IN THE BLANKS

1. Deficiency symptoms of nitrogen first appear on……………leaves.
2. Ca, Mg, and Sare known as ______________________ nutrients.
3. A nutrient which plays a unique role in osmotic regulation, opening and closing of
stomata is …………………
4. Elements that provide basic structure to the plant are……………,

…………….and……………….
5. Nutrient required for synthesis of tryptophan, a precursor of auxin, Indole acetic acid
is……………………
6. Deficiency of……………. causes 'little leaf" in citrus.
64
Chadha, K.L. 2001. Handbook of Horticulture. Indian Council of Agricultural Research,New

Delhi.
Chattopadhyay, T.K. (2012). A Textbook on Pomology, Vol. 1 (Fundamentals), Kalyani publishers,

Ludhiana, India.,
Singh, J. (2012). Basic Horticulture. Kalyani publishers, Ludhiana, India.
http://www.agritech.tnau.ac.in
http://www.puricare.co.za
http://www.miami-dade.ifas.ufl.edu
65
CHAPTER 6
Organic and Inorganic Manures and Their

Methods of Application in
Horticultural Crops
OBJECTIVES
• Gain basic knowledge about organic and inorganic manures and fertilizers.
• Understand the importance and principles of fertilizer application to horticultural
crops
• Learn about different methods of fertilizer application.
• Decide on the most appropriate manures and fertilizers and their suitable method of
application for a given situation.
INTRODUCTION
For optimum growth and production of horticultural crops,application of fertilizers is most
important. Horticultural crops require nutrients for its growth and development which are
absorbed through soil. In order to get maximum benefit from manures and fertilizers, they
should not only be applied in proper time and in right manner but there are many other aspects,
which should also be given due consideration. Different soils react differently on fertilizer
application. Similarly, the N, P, K requirements of different crops are different and even for a
single a crop, the nutrient requirements are not the same at different stages of growth.Now,
certain questions may arise in your mind. What are the different methods of fertilizer application?
Is there a choice to practice a particular method fertilizer application? Can any chemical fertilizer
be sprayed on crops?
As we learnt about essential plant nutrients, their deficiency symptoms and various types
of manures and fertilizers in chapter 5, let's revise it. There are 17 elements which are essential
for plants namely, carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phosphorus(P),
potassium(K), calcium(Ca), magnesium(Mg),sulphur(S), Iron(Fe), manganese(Mn), zinc(Zn),
copper(Cu), molybdenum(Mo), chlorine (Cl), boron (B) and Nickel (Ni) . Manures and fertilizers
are major nutrient supplying sources to plants. In this chapter we will learn about various methods
of fertilizer application employed for optimum growth and yield of horticultural crops. A
deficiency of any of these nutrient elements can limit plant growth and development and,
ultimately, yield. Most soils contain sufficient amounts of the micronutrients needed to support
66
plant growth. However, soils may be lacking in some of the macronutrients, particularly nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium. Therefore, it becomes necessary to ensure the presence of all the
essential elements supplied by the soil in the right quantities and the right chemical forms for
plant use. This is done by supplying organic matter and by the judicious use of fertilizers and
manures in order to supplement the nutrients required by the plants from soil to increase crop
yield vis-a-vis to maintain/ improve the soil fertility. Continuous cropping and several other
factors necessitate the use of manures and fertilizers. The dose, method and time of application
depend on crop, soil, fertilizer/manure and climatic factors of the region.
Inorganic and organic manures
Inorganic manures: These are industrially manufactured chemicals containing higher

nutrient content than organic manures, while fertilizer grade refers to the guaranteed minimum
percentage of N, P2O5 and K2O contained in the fertilizer material. Composition of different
fertilizers commonly used in horticultural crop production is given in Table 1. Nutrient input is
lost either through leaching, runoff, volatization, fixation by soil or consumption by weeds, etc.
Coated fertilizers namely, urea supergranules, tar-coated urea and sulphur-coated urea make
nutrients available slowly and prevent wastage. Use of nitrification inhibitors can also be an
approach for increasing the nitrogen-use efficiency.
In India, fertilizers consumed are of 5 types:
1. Nitrogenous fertilizers
Any natural or manufactured material, dry
2. Phosphatic fertilizers
or liquid added to soil in order to supply
3. Potassic fertilizers
one or more plant nutrients other than
4. Complex fertilizers
lime or gypsum is known as fertilizer.
5. Fertilizer mixtures
1. Nitrogenous fertilizers
These fertilizers supply nitrogen. The common nitrogenous fertilizers are ammonium
sulphate, calcium ammonium nitrate and urea etc. Ammonium sulphate and urea are by far the
most important nitrogenous fertilizers used by Indian farmers.
2. Phosphatic fertilizers
These fertilizers are chemical substances that contain nutrient phosphorus in absorbable
form. The primary material of phosphatic fertilizers is rock phosphate. The commonly used
phosphatic fertilizers are Single super phosphate(16% P205, 20% calcium and 12% sulphur),
Dicalcium phosphate(32-36% P205) triple super phosphate (46-48% P205).
67
Bone meals have been used as manures for time immemorial. Bone meals are of two kinds
(i) Raw bone meal and (ii) Steamed bone meal. Raw bone meal contains about 25% P205 and 4%
N which is in the slow acting organic form. Steam bone meal contains 25-30% total
phosphorus(P205) and about 1-2% N. It contains about 25% citrate soluble phosphorus (P205).
Steam bone meal is applied to soil few days before sowing of crop.
Basic slag: It is a by product of the steel industry where the original iron ores contain
appreciable amounts of phosphorus. It is a grayish black powder with a very high specific gravity.
It contains 8-12% P205.
3. Potassic fertilizers
These fertilizers are applied to soil to supply the plant with potassium (K) one of the
essential elements for plant growth. Main potassic fertilizers used today are Muriate of Potash(60%
K2O), Sulphate of Potash(48 to 52% K2O).
4. Complex fertilizers
Straight fertilizers versus Complex fertilizers:
Straight fertilizers supply only one of the primary fertilizer elements, either N or P or K for
plant growth, e.g., urea. Complex fertilizers supply more than one fertilizer elements needed for
crop growth. When they supply any of the two of the fertilizer elements needed for plant growth,
they are called incomplete fertilizer, e.g. Mono-ammonium phosphate (11.0% N and 48.0% P205)
and Diammonium phosphate (21% N and 52% P205). When they supply all the three fertilizer
elements for crop growth, they are called complete complex fertilizer, e.g., Nitrophosphate (15%
N, 15% P205 and 15% K2O).
5. Mixed fertilizers:
A mixed fertilizer means a mixture of more straight fertilizers, e.g., ammonium sulphate
and single super phosphate may be thoroughly mixed to get a mixed fertilizer.
Advantages of mixed fertilizer
• Two or more fertilizer elements are added together to make a mixed fertilizer to be
applied m the field. Less labour is, therefore, required for application of a mixed
fertilizer.
• Fertilizer elements can be more uniformly applied to the field especially when they
are required in small quantities.
• Mixed fertilizer can easily be drilled because of good physical condition.
68
Disadvantages of mixed fertilizer:
• The use of mixed fertilizer does not permit the use of single nutrient which may be
required by the crop at a certain stage.
• The illiterate farmers cannot effectively control the quantity of plant food nutrients
present in the mixture.
Types of mixed fertilizers:
Mixed fertilizers are of two types(i) Open formula mixture and (ii) Close formula mixture
In open formula mixed fertilizer, manufacturer discloses the name and quantities of the
straight fertilizers that are constituents of the mixed fertilizer whereas in close formula mixed
fertilizer, firm does not disclose the constituents of the fertilizer.
Sulphur containing fertilizers
These are the chemical substances containing the nutrient 'S' in the nutrient form of
absorbable sulphate anions S04-2 .The important 'S' containing water soluble fertilizers are
Ammonium sulphate (24% S), Potassium sulphate (18% S), Ammonium sulphate Nitrate (15%S)
and Super phosphate (12%S).
Micronutrient fertilizers:
Iron fertilizers: These are generally water soluble substances predominantly sprayed as
foliar nutrients on the crops. Plants absorb iron in the form of Fe-2. Commonly used iron fertilizers
are Ferrous sulphate (FeS04. 7H20) contains 20% Fe (water soluble).
Manganese fertilizers: Manganese sulphate (MnS04. 4H20.) is pink salt containing 24% Mn,
suitable for foliar application.
Zinc fertilizers: Zinc sulphate (ZnS04 7H20) is water soluble salt whitish in colour containing
23% Zn. It can be applied as foliar or in soil.
Boron fertilizers: Borax (Na2B04. 10H2O) is water soluble white salt which can be applied
as soil dressing/foliar spray. It contains 11% boron.
Other micronutrients like copper and molybdenum are supplied through copper sulphate
and sodium molybdate, respectively.
69
Table 1. Composition of common inorganic manures.
Fertilizer Composition (%)

N P 2O 5 K 2O Miscellaneous
Anhydrous ammonia 82
Ammonium sulphate 20.6
Calcium ammonium nitrate 25
Urea 46
Single superphosphate - 16 12 S
Diammonium phosphate 16 and 18 48 and 46
Rock-phosphate 20-40
Muriate of Potash 60
Ferrous sulphate 19 Fe
Borax 11 B
Boric acid 17 B
Manganese sulphate 26 Mn
Basic zinc sulphate 55 Zn
Copper sulphate 21 Cu
Organic manures: These are plant and animal wastes that are used as nutrients after
decomposition. Plants are directly or indirectly the source of recyclable materials. They provide
various types of crop residues. When crushed, seeds of oil crops leave behind oil cakes. Biomass
of several uncultivated plants is also recyclable. Human and animal wastes are largely the residues
of plant products ingested either by humans or by domesticated animals. Organic manures and
leguminous green manures are most valuable from crop nutrition point of view, whereas
farmyard manure, crop residues and composts are most important from utilization and organic
recycling point of view. Organic resources reduce the mining of soil nutrients and improve soil
productivity, by improving soil tilth, aeration, water-holding capacity and activity of
microorganisms. Organic manures are classified into bulky organic manures and concentrated
organic manures depending on the nutrient content in them. Nutrient content of commonly used
organic manures have been given in Table 2.
Bulky organic manures
Farmyard manure: The decomposed mixture of dung and urine of farm animals along
with litter and left over materials from roughages or fodder fed to cattle is farmyard manure.
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Quality of farmyard manure can be improved by concentrated feeds given to the cattle. Cotton
seed, cotton seed cake, linseed meal, wheat bran, grain husk, ground nut cake etc. are rich in N,
P, Mg, and S.
Compost: Composting is a process in which both aerobic and anaerobic micro-organisms

decompose organic matter under medium to high temperature and low carbon-nitrogen ratio of
refuse. Farm compost is mass of rotted organic matter made from farm waste like sugarcane
trash, paddy straw, weeds and other plants, while town compost is mass of rotted organic matter
made from town refuses like night soil, street sweepings and dustbin refuse.
Sewage and sludge: In modern system of sanitation adopted in cities, water is used for
removal of human excreta and other wastes, called as sewage. Solid portion is sludge while the
liquid portion is sewage water. Both sludge and sewage water are separated and given
preliminary fermentation and oxidation treatments to reduce bacterial contamination and
offensive smell and also to narrow down the C: N ratio.
Vermi-compost: It is the compost prepared with the help of earthworms. Earthworms

consume large quantities of organic matter, excrete soil as casts which have several plant growth
promoters, enzymes rich in plant nutrients, beneficial bacteria and mycorrhizae. Vermicompost
is a rich mixture of major and minor plant nutrients. It increases total microbial population of
nitrogen fixing bacteria, actinomycetes and symbiotic association of mycorrhiza on plant
root system. Earthworm casts harbour a large number of vesicular arbuscularmycorrhizal
(VAM) propagules which survive for about 11 months. Increased microbial activity improves
soil phosphorus and nitrogen availability. It also improves by using residues as surface
mulches.
Concentrated organic manures
Oil cakes: Oil cakes can be grouped into edible oil cakes which are suitable for cattle feeding
and non-edible oil cakes which are unfit for cattle consumption.
Blood meal: An adult cattle gives about 13.6kg blood meal and goat or sheep about 1.36kg.
It is effective for all horticultural crops and all types of soils.
Meat meal: The meat is converted into meat meal. It is quick acting and suitable for all
types of horticultural crops and soils.
Fish meal: Non-edible fish carcasses and fish offal are used to prepare fish meal. These are
crushed and powdered before use.
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Table 2. Nutrient content of organic manures
Organic manures N (%) P2O5 (%) K2O (%)

Poultry manure 3.03 0.63 1.40
Farmyard manure 0.75 0.20 0.50
Vermi-compost 3.00 1.00 1.50
Neem cake 5.22 1.08 1.48
Bio-fertilizers
These are inputs containing micro-organisms capable of mobilizing nutritive elements from
non-usable form to usable form through biological processes. They are less expensive, eco-friendly
and sustainable and do not require non-renewable source of energy during their production.
They improve plant growth and fruit quality by producing plant hormones. They increase the
sustainability of soil and make it more productive. They are also useful as bio-control agents
since they control many plant pathogens and harmful microorganisms. Some of the beneficial
microorganisms are capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen, while some can increase the
availability of N and P. Different bio-fertilizers available for use for horticultural crops are given
in Table 3.
Table 3. Biofertilizers commonly used for horticultural crops
Biofertilizer Organisms Fixed nutrient

Saprophytes Aspergillus,Trichoderma Decomposes organic matter
at a faster rate
Legume inoculants Rhizobium species Fixes atmospheric N in
association with leguminous
crops
In association with plants Azospirillum High N fixation capacity
Free-living organism Azotobacter Fixes N in neutral to alkaline
soils
Phosphorus solubilizers Pseudomonas striata, P
Bacilluspolymixa,
Aspergillusawamoriand
Pencilliumdigitatum
Endotrophic mycorrhizae Glomus, Gigaspore, Higher N, P, K, Ca and Mg
(VAM)
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Integrated nutrient management
It is the use of chemical fertilizers, organic manures, slow-releasing fertilizers, nitrification

inhibitors, vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae and nutrient efficient rootstocks either singly or in
combination, all at a time in a definite sequence during the growth developmental stages of
plant for economic and efficient use of nutrients without having any adverse effects on soil
health and environment.
Principles of fertilizer application
The basic principle of fertilizer application is to make the nutrients readily available to the
plants as per their requirement without much wastage and harmful effects on soil. Usually larger
quantities of fertilizers are added to clayey soils at longer intervals than to sandy soils because
clayey soils are richer in humus than sandy soils and both clay and humus have a high capacity
to retain nutrient ions by a phenomenon called Base Exchange. These adsorbed nutrient ions are
not lost by leaching, can be gradually taken up by the plant roots. If a heavy dose of water
soluble fertilizer is applied to sandy soils, most of it will be leached down by high rainfall in the
humid regions.
Difference between manures and fertilizers
Sl. No. Characteristics Manures Fertilizers

1. Origin Plant, animal, human residue Chemically manufactured
2. Type Natural product Artificial product
3. Nutrient content Low / less concentrated High / more concentrated
4. Availability of Slow releasing May or may not be readily
nutrient available
5. Effect on soil Improves physical property Do not improves physical
health of soil property of soil
Quantities of fertilizers to be applied
Different crops require different quantities of nutrients. Fertilizer dose is calculated on the
basis of requirement of plants for its various physiological activities. While applying fertilizers,
nutritional status of soil is taken into account. After deducting contribution of soil, rest amount
is replenished externally by the application of fertilizers.
Time of application of fertilizers
Generally, the manures are applied in the field before the onset of monsoon. With the
appearance of rain, the manures are decomposed well and their nutrients become readily available
73
to plants. The fertilizers are applied at the time of active growth of plants so that the nutrients
may be absorbed by the roots. Generally, the plants remain active during February- March and
July and new growth emerges on the plant. During these times, fertilizers must be applied. In
case of bearing plants, the manures and fertilizers are applied to cope with nutritional requirement.
Under such circumstances, the manures and fertilizers must be applied one month before the
commencement of flowering in plants. Phosphatic fertilizers being less soluble should be applied
about 20 days before the commencement of new growth. Nitrogenous fertilizers being highly
soluble and hence prone to leaching losses should be applied in split doses. Half of the
recommended dose of nitrogen should be given before commencement of flowering and rest
half dose is given after fruit set. This holds true especially in case of fruits. In case of vegetables,
the recommended doses of fertilizers are applied at the time of sowing, transplanting and also
during growing. Nitrogenous fertilizers are given in splits to support production.
Methods of application
For maximized efficiency, fertilizer should be applied in root zones of the plants. The
methods by which fertilizers can be applied are discussed as under:
1. Broadcasting: It refers to spreading fertilizers uniformly all over the field. Suitable for crops
with dense stand, the plant roots permeate the whole volume of the soil, large doses of fertilizers
are applied and insoluble phosphatic fertilizers such as rock phosphate are used. Broadcasting
of fertilizers is of two types.
(i) Broadcasting at sowing or planting (Basal application): The main objectives of

broadcasting the fertilizers at sowing time are to uniformly distribute the fertilizer
over the entire field and to mix it with soil.
Advantages: Fast and economical.
Disadvantages: High nutrient losses, low uniformity. P efficiency is only 1/3 to 1/4 that of
banding
74
(ii) Top dressing: It is the broadcasting of fertilizers
particularly nitrogenous fertilizers in closely sown
crops like paddy and wheat, with the objective of
supplying nitrogen in readily available form to
growing plants.
Disadvantages of broadcasting
The main disadvantages of application of fertilizers through broadcasting are:

i) Nutrients cannot be fully utilized by plant roots as they move laterally over long
distances.
ii) The weed growth is stimulated all over the field.
iii) Nutrients are fixed in the soil as they come in contact with a large mass of soil.
2. Placement: It refers to the placement of fertilizers in soil at a specific place with or without
reference to the position of the seed. Placement of fertilizers is normally recommended when the
quantity of fertilizers to apply is small, development of the root system is poor, soil has a low
level of fertility and to apply phosphatic and potassic fertilizers. The most common methods of
placement are as follows:
(i) Plough sole placement: In this method, fertilizer is placed at the bottom of the plough
furrow in a continuous band during the process of ploughing. Every band is covered
as the next furrow is turned. This method is suitable for areas where soil becomes
quite dry upto few cm below the soil surface and soils having a heavy clay pan just
below the plough sole layer.
(ii) Deep placement: It is the placement of ammonical nitrogenous fertilizers in the

reduction zone of soil particularly in paddy fields, where ammoniacal nitrogen remains
available to the crop. This method ensures better distribution of fertilizer in the root
zone soil and prevents loss of nutrients by run-off.
(iii) Localized placement: It refers to the application of fertilizers into the soil close to the
seed or plant in order to supply the nutrients in adequate amounts to the roots of
growing plants. The common methods to place fertilizers close to the seed or plant
are as follows:
(a) Drilling: In this method, the fertilizer is applied at the time of sowing by means
of a seed-cum-fertilizer drill. This places fertilizer and the seed in the same row
but at different depths. Although this method has been found suitable for the
application of phosphatic and potassic fertilizers in cereal crops, but sometimes
75
germination of seeds and young plants may get damaged due to higher
concentration of soluble salts.
(b) Side dressing: It refers to the spread of fertilizer in between the rows and around
the plants. The common methods of side-dressing are:
(i) Placement of nitrogenous fertilizers by hand in between the rows of crops
like maize, sugarcane, cotton etc., to apply additional doses of nitrogen to
the growing crops and
(ii) Placement of fertilizers around the trees like mango, apple, grapes, papaya
etc.
3. Band placement: If refers to the placement of fertilizer in bands. Band placement is of two
types.
(i) Hill placement: It is practiced for the application of fertilizers in orchards. In this
method, fertilizers are placed close to the plant in bands on one or both sides of the
plant. The length and depth of the band varies with the nature of the crop.
(ii) Row placement: When the crops like sugarcane, potato,

maize, cereals etc., are sown close together in rows, the
fertilizer is applied in continuous bands on one or both sides
of the row, which is known as row placement.
Row placement
4. Pellet application: It refers to the placement of nitrogenous fertilizer in the form of pellets
2.5 to 5 cm deep between the rows of the
Seed cum fertilizer drill is an implement used
paddy crop. The fertilizer is mixed with the
to sow the seed in rows as well as to apply the
soil in the ratio of 1:10 and made small
fertilizers at the same time
pellets of convenient size to deposit in the
mud of paddy fields.
Advantages of placement of fertilizers
The main advantages are as follows:
(i) When the fertilizer is placed, there is minimum contact between the soil and the
fertilizer, and thus fixation of nutrients is greatly reduced.
(ii) The weeds all over the field can not make use of the fertilizers.
(iii) Residual response of fertilizers is usually higher.
76
(iv) Utilization of fertilizers by the plants is higher.
(v) Loss of nitrogen by leaching is reduced.
(vi) Being immobile, phosphates are better utilized when placed.
The common methods of applying liquid fertilizers are as follows:
1. Starter solutions
It refers to the application of solution of N, P2O5 and K2O in the ratio of 1:2:1 and 1:1:2 to
young plants at the time of transplanting, particularly for vegetables. Starter solution helps in
rapid establishment and quick growth of Can any chemical fertilizer be sprayed on crops?
seedlings. The disadvantages of starter • Only those fertilizers that do not scorch
solutions are: (burn) leaves are sprayed.
(i) Extra labour is required, and • Usually micronutrients, which are required
in low rates, are foliar sprayed.
(ii) the fixation of phosphate is • Urea sprays are used for supplying
higher. nitrogen
2. Foliar application:
It refers to the spraying of fertilizer solutions containing one or more nutrients on the foliage
of growing plants. Several nutrient elements are readily absorbed by leaves when they are
dissolved in water and sprayed on them. The concentration of the spray solution has to be
controlled; otherwise serious damage may result due to scorching of the leaves. Foliar application
is effective for the application of minor nutrients like iron, copper, boron, zinc and manganese.
Sometimes insecticides are also applied along with fertilizers.
3. Application through irrigation water (Fertigation): It

refers to the application of water soluble fertilizers through
irrigation water. The nutrients are thus carried into the soil in
solution.
77
4. Injection into soil: Liquid fertilizers for injection into the soil may be of either pressure or
non-pressure types.Non-pressure solutions may be applied either on the surface or in furrows
without appreciable loss of plant nutrients under most conditions.Anhydrous ammonia must
be placed in narrow furrows at a depth of 12-15 cm and covered immediately to prevent loss of
ammonia.
5. Aerial application: In areas where ground application is not practicable, the fertilizer
solutions are applied by aircraft particularly in hilly areas, in forest lands, in grass lands or in
sugarcane fields etc.
Precautions in fertilizer use
• It is better to get the soil tested from soil-testing laboratory. The amount of fertilizer(s)
should be calculated based on soil test for balanced use of nutrients.
• Secondary nutrients like sulphur should be used either alone or through sulphur
bearing fertilizers. In acid soils, calcium and magnesium should be maintained at the
optimum level.
• Micronutrient should be applied whenever necessary. In acidic soils boron and

molybdenum, and in alkaline soils, iron, zinc and manganese should be made
available. Phosphate rich calcareous soils may show zinc deficiency problems.
• Fertilizers should be selected on the basis of soil characteristic. Avoid acid fertilizers
in acid soils and basic fertilizers in alkaline soils.
• Improve soil structure through the addition of organic manure and gypsum. Black
and alluvial soils should be deep ploughed.
• Use of high yielding varieties, irrigation at an appropriate time and amounts, removal
of weeds, spacing and plant population etc. should be given due consideration.
ACTIVITY/EXERCISE
1. Know the manures and fertilizers available and being used in your area by visiting
co-operative society and prepare a list of the same mentioning contents of particular
nutrient present in them.
2. Apply the available manure and fertilizers in your kitchen garden/farm/orchard by

employing a particular suitable method of fertilizer application and record
observations in respect of growth and fruiting of the crops being grown.
78
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1) What do you mean by organic and inorganic manures? List five inorganic manures
along with their nutrient content.
2) Write the various types of concentrated organic manures.
3) What is vermi-compost? How does it differ from farm yard manure?
4) What is the principle of fertilizer application? Enlist the different methods of fertilizer
application.
5) When is broadcasting of fertilizers practiced?What are the drawbacks with broadcast

application?
6) What are the different methods of placing the fertilizers? When is placement of
fertilizers practiced?
7) What are the advantages of band placement?
8) What is foliar application of fertilizers?
FILL IN THE BLANKS

1. Usually larger quantities of fertilizers are added to…………….soils at longer intervals
than to sandy soils.
2. Use of ……………….inhibitors can also be an approach for increasing the nitrogen-

use efficiency
3. Vermi-compost is prepared with the help of…………………………
4. The application of water soluble fertilizers through irrigation water is known

as…………………….
5. The fertilizers are applied at the time of……………growth of plants
6. The manures and fertilizers must be applied one month before the commencement of
…………………….. in plants.
7. Nitrogen content present in Calcium ammonium nitrate is……………percent.
8. The application of water soluble fertilizers through irrigation water is referred to as

……………………………….
9. Foliar application is effective for the application of ……………nutrients.
10. The application of fertilizers in orchards is done through……………..method.
79
Chadha, K.L. 2001. Handbook of Horticulture. Indian Council of Agricultural Research,New

Delhi.
Chattopadhyay, T.K. (2012). A Textbook on Pomology, Vol. 1 (Fundamentals), Kalyani publishers,

Ludhiana, India.,
Singh, J. (2012). Basic Horticulture. Kalyani publishers, Ludhiana, India.
http://www.agritech.tnau.ac.in
80
CHAPTER 7
Water Management in
Horticultural Crops
OBJECTIVES
• Learn about water management and various methods of irrigation including micro
irrigation techniques
• Select the suitable irrigation system for different horticultural crops.
• Manage the horticultural crops by making efficient uses of available water resources.
• Decide on the most appropriate irrigation system for a given situation.
INTRODUCTION
Horticultural crops require significant amounts of water due to their perishable nature. In
fruit trees, water stress not only affects the current season's crop, but future crops as well due to
their perennial nature. Since water is such a critical component of the growth and development
of horticultural crops, it is recommended that none of these crops be established without assured
irrigation facilities. Water requirement of a plant depends on its growth habit and life period.
Plants differ greatly in their water requirements. Now, certain questions may arise in your mind.
Is there a choice to practice particular method of irrigation? What is the most economic method
of irrigation? This chapter will cover the basic information regarding various irrigation systems
used in horticultural crops.
Water Requirement:
Water requirement of a crop is the quantity of water needed for normal growth, development
and yield and may be supplied by precipitation or by irrigation or by both. Water is needed
mainly to meet the demands of evaporation (E), transpiration (T) and metabolic needs of the
plants. The water requirement of any crop is dependent upon the following factors:
• Crop factors like variety, growth stage, duration, plant population and growing season.
• Soil factors like texture, structure, depth and topography.
• Climatic factors like temperature, relative humidity and wind velocity.
• Crop management practices like tillage, fertilization, weeding etc.
81
Irrigation Systems:
Irrigation may be defined as artificial supply of water to support plant growth and
production in the absence of adequate supply of water through rainfall. Water is the main
constituent of plants. It performs the following important functions in plants:
• Water is essential for the germination of seeds and growth of plants.
• During the process of photosynthesis, plants synthesize carbohydrates from carbon

dioxide and water. Therefore, water is one of the essential components for the plant.
• Water acts as a solvent for fertilizers and other minerals, which are taken up by the
plant roots in the form of solution. Thus, water serves as the medium in which plants
absorb soluble nutrients from the soil.
• Water serves as medium for transport of chemicals to and from cells.
• Water pressure in plant cells provides the firmness to the plants.
Irrigation is very important in horticultural crops as sufficient moisture must be maintained

in the soil for obtaining the optimum yield of quality fruits. The aim of irrigating the crops
should be to wet the entire root zone without allowing any wastage of water beyond the root
zone. The irrigation system has to be properly devised so that the water requirements of the
crops are met at the minimum expenditure without any wastage of water. Various types of
irrigation techniques differ in how the water obtained from the source is distributed within the
field. In general, the goal is to supply the entire field uniformly with water, so that each plant has
the amount of water it needs, neither too much nor too little.
Many factors determine the suitability of irrigation system for a particular crop. Several
methods are employed for the irrigation of horticultural crops depending on the type of crops
grown whether fruit plants or vegetables or flowers or plantation crops, age of the tree, the soil
topography and the availability of irrigation water. Thus the system of irrigation must be decided
in relation to the varying field conditions. Choose the correct system for a particular crop and
situation.
Irrigation is generally applied to horticultural crops by flooding on the field surface (Surface
irrigation), applying beneath the soil surface (sub surface irrigation), spraying under pressure
(sprinkler irrigation) or by applying in drops in the crop root zone (Drip irrigation). Several
water application methods are practiced to suit different soil types, the topography of the land,
crops to be irrigated and costs. Different systems of irrigation commonly adopted in horticultural
crops are as follows:
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A. Surface irrigation: In this method, water is applied to the crop by flooding it on the soil
surface. In this system whole of the area is irrigated through one head i.e. without sub-division
of the unit area into small plots. Irrigation water used in this case is excessive as the entire field
is to be wetted to meet the need of the excessive root system. It provides fully saturation of root
zone. In this system, the wastage of water is more and this also leads to excessive weed growth.
This method is simple in layout and operation. More than 90 % of irrigated area in India is under
surface irrigation. This method may be classified as border, furrow and basin.
1. Border method: In this method, border are formed by making number of strips
which are separated by ridges. An irrigation channel runs along the upper end of the
borders.
2. Furrow system: This system is suitable in areas where the orchards are planted in
sloppy land. In this system the water moves slowly in furrows in the area between
tree rows. The trees are fed through the lateral movement of water. The consumption
of water is less in this system and there is no risk of bark diseases. Saturation of root
zone is comparatively less. Intercropping or green manuring is not possible in furrow
system. This system is suitable for old orchard.
3. Basin system: In this method, a small circular basin is provided around the tree trunk.
These basins are linked directly with one another through straight channel. There is
less wastage of water and it checks weed growth. Water passing through the channel
touches the tree trunk directly and hence risk of bark diseases is involved. The water
flow also draws away the manure from the tree basins and deposits it at the end of the
channel. This system is suitable for young fruit plants below 1- 2 years of age. This
system is useful for loamy soils.
4. Modified basin system: This system is an improvement over the basin system. In this
system, main channel runs in between the tree lines and the basins are linked with it
independently through small sub-channels. The only drawback of this system is that
this needs more attention to block the sub channels after the basin has received
adequate water. The size of the basin is increased with the extension of the leaf drip of
each tree every year. Intercropping is not possible in this system. This is a good system
of irrigation for the young orchard upto 6-8 years of age and also for the arid- irrigated
areas where there is a shortage of water.
In improved modified basin system, the basins are linked with the channel passing
through along the side of these basins. This system avoids the risk of bark diseases and
intercropping is possible.
83
B. Sub-surface irrigation: In this system, perforated or porous pipes are laid out underground
below the root zone and water is led into the pipes by suitable means. In either case, the idea is
to raise the water by capillary movement.
C. Sprinkler system: This system is used where

water supply is not adequate. The water is pumped
with pressure through the sprinklers attached to
pipes and these sprinklers are adjusted in such a
manner to overlap upto one fourth area covered by
the other sprinklers. These are then moved to the
next point after sufficient percolation hastaken
place. This system is very costly and is suitable in
areas where the sub surface water is not fit and the
soil is uneven or sloppy and the water supply is not regular from the canals. There is considerable
saving in water used through sprinkler irrigation than surface irrigation. The initial, operational
and maintenance costs are high. It is suitable for the full grown orchards and vegetable crops.
D. Drip system: This is system of irrigation which supplies water to the plant equivalent to its
consumptive use. This is highly water use efficient system of irrigation. The water is supplied
with pressure after filtering it through the pipes with attached drippers designed to supply
water in drops. These drippers are placed around the plant in a circular pattern and the percolating
water moves down and side ways wetting the root zone. This system requires regular water
supply. Advantages of drip irrigation system are:
• Wastage of water through percolation, seepage and evaporation is checked as the

water is carried through main lines and laterals. There is 30-70% saving of water.
• Uniform distribution of water
• The labour requirement is minimized considerably.
• Easily adaptable in hilly and undulating lands
• Reduced weed problem.
• Lower quality water of water can be used.
• Increased plant growth and yield.
• Ideal for poor soils and provides better root system to the trees.
• Works at low pressure
• Can irrigate at any time of the day.
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• Causes no erosion
• Application of fertilizer can be done.
• Less incidence of diseases
Disadvantages:
• Clogging of drippers due to oxidants and algae
• High initial investment
Fertigation: It is the application of fertilizer or chemicals through the irrigation system. It is

a controlled system to supply soluble plant nutrients at the root zone of the irrigated crops.
Fertigation is done through tank, ventury or pump systems. The most practical method of
applying of fertilizers through the irrigation system is by creating a 10% bypass flow of the main
line flow, through an artificial fertilizer mixing tank.
Advantages of fertigation:
1. An opportunity for placement of fertilizer at the vicinity of root zone of the crop along
with irrigation water which increases in water and fertilizer use efficiency.
2. Deeper penetration into the soil.
3. Avoids is volatilization from soil surface.
4. Easy coordination with specific crop demand.
5. Decrease in labour and energy cost in fertilizer application by making use of
waterdistribution system.
6. Improves the availability of nutrients and their uptake by roots.
7. Trace elements can also be applied along with major nutrients.
8. Saving of fertilizers.
Fertigation Tank Fertilizer injector
85
Limitations of fertigation:
1. Possibility of clogging emitters if the pH of irrigation water and fertilizer sources is

not managed carefully.
2. May result in possible contamination of the drinking water supply if devices are not
usedto prevent back flow of nutrients into the well or other water sources.
3. Some of the chemicals are quite corrosive to metal and also cause skin burning is
safety devices are not provided to protect the workers against unplanned discharge
or spilling of chemicals.
Irrigation Scheduling:
When to irrigate and how much to irrigate, form the schedule of irrigation. In order to
avoid water stress in plants and to obtain good yields of quality fruits, proper irrigation schedule
should be followed. Scheduling of irrigation in plants is governed by soil, climatic and plant
factors. Some practical approaches used to determine schedule of irrigation are soil moisture
depletion, cumulative pan evaporation and sensational etc.
Critical Period for Irrigation:
Assured supply of water is required at certain stages of plant growth, which are referred to
as critical period for crops. If water is not available at critical stages, yield is greatly reduced. For
herbaceous crops, germination is critical stage. Depending upon the crop, critical stages vary
such as head development for cole crops, pod development for beans, tuberizationfro potato,
bulb development for onion and garlic, flower development for flower crops, fruit setting and
development for fruit crops.
ACTIVITY/EXERCISE
1. Visit any orchard/vegetable farm of your locality and find out, which system of
irrigation is practiced, predominantly.
2. Prepare a plan for model unit of drip irrigation system along with fertigation unit for
one hectare farm area.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) Define irrigation? Write the important functions of water in plants.
2) Enlist the various systems of irrigation. Discuss the most useful system suitable for
areas with water scarcity.
3) Differentiate between flood and furrow systems of irrigation?
86
FILL IN THE BLANKS
1. Water requirement of a plant depends on its……………..and ……………..
2. Water serves as the medium in which plants absorb………………..from the soil.
3. In …………..system of irrigation, the wastage of water is more and this also leads to
excessive weed growth.
4. ……………….system of irrigation is suitable for young fruit plants below 1- 2 years

of age.
5. Application of liquid fertilizer to the root system is possible through……….. system

of irrigation

Bal, J.S. (2007). Fruit growing Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana, India.

Ludhiana, India.,
http://www.angrau.ac.in
https://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu
87
CHAPTER 8
Weed Management in
Horticultural Crops
OBJECTIVES
• Understand the principles of weed management and classification of weeds.
• Describe the different weed control methods.
• Select the suitable method of weed management for different horticultural crops.
• Plan various cultural practices for weed management in different crops.
• Decide on the most appropriate weed management system for a given situation.
INTRODUCTION
Weeds are the most costly category of horticultural pests, causing more yield losses and
added labor costs than either insect pests or crop diseases. In particular, weeds are a constant
fact of life in annual row crops, vegetables, and other horticultural crops.
Now certain questions may be arising in your mind. What is weed? How will we identify
the weeds? What will happen if weeds are allowed to grow? How can we control weeds? You
can face several questions of this category.
Horticultural crops are high value crops and the challenge of weed management is one of
the important factors to successfully grow them. Weeds compete with crops for light, nutrients
and water, resulting in stressed plants, poor fruit quality and yield. Stressed crops are also more
susceptible to disease and insect problems, while excessive weed growth itself creates higher
humidity in the foliage enhancing disease spread and inviting unwanted insects.
In fruit crops, weed pressure must be addressed throughout the life of the planting. When
compared to annual crops, perennial culture is a greater challenge, as fall, spring, summer and
winter weeds need to be managed efficiently. Understanding seasonal weed thresholds and
integrating cultural and chemical management becomes even more important in year-round
culture. However, because of different cultural requirements, each crop should be considered
individually. In this chapter, we will study about weeds, their characteristics and harmful effects,
classification of weeds and various methods of weed control.
In India, commercial use of herbicides came in 1980. During the period, the herbicides
registered a significant growth than insecticides and fungicides. From a mere 2 per cent share of
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the totalpesticide consumption in the seventies in India, herbicides now account for about 11
per cent ofthe pesticides market. While this is a very encouraging development, the herbicide
consumptionin our country is still much less than that in developed countries, where herbicides
constitute 40-50 per cent of the total pesticide consumption.
WHAT IS WEED?
Weeds are unwanted and undesirable plants which interfere with the utilization of land
and water resources and thus adversely affect human welfare. They can also be referred as plants
out of place.
Weeds compete with the beneficial and desired vegetation in crop lands, forests, aquatic
systems etc. and pose great problem in non-cropped areas like industrial sites, road/rail lines,
air fields, landscape plantings, water tanks and water ways etc.,
In the world there are 30,000 weed species, out of these

18,000 sps cause damage to the crops. JethroTullfirst
coined the term weed in 1931 in the book “Horse
Hoeing Husbandry”
Characteristics of weeds
• Weeds are prolific with abundant seed production potentialities e.g. Chenopodium
spp., Amaranthus spp., etc.
• They are persistent and resistant to their control and eradication.
• Weed seeds remain dormant and viable for very long periods e.g. Chenopodium spp.
• Some weeds have very deep root system. They store foods in their rhizomes and
reappear every year e.g. Saccharum spp., Cyperus spp.
• Weeds are hardy and can resist any adverse climatic, disease and soil conditions.
They result ina severe crop-weed competition.
• Some of the weeds propagate vegetatively e.g. Cynodon dactylon.
• Some weed seeds are similar to crop seeds, therefore their separation becomes difficult.
Harmful effects of weeds

• Weeds compete with crop plants for water, space, light and mineral nutrients.
• Weeds reduce the quantity and quality of farm produce.
• Weeds impair the quantity and quality of animal products e g. thorny weeds with
hooks entangle with wool of sheep which graze in pastures.
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• Weeds harbour insect pests and diseases thus they act as reservoir of infection for
cultivated crop plants.
• Weeds increase cost of labour and equipments which ultimately increase the cost of
cultivation of crops.
• Weeds reduce the efficiency of farm equipments.
• Presence of some weeds like Saccharum spp. causes depreciation of land value.
• Some weeds are poisonous and cause health hazards to human beings and animals,
for example, Parthanium spp.
Aquatic weeds are very harmful because:
• They impede water flow in canal, channels, rivers, etc.
• They impede drainage
• They are menace to fisheries and other aquatic animals.
• They prevent or spoil the recreational value of the water bodies.
• They pose pollution problem in water.
CLASSIFICATION OF WEEDS
Weeds may be classified in many ways. Some of the classifications are mentioned below:
A. Classification according to life cycle

• Annual weeds (a) Kharif (rainy season) weeds (b) Rabi (winter season) weeds
• Biennial weeds
• Perennial weeds
I. Annual weeds
Kharif annuals: These annuals generally appear with the onset of monsoon and the life
cycle is completed within the rainy season. Few examples are : Echinochloa colonum, Echinochloa
crusgalli, Setaria glauca, Digitaria sanguinalis, etc.
Rabi annuals: These annuals start growing up with lowering of temperature in winter and
coincide with the life cycle of the rabi crops. These weeds complete their life cycle before the
summer season starts. Examples are Phalaris minor, Avena fatua, Chenopodium album, Aesphodelus
tenuifolius, etc.
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In addition to these annuals, there are few plants which complete their life cycle in 2 to 4
weeks. Such annuals are known as short lived annuals e.g. Phyllanthus niruri (Hazardana)
II. Biennial weeds
The weeds which complete their life cycle in two years are called biennials. In first year
they complete their vegetative growth and store food while in the second year their reproductive
growth or seed formation is completed followed by the death of the plant e.g. Daucus spp.
III Perennials weeds
These are the weeds which complete their life cycle within 3 or more than 3 years. They are
capable of growing/propagating by means of seeds, through under groundstolons, roots
andsuckers e.g. Cynodon dactylon, Saccharum spontaneum, etc.
B. Classification according to plant family
Graminae: Cynodon dactylon, Saccharum spontaneum, Echinochloa crusgalli, Phalaris minor, Avena
fatua ,etc.
Solanaceae: Solarium nigrum, Solanum xanthocarpum, etc.
Eupkorbiaceae: Euphorbia hirta, Phyllanthus niruri, etc.
Liliaceae: Aesphodelus tenuifolius
Chenopodiaceae: Chenopodium album
Convolvulaceae: Convolvulus arvensis, Ipomoea spp.
C. Classification according to cotyledon characteristics
With the discovery of 2,4-D as selective translocated herbicide in 1940's, led to a strong
recognition of two great classes, namely, the monocot and the dicot weeds. In general, monocot
weeds were found to be resistant to 2,4-Dwhile dicot weeds were susceptible to it. The dicot
weeds are often referred to as broad leaf weeds and monocot weeds as narrow leaf or grassy weeds.
The exception to this are sedges and cattails which although have narrow leaf yet are not grassy
weeds.
Grasses Sedges
Stem is hollow except at nodes Stem Angular & solid
Ligulate Does not posses ligules
Alternate or opposite leaves Leaves in whorls around the stem
Eg, Digitaria, Cynadon Cyprus, Scirpus
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Character Monocots Dicotds
Leaves Narrow and upright Broad & horizontal
Venation Parallel Reticulate
Retention of herbicide Less More
root system Adventitious Tap root
Growing point Open Open
Cambium (conductive tissue) Scatered Intact
Examples Grasses or Narrow Amaranthus spp., Chenopodium album,
leaved weeds Convolvulus arvensis, Phyllanthusniruri,
Partheniumhysterophorus, Xanthium strumarium
D. Classification according to habitat
Depending upon the place of their occurrence, weeds can be classified as:
• Crop land weeds
• Fallow land weeds
• Grassland, pasture or rangeland weeds
• Non-cropped land weeds
• Aquatic weeds
• Forest and woodland weeds
• Lawn and garden weeds
• Orchard and vineyard weeds, and
• Plantation weeds.
This classification is important because for each situation different weeds control measures
are usually employed even though the target weed species may be the same.
E. Classification according to their seriousness as a pest
Common weeds: Those weeds which can be controlled by ordinary good farm weed
controlpractices. These are mostly annuals and biennials.
Noxious weeds: Those weeds which are difficult to control because of an extensive
perennialroot system or because of other characteristics that make them persistent.
The noxious weeds are again divided into two categories:
Prohibited noxious weeds : Circium arvensis (Canada thistle), Agropyron repens
(Quack grass), Sorghum halepense (Johnson grass).
Restricted noxious weeds : Cuscuta spp. (Dodder), Convolvulus arvensis (Field
92
bindweed), Allium vineale (Field garlic), Cynodon dactylon (Bermuda grass).
List of common weeds in Horticultural crops:
Echinochloa colonum,Cyperus esculentus, Cyperus rotundus, Digitaria sanguinalis, Eleusine

indica,Cynodon dactylon, Amaranthus viridis, Phyllanthus niruri
Ageratum conyzoides, Setaria glauca, Phalaris minor, Avena fatua, Poa annua
Vicia sativa, Medicago denticulate, Ageratum conyzoides, Lantana camara
Imperata cylindrical, Rosa moschata, Berberis, Rubus spp.
Sorghum halepense Lantana Convolvulus arvensis

Cyperusrotundus
CRITICAL PERIOD OF WEED CONTROL
This period has been defined as an interval in the life cycle of the crop when it must be kept
weed - free to prevent yield loss. The crop yield level obtained by weeding during this period is
almost similar to that obtained by the full seasons weed free conditions. Horticulture crops are
very sensitive to weed competition, and need to be kept weed-free, from planting, emergence or
bud break, until the end of their critical weed -free period. For example, the critical weed free
period for bearing apple plants is bud break until 30 days after bloom while in potatoes; it is 4
weeks after planting. If the crop is kept weed-free for the critical period, generally no yield
reduction would result. Again, weeds emerging after the critical weed-free period will not affect
yield, but control efforts after this time may make harvest more efficient, or reduce weed problems
in subsequent years in perennial crops.
WEED MANAGEMENT
Weed control and weed management are the two terms used in weed science. Weed control
is the process of limiting infestation of the weed plant so that crops can be grown profitably.
Weed management includes prevention, eradication and control by regulated use, restricting
invasion, suppression of growth, prevention of seed production and complete destruction. Thus
93
weed control is one of the aspects of weed management. The various methods of weed control
employed in horticultural crops are described as under:
A. Preventive methods
Prevention of introduction and spread of the weeds in an entirely new locality is termed as
preventive method. For the matter, it is essential to know that how weed disseminates. Generally,
weed spread through the seeds of previous crop, irrigation water, implements and animals etc.
If these are taken into account, there will be a check on the spread of the weed. By taking following
measures, weed spread can be prevented from entering into a new locality:
1. Sowing of weed-free clean seed. The seeds, contaminated with weed seed, are a good
source of spread of the weed. It becomes hard to separate the weed-seed from the crop-seed. For
example, cruciferous crops like radish, cauliflower, cabbage, broccoli etc. are even well mixed
with the seeds of satyanashi(Argemone maxicana). Such impure seeds should be discarded for
use. Seed act is in force which by imposing laws, help regulates the quality of seed.
2. Use of clean implements. While operating agricultural implement like cultivator, harrow,
seed drill etc. in weed infested field, care must be taken that multiplication parts of weeds like
rhizome, bulb, tubers, stem etc. are not being carried along. The agricultural implements should
be cleaned properly.
3. Removal of weed along canal and irrigation channel. Weed seeds get transported through
water and reach the field. Removal of weed growing along the sides of canal or irrigation channel
is necessary.
4. Care in transplanting of seedlings/plantlets. Many horticultural plants like all transplanted

vegetables, flowers, and fruits are transplanted in the field with soil attached to their roots.
Infestation of soil with weed may contaminate a new field.
5. Use of well rotten manure. Weed seeds have good viability. The seeds of hirankhuri
(Convolvulus arvensis) remain viable for as long as 50 years. Doob (Cynodon dactylon) and motha
(Cyperus rotundus) seeds viability last for two and five years respectively. For making manure,
the cowdung is heaped. If the heaping period is short, the seeds do not lose its viability and
grow in the field wherever manure is applied. Hence, only well-rotten manure should be
used.
6. Avoiding passing of cattle from weed infested area. Grazing in weed infested field followed
by allowing passage of cattle in new field, favours dissemination of weed seeds. The weed-seed
after passing through alimentary canal of the animal, comes out through dung where it gives
rise to weed. Some weed seeds also stick with the legs and skins of the animals and get transported
to some other place where they germinate and grow as weed.
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7. Crop management practices : All such practices which favour the growth of main crop
only disfavour the growth of weed. The following management practices have smothering effect
on weed and must find place in crop land to prevent weed spread:
z Proper crop rotation prevents establishment of weeds.
z Higher plant population per unit area smother the growth of weed.
z Proper placement of fertilizer in the root zone of the seed favours the growth of crop.
The weeds deprive of nutrients and crop growth is restricted.
z Fast and vigorous growing varieties by virtue of their larger leaf canopy cause
smothering effect on the growth of weed. Such crops should receive preference to
prevent spread of the weed.
8. Enforcement of weed laws. In India, many noxious weeds grow in the fields and pose
great economic and health hazards. Noxious weeds are those perennial weeds which are
reproduced by seeds, stem, roots and other reproductive parts as well and are very difficult to
control. Parthenium hysterophorus, Striga sp., Cyperus rotundus, Cynodon dactylon etc. are noxious
weeds that grow in many horticultural crops. In India, no weed laws are in force except in
Karnataka where Parthenium has been declared as a noxious weed. Weed laws help the farmers
to avoid the use of mislabelled or contaminated seeds and also help in legally prohibiting weed
from entering into the country.
9. Quarantine laws. Quarantine laws impose legal restrictions on the movement of

agricultural materials. Had there been adequate quarantine laws, the Parthenium and Argemone
which widely grow in vegetable and flower fields may not have been introduced in our country.
Creating isolation between widely weeds infested area and new area is essential by enforcing
and observing quarantine properly.
10. Use of pre-emergence herbicides. Herbicides which are used before the emergence of
weeds either before or after planting of crop, is a good preventive measure for preventing weed
infestation. Such herbicides either inhibit seed germination or kill young seedlings before they
get established.
B. Curative methods
1. Eradication of weeds
This method implies complete destruction of weeds. Weed eradication is achieved by killing
existing plants and destroying the viability of all organs of multiplication. This may be desirable
and economical only when the weed is extremely noxious and persistent and makes the cultivation
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difficult or precludes bringing new area under cultivation. Eradication is not possible in one
season or year as some weed seeds may have viability for as long as 50 years.
The underground parts can be destroyed by tillage or with soil sterilants. A soil sterilant,
however, renders the soil incapable to support plant growth for several years.
When weeds are widespread and not feasible to eliminate, control measure would be more
practicable and should be given preference.
2. Control of weeds
Weed control refers to minimizing the infestation of weed so that the crop can be cultivated
successfully. The various methods of controlling weeds are as under:
(a) Mechanical/Physical method
In this method, weed control is done using tillage, hoeing, hand weeding, digging, cheering,
mowing, burning, flooding, mulching etc.
(i) Tillage: It removes the weed from the soil. It causes injury to root and pruning to shoot
of weed. The weeds in tilled field lose their regenerative capacity. Weeds are also get buried at
the time of tillage. The effectivity of tillage in controlling weed depends upon a number of
factors. A field infested with deep rooted perennial grasses like thatchgrass(Imperata cylindrica),
motha (Cyperus rotundus), quackgrass (Agropyron repens) having sufficient food reserve in their
underground rhizomes and tubers, needs more cultivation with deeper ploughing than a newly
infested field with annuals.
(i) Hoeing : Itis widely used weeding tool for centuries. Hoe is quite effective in controlling
weed in row crop. It is very useful for annual and biennial weeds. In case of perennials, it destroys
the aerial growth. The underground growth is not much affected.
(ii) Hand weeding : It is done by pulling out weeds from the field. Pulling out is done with
the help of khurpi. Hand weeding is effective against annuals and biennials. The perennial weeds
along with underground portion are not pulled out completely and hence they regenerate in the
field. In fields which cannot be sprayed with weed controlling chemicals, can be made weed free
using hand weeding.
(iii) Digging : Itis practised especially for the removal of shrubby and stubby woody
perennials. Prosopis juliflora (Kikar), Calotropis gigantia (Aak or Madar), Zizyphus nummularia and Z.
rotundifolia (Jharber) etc. which grow in horticultural crops in arid regions are removed by digging
pit. This is ofcourse, costly and time consuming but very useful technique for the removal of
very hard perennial woody weeds.
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(iv) Cheering : Itis done using cheer hoe similar to a spade with long handle. It cuts and
scraps the above-ground weed growth. As the underground part of the weed is left undamaged,
cheering is not useful in perennial crops which are regenerated by roots, tubers, rhizome etc.
Cheering is widely used in India in plantation crops, particularly in tea.
(v) Mowing : Itis practised to keep the growth of weed under check especially in lawn. The
process of mowing is achieved by mower machine and hand blade havinglong cutting edge of
about 1 metre. This method is successful only in case of short weeds growing close to the ground.
(vi) Burning : Itis very powerful technique of weed control in uncultivated field. It destroys
aerial portion of the weed directly through flame of the fire and underground portion through
the heat effect.
(vii) Mulching : It is getting popularity in controlling weed in a variety of horticultural

crops. It excludes light from photosynthetic portion and. thus, inhibits the top growth of weeds.
Mulching is very effective against annual crops. The mulches of straw, saw dust, paddy husk,
paper, plastic etc. are common in use. The mulches should be about 10 to 15 cm thick for better
efficacy.
Materials such as black polyethylene have been used for weed control in a range of crops.
Plastic mulches have been developed that filter out photo synthetically active radiation, but let
through infrared light to warm the soil. These infrared transmitting mulches have been shown to
be effective to control weeds
(b) Cultural methods
In this method, attempt is made to control weed by practising agronomic practices. Crop
and other practices done to grow the crop are modified in a manner so as to have minimum
growth of weeds. The following cultural methods are practised to control weeds:
(i) Selection of crop
z Selection of crop should be such that it may grow fast leaving weed behind.
z The crop should absorb nutrients from lower as well as upper stratum of soil.
z It should have less requirement of nutrients.
z Water requirement should be minimum.
z The crop duration should be less.
z The crop should have dense canopy so that it may smother weed.
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(ii) Crop rotation : Crop rotation involves alternating different crops in a systematic sequence
on the same land. It is an important strategy for developing a sound long term weed control
program. Weeds tend to thrive with crops of similar growth requirements as their own and
cultural practices designed to contribute to the crop may also benefit the growth and
development of weeds. Monoculture, that is growing the same crop in the same field year
after year, results in a build-up of weed species that are adapted to the growing conditions of
the crop. When diverse crops are used in a rotation, weed germination and growth cycles are
disrupted by variations in cultural practices associated with each crop (tillage, planting dates,
crop competition, etc).
Within a rotation, crop choice will determine both the current and the potential future weed
problems that a grower will face. Traditionally, potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) was included in
the rotation to reduce weed problems before a less competitive crop was grown. Crop choice is
complicated further by the need to consider soil fertility levels within the cropping sequence
and to include fertility building periods in the rotation. Variations in crop and weed responses
to soil nutrient levels can also play an important part in weed management. The inclusion of a
fallow period in the rotation is known to reduce perennial weeds. It is best to alternate legumes
with grasses, spring planted crops with fall planted crops, row crops with close planted crops
and heavy feeders with light feeders.
(iii) Use of compost or manure : Decomposition of compost or manure starts after addition in the
soil. While decomposition, organic acids like uric acid is produced. Such produce prevents the
growth of weed.
(iv) Allowing the land to fallow : In the fallow land the weed is deprived from moisture and
nutrients. In the absence of moisture these weeds fail to grow. Now-a-days, with intensive
cultivation especially in vegetables, it becomes very hard to leave the field fallow. Continuous
cropping favours the growth of weed.
(v) Water management
Effective water management is a key to control weeds in horticultural crops. There are a
number of ways that careful irrigation management can help you reduce weed pressure on your
crops:
Pre-germination of weeds : In pre-germination irrigation or rainfall germinates weed seeds

just before the cash crop is planted. The newly germinated weeds can be killed by light cultivation
or flaming. Pre-germination should occur as close a possible to the date of planting to ensure
that changes in weather conditions do not have an opportunity to change the spectrum of weeds
(cool vs. warm season) in the field.
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Planting to moisture is similar to pre-germination irrigation. After weeds are killed by
cultivation, the top 2 to 3 inches of soil are allowed to dry and form dust mulch. At planting, the
dust mulch is pushed away and large-seeded vegetables such as corn or beans can be planted
into the zone of soil moisture. These seeds can germinate, grow, and provide partial shading of
the soil surface without supplemental irrigations that would otherwise provide for an early
flush of weeds.
Drip irrigation can provide moisture to the crop and minimize the amount of moisture that
is available to weeds closer to the surface. If properly managed, this technique can provide
significant weed control during dry period.
(vi) Sowing time : Later sown crop grows slowly and resumes less growth due to limited
availability of growth period. Such types of growth allow the weed to grow vigorously leaving
sufficient space and light for weed.
(vii) Orientation of sowing/transplanting : Sowing or transplanting should be done in such a

manner that there may be maximum shade in the field. In shade, weeds fail to grow for want of
photosynthesis.
(c) Chemical methods
In this method, chemicals are used for weed

The discovery of 2, 4-D in the early
control. The chemicals employed for weed control are
1940’s has revolutionized the chemical
commonly referred to as weedicides or herbicides.
method of weed control. Marth and
Chemical weed control functions on the basis of the
Mitchell of U.S.A. in 1944 were the first
fact that certain chemicals are capable of killing weeds
workers to introduce it as a herbicide.
without any significant injury to the crops.
A large number of
herbicides are now available z Herbicides applied anytime before the weed seedlings
emerge through the soil surface are known as
commercially to tackle various
pre-emergence herbicides. For example, Simazine.
weed problems. A herbicide
may be selective or non- z Herbicides applied after the crop seedlings (or weed
seedlings) have emerged through the soil surface are
selective. A selective herbicide
known as post-emergence herbicides. For example,
kills a particular type of weed or
2,4-DB, bromoxynil.
plant. For example, 2,4-D
(selectively toxic to broadleaf z Herbicides that are applied before planting the crop -
typically from several days to just before planting are known
weeds). A non-selective
as pre-plant herbicides. For example, EPTC, Glyphosate
herbicide (for example, Paraquat,
Glyphosate) kills the whole
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vegetation on which it is applied. Nonselective Herbicides (also known as Broad spectrum) are
formulated to control both broadleaf and grass weeds. According to the type of action, herbicides
may be classified as contact or translocated. The contact herbicide kills the plant parts where it
comes in contact (for example, Simazine), whereas the translocated (Systemic) herbicide goes
into the plant system and affects the whole plant (for example, Glyphosate). Use contact herbicides
on annual weeds while systemic herbicides are more effective on perennial weeds than contact
herbicides
The chemical weed control offers following advantages :

z In crop rows, where harrowing or cultivation is impossible, herbicides can be easily
applied to control weeds.
z Herbicides give quick response in terms of checking the growth of weed and by that
time crop gets an escape and grow.
z Hand weeding injures the root system of crop also and thus damages the crop.
z Herbicides reduce the need of preplanting tillage. In case of minimum tillage,
herbicides are very much successful.
z The use of herbicides reduces the requirement of manual labour.
Control measures of weeds infesting fruit, vegetable and flower crops are given in table below:
Crop Recommended herbicide Dose (kg/ha)

Mango Diuron or 2.25
Atrazine or 4.00
Oxyfluorfen 4.00
Paraquat 12.00
Glyphosate 6.00
Banana Diuron or 2.25
Simazine or 4.00
Oxyfluorfen 4.00
Paraquat or 12.00
Glyphosate 6.00
Apple Atrazine or 5.00
Simazine or 5.00
Diuron 5.00
Paraquat 3.00
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Crop Recommended herbicide Dose (kg/ha)
Tomato Alachlor 3.00

Fluchloralin 3.00
Brinjal Fluchloralin 1.50
Onion Fluchloralin 2.00
Potato Metribuzin 1.00
Rose Diuron or 1.20
Oxyfluorfen or 1.00
Atrazine 3.00
Gladiolus Fluchloralin 2.00
(d) Biological methods
Reduction in infestation of weeds by direct or indirect actions of biological entities such as

plants, parasites, predators and pathogens is covered under these methods.
(i) Plants as bio-agents of weed control : The differential growth habits, adaptiveness and
competitiveness of the plant over weed, forms the basis of weed control by growing a particular
crop. Crops which grow vigorously have an advantage over slow growing ones which are sensitive
to weed. These competitive crops, also known as smothering crops, are very effective in weed
control. Growing of corn and ginger either alone or in combination, has smothering effect on the
growth of weed. They grow more rapidly and fill inter-row space with their canopy faster than
the weed. This gives smothering effect on the weed growth.
(ii) Parasites, predators and pathogens : In this method, the natural enemies of plants like
insects and disease causing organisms are used. Insects kill the weed by exhausting the plant
food reserves and through destruction of photosynthetic parts.
Of the wide range of enemies, insects have been proved effective. Parasites like viruses,
higher plants and fungi that develop only on live plants are also potent agents of weed control.
Lantana camera weed has been controlled successfully by the larvae of Crocidosema lantana-
the totricid moth, which bores into flower-stem; Agromyza lantanae, the seed fly which eats flower
and fruit and Thecla echion which destroys flower. Cuscuta spp. (dodder) which grows on old fruit
plants is controlled successfully by insect Melanagromyza cuscutae and Smicronyx cuscutae. Nutgrass
or Motha (Cyperus rotundus), grows in almost all horticultural crops is controlled by insect Bactra
vermosana.
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The larvae of insect Diacrisia obliqua feed voraciously on Parthenium hysterophorus and destroys
the whole plant.
Pathogenic organisms damage the host plants through enzymatic degradation of cell
constituents, production of toxins, disturbance of hormone system, obstruction in translocation
of food and minerals and malfunctioning of physiological processes. As a result plants die.
The fungi Alternaria macrospora and Puccinia heterospora control anode (Anoda cristata), a weed
of malvaceae family. The fungi cause significant reduction in plant height, seed pod per plant,
seed per pod and seed per plant. Fungus Cercospora roclmanii is effective against water hyacinth
(Eichhornia crassipes) a problematic aquatic weed for waternut or singhara and lotus.
ACTIVITY/EXERCISE
1. Know the weeds growing on the farms in your locality and prepare a herbarium by
collecting samples of different weeds of your area.
2. Summarize the impact of common weeds growing in orchard, vegetable farm and
wastelands.
3. Identify possible and potential approaches to practical weed management in

predominant horticultural crops of your area.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) Define weed. What are the characteristics of weeds?
2) What is critical period of weed control? List five commonly found weeds in
horticultural crops.
3) Differentiate between the followings:
a. Annual and biennial weeds
b. Common and noxious weeds
c. Selective and non-selective herbicides
d. Contact and Tran located herbicides
e. Monocot and dicot weeds
4) Write the various methods of weed control and discuss in brief the chemical method
of weed control in horticultural crops.
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5) Write short notes on the following
a. Tillage
b. Crop Rotation
c. Biological method of weed control
d. Harmful effects of weeds
e. Water management to control weeds in horticultural crops.
FILL IN THE BLANKS

1. Weeds are ……………. and ……………………..to their control and eradication.
2. The weeds which complete their life cycle within 3 or more than 3 years are known
as………………………..
3. Weeds compete with crop plants for…………., ……………… and ………………...
4. A …………………..herbicide kills a particular type of weed or plant.
5. A herbicide which goes into the plant system and affects the whole plant referred to
as…………………………..

Chadha, K.L. 2001. Handbook of Horticulture. Indian Council of Agricultural Research. New
Delhi.
Chattopadhyay, T.K. 1999. A Text Book of Pomology. Vol. I-IV. Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana.
Kunte, Y.N., Kawthalkar, M.P.andYawalkar, K.S. 2005. Principles of Horticulture and Fruit
Growing. Agri-Horticultural Publishing House, Nagpur.
http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/org_farm/orgfarm_weed%20mgt.html
http://www.carolinafarmstewards.org/
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CHAPTER 9
Major Pest and Disease Management in

Horticultural Crops
OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit the students will be able to:
• Explain the principle of pest management in horticultural crops.
• Explain the importance of various approaches in managing disease and pest incidence.
• Understand the importance of integrated approach of disease/pest management.
INTRODUCTION
Before we delve into the management of major pests and diseases of horticultural crops,
we should be aware of what a pest is? The term "plant pest" means any living stage of organisms
such as non-human animal (rodent), fungi, bacteria, virus, nematode, any infectious agent
(phytoplasma) etc. which can directly or indirectly injure, cause damage to, or cause disease in
any plant or plant product. Plant diseases and pests have caused severe losses to horticultural
production in several ways. There are several pests and diseases, which cause small losses
annually throughout the world; however, collectively constitute sizable losses to growers; besides,
reducing the aesthetic values of landscape plants and home gardens.
Management of major diseases and pests
Diseases and pests can damage horticultural crops from the time seeds/saplings are planted
until after the crops are harvested, and gardeners/growers who fail to follow good growing
practices, which minimize damage from diseases and pests in their gardens/orchard may end
up incurring significant losses. The goal of plant disease and pests management is to reduce the
economic and aesthetic losses caused by plant diseases and pests.
Many strategies used in disease and pests management can be grouped under two very
broad principles of action, prevention and treatment or cure. The first principle (prevention)
includes management tactics applied before infection/ infestation (i.e., the plant is protected
from disease/pests), the second principle (therapy or curative action) functions with any measure
applied after the plant is infected/infested (i.e., the plant is treated for the disease/pest attack).
An example of the first principle is enforcement of quarantines to prevent introduction of a
disease/pest agent into a region where it does not occur. For instance Ooty (T.N.) has quarantine
measures in operation for golden nematode of potato. Similarly, the Ladakh region of J&K had
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regulations for quarantine of codling moth of apricot. This implies that potato or apricot from
these areas cannot be taken to other areas so as to check the spread of these pests from such areas
to other parts of the country.
The second principle is illustrated by heat or chemical treatment of vegetative material

such as bulbs, corms, and woody cuttings to eliminate fungi, bacteria, nematodes or viruses,
which are established within the plant material. Chemotherapy is the application of chemicals to
an infested or diseased plant that stops (i.e., eradicates) the infection/infestation. For example,
for elimination of grape fan leaf virus from grapes, chemical compound 'virazole' is employed.
Likewise, for elimination of apple mosaic virus from shoot tip, plants are grown at 38 0C for 20
or more days.
There are four general pest management principles viz., exclusion, eradication, protection
and resistance.
Exclusion
This principle is defined as any measure that prevents the introduction of a disease-causing
agent (pathogen) or pests into a region, farm, or planting. The basic strategy assumes that most
pests can travel only short distances without the aid of some other agent such as humans or
other vector, and that natural barriers like oceans, deserts, and mountains create obstacles to
their natural spread. In many cases pest are moved with their host plants or even on non-host
material such as soil, packing material or shipping containers.
Exclusion may be accomplished by something as simple as cleaning farming equipment to

remove contaminated debris and soil that can harbor pathogens/insect-pests such as Verticillium,
nematodes or other soil-borne organisms and prevent their introduction into non-infested fields.
Eradication
This principle emphasises at eliminating a pathogen after it is introduced into an area but
before it has become well established or widely spread. It can be applied to individual plants,
seed lots, fields or regions but generally is not effective over large geographic areas. Two large
attempts at pathogen eradication, in the history of pest eradication, in the United States were the
golden nematode (Globodera rostochiensis) and the citrus canker (caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis
pv. citri and pv. aurantifolii) programs.
Eradication can also be on a more modest scale such as the removal of apple or pear branches
infected by the fire blight bacterium (Erwinia amylovora) or pruning to remove cankers (caused
by Coneothecium chomatosporus) on apples. Or, it can be the sorting and removal of diseased
105
o
flower bulbs, corms or rhizomes. Hot water treatment of gladiolus corm 50 C for 30 minutes
before planting is followed to eliminate fungi.
Similarly, for export of fruits such as papaya, mango, mangosteen, and litchi to Japan for
consumption purposes the fruit is checked for quarantine pests such as fruit fly, as per Plant
Quarantine Law of Japan. As per this law, any fruit that has undergone the process of "vapor
heat treatment" (VHT) is eligible for import in Japan, as this process sterilises the pests without
the use of chemicals in an environmental friendly way. VHT is a non-chemical process of pest
management and control, which utilizes heat and humidity to control and fully eliminate pest
growth.
Eradication may also be accomplished by destroying weeds, which are reservoirs of various
insects, pathogens or their vectors. Elimination of potato cull piles is an effective method of
eradicating overwintering inoculum of the late blight pathogen. Similarly, destruction of Tinospora
weed, an alternative host of fruit sucking moth, is recommended to contain the pest.
Soil fumigation has been a widely used eradication strategy. This technology involves
introducing gas-forming chemicals such as carbon disulfide, methyl bromide, or chloropicrin
into soil to kill target pathogens. However, undesirable side effects such as killing beneficial
organisms, contamination of groundwater, and toxicity of these chemicals may also occur. Volatile
fumigants like methyl bromide are incorporated into soil and covered with a plastic film. Likewise,
formaldehyde is also mixed in soil to disinfect it from pathogens.
Crop rotation is a frequently used strategy to reduce the quantity of a pathogen, usually
soil-borne organisms, in a cropping area.
Burning is another effective means of eradicating pathogens e.g. flaming potato stems prior
to harvest may prevent tuber infection by the late blight pathogen. However, burning agricultural
fields is controversial because the smoke creates human health and safety and environmental
concerns.
Protection
This principle depends on establishing a barrier between the pathogen and the host plant
or the susceptible part of the host plant. It is usually thought of as a chemical barrier, e.g., a
fungicide (chemicals used to kill fungi; cide=kill, which has been derived from Latin caedere i.e.
to kill), bactericide (chemical for killing bacteria), insecticide (chemical for killing insects) or
nematicide (chemical for killing nematodes), but it can also be a physical, spatial, or temporal
barrier. For example, bananas are covered with plastic sleeves as soon as the fruit are set) to
protect the fruit from various pests including fruit decay fungi. Similarly, bagging of pomegranate
fruits with butter paper bag is recommended against anar butterfly.
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Protection often involves some cultural practice, which modifies the environment, such as
tillage to bury pest-infested plant residues, drainage, irrigation, or altering soil pH; besides,
rotation to non-susceptible crops, selecting pathogen-free planting stocks, orientation of plantings
to improve exposure to sun and air currents, adequate nutrition, proper cultivation to improve
root growth and avoid plant injury, and sanitation procedures to eliminate sources of inoculum.
It may also involve changing date or depth of seeding, plant spacing, pruning and thinning, or
other practices, which allow plants to escape infection/infestation or reduce severity of incidence.
Raising planting beds to assure good soil water drainage is an example of cultural management
of plant diseases such as root and stem rots. A range of fungicides, bactericides, insecticides etc.
are available in the market for the management of pest incidence.
Biological control (also known as bio-control) involves the use of one living organism to
control another, and this management technology has received much attention in recent times.
The examples of biological control in the management of insect-pests are use of Trichogramma
chilonis against fruit borer in pomegranate; Chrysoperla against aphid, thrips and mites; and
baculoviruses against Helicoverpa and Cydia pomonella. Similarly, biological control of pathogen
Erwinia carotovora by several plant-growth promoting organisms like Pseudomonas fluorescence is
a usual practice. Another instance is management of soil borne pathogens e.g. Actinomycetes
(Streptomyces lydicus) reduced root and seed rot severity in peas and resulted in significantly
higher final emergence and significantly lower final disease in spinach challenged by Pythium
and Fusarium (soil-borne fungi).
Resistance
Use of disease or pest -resistant plants is the ideal method to manage plant diseases and
pests problems. Resistant plants are usually derived by standard breeding procedures of selection
and/or hybridization. For instance, pomegranate varieties Jyoti and BedanaBosec are resistant
to the attack of fruit borer. Recently, resistant plants have been developed through the use of
genetic engineering (e.g., resistance to the Papaya ringspot virus). Likewise, genes from the
bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis have been inserted into plants to protect against insect attacks.
Plants with these inserted genes are called genetically-modified organisms (GMOs).
Integrated disease management
Integrated pest management (IPM) is a broad based approach, which integrates a range of
practices for economic control of pests. In most cases IPM consists of timely application of a
combination of strategies. These may include site selection and preparation, utilizing resistant
cultivars, altering planting practices, modifying the environment by drainage, irrigation, pruning,
thinning, shading, etc., and applying pesticides, as per requirement. For example, IPM for mango
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hopper involves keeping the orchards clean, avoiding overcrowding of trees and water logging
to keep the pest at bay and three applications of carbaryl 0.1 % or phosalone 0.05 % at fortnightly
interval, or, two sprays of phosphomidon or monocrotophos @ 0.03% at 13 to 18 days interval at
flowering and 2 - 3 sprays in June - July. Similarly, IPM of tomato fruit borer (Helicoverpa armigera)
involves planting marigold as trap crop, sprays of baculovirus, Ha NPV @ 250 LE /ha, mechanical
collection and destruction of bored fruit at periodic intervals (3-4 times), chemical spray of
Indoxacarb 14.5 SC @ 0.5 ml/l or Thiodicarb 75 WP @ 1g/l. The integrated approach for the
management of Panama wilt of banana caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. Cubense is controlled
by uprooting and burning of affected plants, use of disease-free planting material and resistant/
tolerant cultivar such as 'Gold Finger' and 'Mutiara', crop rotation with paddy followed by banana
for 3-5 years once or twice, use of quick lime near the base of the plant and soaking with
water and avoiding sunflower or sugarcane in crop rotation, dipping of suckers in
Carbendazim (10g/10 litres of water) are recommended. Application of bioagents, such as,
Trichoderma viride or Pseudomonas fluorescence in the soil has also been effective in containing this
disease.
ACTIVITY
1. Visit orchards/vegetable farm/ gardens of your area and find out the major diseases
and pests of important horticultural crops.
2. Try to collect information on prevalent management practices being followed in your

area in different horticultural crops for the control of pests.
3. Visit a Biocontrol Laboratory of AgriculturalUniversity or Research Institution and

see how biocontrol agent, Trichogramma/Trichodermais being multiplied and stored
under laboratory conditions.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) What do you understand by term 'pest'? Cite some examples of pests in horticultural
crops.
2) Enlist some important biological agents.
3) Differentiate between eradication and exclusion for pest management.
4) What does VHT means? How it helps in killing pests of fruits?
5) Discuss the effects of shoot and root pruning on vegetative growth and flowering of a
fruit plant.
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SUGGESTED READINGS
Arneson, P. A. 2001. Plant Disease Epidemiology.
Maloy, O.C. 1993. Plant Disease Control: Principles and Practice. Wiley, New York.
Maloy, O.C. and A. Baudoin. 2001. Disease Control Principles. Pages 330-332 in:
Enclyclopedia of Plant Pathology. O.C. Maloy and T.D. Murray, eds. Wiley, New York.
http://www.apsnet.org/edcenter/intropp/topics/Pages/PlantDiseaseManagement.aspx
http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/crop_protection/crop_prot.html
http://jnkvv.nic.in/IPM%20Project/ipm-home.html
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CHAPTER 10
Harvesting, Handling and Storage of

Horticultural Crops
OBJECTIVES
• Know about importance of safe harvesting, handling and storage of fruits and
vegetables.
• Know about the maturity indices of fruits and vegetables.
• Know about different step in handling of produce after harvest.
• Know about different storage conditions for fruits and vegetables.
• To start their own business of handling and storage of fruits and vegetables.
• To market their produce more efficiently.
INTRODUCTION
Farmers spend months working in the fields, and then they have a bountiful harvest of
beautiful fruits and vegetables. They want to ensure that their customers would also enjoy this
healthy harvest. How can they best maintain the quality and safety of fruits and vegetables as it
travels from the field to the table? How can produce be stored so that it does not need to be sold
immediately? High-quality, disease-free produce with a good shelf life is a result of sound
production practices,proper handling during harvest, and appropriate postharvest handling
and storage. All fresh horticultural crops are perishable in nature due to high in water content
and are subjected to desiccation (wilting, shriveling) and to mechanical injury. Various authorities
have estimated that 20-30 percent of fresh horticultural produce is lost after harvest and these
losses can assume considerable economic and social importance. These perishable commodities
need very careful handling at every stage so that deterioration of produce is restricted as much
as possible during the period between harvest and consumption. Postharvest rots are more
prevalent in fruits and vegetables that are bruised or otherwise damaged. Mechanical damage
also increases moisture loss. The rate of moisture loss may be increased by as much as 400% by
a single bad bruise on an apple, and skinned potatoes may lose three to four times as much
weight as non-skinned potatoes. Damage can be prevented by training harvest labour to handle
the crop gently; harvesting at proper maturity; harvesting dry whenever possible;handling each
fruit or vegetable no more than necessary (field pack if possible); installing padding inside bulk
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bins; and avoiding over orunder-packing of containers. The horticultural produce includes fruits,
vegetables, flowers and other ornamental plants, plantation crops, aromatic and medicinal plants
and spices. However, in this chapter, information on fruits and vegetables is only included.
HARVESTING OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

Quality cannot be improved after harvest,only maintained; therefore it is important to harvest
fruits and vegetables at the proper stage and size and at peak quality. Immature or over-mature
produce may not last as long in storage as that picked at proper maturity. Harvest should be
completed during the coolest time of the
Physiological maturity: It is the stage when a fruit
day, which is usually in the early morning,
is capable of further development or ripening when it
and produce should be kept shaded in the
is harvested
field. Fruits harvested too early may lack
Horticultural maturity: It refers to the stage of
flavour and may not ripe properly, while
development when plant and plant part possesses
produce harvested too late may be fibrous
the pre-requisites for use by consumers for a
or have very limited market life. Similarly,
particular purpose
vegetables are harvested over a wide range
of physiological stages, depending upon which part of the plant is used as food. For example,
small or immature vegetables possess better texture and quality than mature or over-mature
vegetables. Therefore harvesting of fruits and vegetables at proper stage of maturity is of
paramount importance for attaining desirable quality. The level of maturity actually helps in
selection of storage methods, estimation of shelf life, selection of processing operations for value
addition etc. The maturity has been divided into two categories i.e. physiological maturity and
horticultural maturity.
Physiological maturity: It is the stage when a fruit is capable of further development or

ripening when it is harvested i.e. ready for eating or processing.
Horticultural maturity: It refers to the stage of development when plant and plant part
possesses the pre-requisites for use by consumers for a particular purpose i.e. ready for harvest.
MATURITY INDICES OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

The principles dictating at which stage of
Maturity indices:Visual, physical and
maturity a fruit or vegetable should be harvested are
chemical parameters indicating maturity
crucial to its subsequent storage and marketable life
of horticultural produce
and quality. Post-harvest physiologists distinguish
three stages in the life span of fruits and vegetables: maturation, ripening, and senescence.
Maturation is indicative of the fruit being ready for harvest. At this point, the edible part of the
fruit or vegetable is fully developed in size, although it may not be ready for immediate
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consumption. Ripening follows or overlaps maturation, rendering the produce edible, as
indicated by taste. Senescence is the last stage, characterized by natural degradation of the fruit
or vegetable, as in loss of texture, flavour, etc. (senescence ends at the death of the tissue of the
fruit). The importance of maturity indices are to ensure sensory quality (flavour, colour, aroma,
texture) and nutritional quality, to ensure an adequate post harvest shelf life, to facilitate
scheduling of harvest and packing operations and to facilitate marketing over the phone or
through internet.
TYPES OF MATURITY INDICES

i) Visual appearance: The visual appearance of fruit and vegetable is the most important
quality factor, which decides its price in the market. The consumer (wholesaler or retailer)
observes the quality of fresh fruits and vegetables with their visual or external appearance.
The produce should attain proper shape and size. Medium size produce is always preferred
by the consumers, because they tend to view large fruits as more mature. The appearance
of the product is the most critical factor in the initial purchase, while subsequent purchase
may be more related to texture and flavour.
Size and shape: Maturity of fruits can be assessed by their final shape and size at the time
of harvest. Fruit shape may be used in some instances to decide maturity. For example, the
fullness of cheeks adjacent to pedicel may be used as a guide to maturity of mango and some
stone fruits. Some cultivars of banana become less angular in cross section as development and
maturation progress. Size is generally of limited value as a maturity index in fruit, though it is
widely used for many vegetables, especially those marketed early in their development.
Colour: The loss of green colour of many fruits is a valuable guide to maturity. There is
initially a gradual loss in intensity of colour from deep green to lighter green and with many
commodities, a complete loss of green colour with the development of yellow, red or purple
pigments. Ground colour as measured by colour charts, is useful index of maturity for apple,
pear and stone fruits, but is not entirely reliable as it is influenced by factors other than maturity.
For some fruits, as they mature on the tree, development of blush colour, that is additional
colour superimposed on the ground colour, can be a good indicator of maturity. Examples are
red or red-streaked apple cultivars and red blush on some cultivars of mango and peach.
C olur changes in mango during maturity and ripening
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ii) Physical indices
Firmness: As fruit mature and ripen they soften by dissolution of the middle lamella of the
cell walls. The degree of firmness can be estimated subjectively by finger or thumb pressure,
but more precise objective measurement is possible with pressure tester or penetrometer. In
many fruits such as apple, pear, peach, plum, guava, kinnow etc. firmness can be used to
determine harvest maturity. Penetrometer measures the pressure necessary to force a plunger of
specified size into the pulp of the fruit. Such pressure is measured in pounds and kilograms
force.
Specific gravity: As fruit mature, their specific gravity increases. This parameter is rarely
used in practice to determine when to harvest a crop but it could be where it is possible to
develop a suitable sampling technique. It is used, however, to grade crops into different
maturities. To do this the fruit or vegetable is placed in a tank of water; those that float will be
less mature that those that sink. To give greater flexibility to the test and make it more precise, a
salt or sugar solution can be used in place of water. This changes the density of the liquid,
resulting in fruits or vegetables that would have sunk in water floating in the salt or sugar solution.
iii) Chemical measurement
Measurement of chemical characteristics of produce is an obvious approach to the problem

of maturity determination. The conversion of starch to sugars during maturation is a simple test
for the maturity of some apple cultivars. It is based on the reaction between starch and iodine to
produce a blue or purple colour. The intensity of the colour indicates the amount of starch
remaining in the fruit. The total soluble solids of the fruit can be measured with refractometer,
which indicate the harvest maturity of fruits. Acidity is readily determined on a sample of
extracted juice by titration with 0.1 N NaOH. The sugar acid or TSS acid ratio is often better
related to palatability of fruit than either sugar or acid level alone. Soluble solid content (SSC)
also called total soluble solids (TSS), can be determined in a small sample of fruit juice using
hand refractometer.Titratable acidity (TA) can be determined by titrating a know volume of
juice with 0.1N NaOH to end point of pink colour as indicated by phenolphethalin indicator.
iv) Calculated indices
Calendar date: For perennial fruit crops grown in seasonal climate which are more or less
uniform from year to year, calendar date for harvest is a reliable guide to commercial maturity.
Time of flowering is largely dependent as temperature and the variation in number of days from
flowering to harvest can be calculated for some commodities by use of degree-day concept.
Such harvesting criteria can be developed by the growers based on their experiences.
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Heat Units: An objective measure of the time required for the development of the fruit to
maturity after flowering can be made by measuring the degree days or heat units in a particular
environment. It has been found that a characteristics number of heat unit or degree-days is
required to mature a crop under usually warm conditions, maturity will be advanced and under
cooler conditions, maturity is delayed. The number of degree days to maturity is determined
over a period of several years by obtaining the algebraic sum from the differences, plus or minus,
between the daily mean temperatures and a fixed base temperature (commonly the minimum
temperature at which growth occurs). The average or characteristic number of degree-days is
then used to forecast the probable date of maturity for the current year and as maturity
approaches, it can be checked by other means.
Maturity indices for selected fruits and vegetables
Fruits/ Vegetables Maturity indices or characteristics

Apple
Golden Delicious 12% SSC, 18 lb firmness
Red Delicious 11% SSC, 18 lb firmness
Banana Disappearance of angularity in a cross section of the finger
Grapes (table) Minimum TSS 14 to 17.5%, depending on cultivars, TSS/TA ratio
20 or higher.
Guava Colour break stage ( when skin colour changes from dark green
to light green)
Kinnow TSS/acid ratio 12:1 to 14:1
Mango Changes in shape (increase fullness of cheeks or bulge of
shoulder), flesh colour yellow to yellowish-orange
Strawberries 2/3 of berry surface showing pink or red colour
Brinjal Immature, glossy skin, 40days from flowering.
Carrot Immature, roots reached adequate size.
Potatoes Harvest before vines die completely, cure to heal surface
wounds.
Tomatoes Seeds fully developed, gel formation advanced in atleast one
locule.
Watermelon Flesh colour 75% red, TSS = 10%
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Harvesting of fruits and vegetables
Fruits and vegetables are living entities and therefore, should be harvested with great care.
Harvesting practices should cause as little mechanical damage to produce as possible. The
following points should be kept in mind while harvesting the crop:
¾ Gentle picking and harvesting will help reduce crop losses.
¾ Wearing cotton gloves, trimming finger nails, and removing jewellary such as rings
and bracelets can help reduce mechanical damage during harvest.
¾ Produce should be harvested during coolest part of the day not wet from dew or rain.
¾ Empty picking containers with care.
¾ Keep produce cool after harvest (provide shade).
Picking bag: Cloth bag with openings on both ends can be easily worn over the shoulders
with adjustable harnesses. In case metallic buckets are to be used for harvesting, fitting cloth
over the opened bottom can reduce damage to crop. Fitting canvas bags with adjustable harnesses,
or by simply adding some carrying straps to baskets also helps to reduce handling losses.
Picking poles and catching sacks: These tools can be easily made by hand. A long pole
attached to a collection bag, allow the harvester to cut catch produce growing on a tree without
climbing on tree. The collection bags can be hand woven from strong cord or sewn from canvas.
The hoop used as the collection bag rim and sharp cutting edges can be made from sheet metal,
steel tubing or recycled scrap metal.
Clippers and Knives: Some fruits such as citrus, grapes and mangoes, need to be clipped
or cut from the plant. Clippers or knives should be kept well sharpened and clean. Peduncles,
woody stems or spurs should be trimmed as close as possible to prevent fruit from damaging
neighboring fruits during transport. Care should be taken to harvest pears so that the spurs are
not damaged. Pruning shears can be used for harvesting fruits and some vegetables.
Tripod ladders: A ladder with three legs is very convenient and more stable than a common
ladder. A ladder helps harvesting crops such as mango, kinnow, pears, peaches, plums without
damaging tree branches.
METHOD OF HARVESTING OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

Harvesting of crops can be done manually or mechanically.
Hand harvesting: Usually done for fruits destined for fresh markets. The primary advantage
is harvesting of fruit or vegetable can be done at appropriate maturity and produce will suffer
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minimum damage. However, it is a time consuming process and more labour is required during
harvesting season.
Mechanical harvesting: Harvesting is carried out with the help of machines. The primary
advantage is that the produce can be harvested at a faster rate and less manpower is required as
compared to hand harvesting. However, damage can occur to crops and this method is not much
suitable for marketing of fresh commodities.
POSTHARVEST HANDLING
Post harvest handling is the stage of crop production immediately following harvest,
including cooling, cleaning, sorting and packing. The instant a crop is removed from the ground,
or separated from its parent plant, it begins to deteriorate. Postharvest treatment largely
determines final quality, whether a crop is sold for fresh consumption, or used as an ingredient
in a processed food product. The most important goals of post-harvest handling are keeping the
product cool, to avoid moisture loss and slow down undesirable chemical changes, and avoiding
physical damage such as bruising, to delay spoilage.
Handling operation after harvest
Dumping: The first step of handling is known as dumping. It should be done gently either
using water or dry dumping. Wet dumping can be done by immersing the produce in water. It
reduces mechanical injury, bruising, abrasions on the fruits, since water is gentle on produce.
The dry dumping is done by soft brushes fitted on the sloped ramp or moving conveyor belts. It
will help in removing dust and dirt on the fruits.
Pre-sorting: It is done to remove injured, decayed, mis-shapen fruits. It will save energy
and money because culls will not be handled, cooled, packed or transported. Removing decaying
fruits are especially important, because these will limit the spread of infection to other healthy
fruits during handling.
Washing and cleaning: Washing with chlorine solution (100-150 ppm) can also be used to
control innoculum build up during pack house operations. For best results, the pH of wash
solution should be 6.5-7.5. Mangoes, bananas should be washed to remove latex.
Grading: Grading can be done manually or by automatic grading lines.Size grading can be
done subjectively with the use of standard size gauges. Round produce units can be easily
graded by using sizing rings. The grading of fruits plays an important role in domestic and
export marketing of fruits. Different fruits have different grades on the basis of their size and
weight. The grades of some fruits and vegetables suggested by Directorate of Marketing and
Inspection (DMI) are as under:
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Grapes
Grade Large berries bunch weight (g) Small berries bunch weight (g)
Extra class 200 150
Class I 150 100
Class II 100 75
Guava
Size code Weight (gm) Diameter (mm)

A >350 >95
B 251-350 86-95
C 201-250 76-85
D 151-200 66-75
E 101-150 54-65
F 61-100 43-53
Pomegranate
Grade Fruit weight (g) Diameter (mm)

A 400 90
B 350 80
C 300 70
D 250 60
E 200 50
Tomato
Size Code Diameter (in mm)

Minimum Maximum
1 30 34
2 35 39
3 40 46
4 47 56
5 57 66
6 67 81
7 82 101
8 102 above
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Pre-cooling of horticulture produce
Pre-cooling of the produce soon after their harvest is one of the important components of
the cool chain, which ultimately affect the shelf life of the produce. The main purpose of precooling
is to immediately remove the field heat from the produce.
Room cooling: It is low cost and slow method of cooling. In this method, produce is simply
loaded into a cool room and cool air is allowed to circulate among the cartons, sacks, bins or
bulk load.
Forced-air cooling: Forced air-cooling is mostly used for wide range of horticultural
produce. This is the fastest method of pre-cooling. Forced air-cooling pulls or pushes air through
the vents/holes in storage containers. In this method uniform cooling of the produce can be
achieved if the stacks of pallet bins are properly aligned. Cooling time depends on (i) the airflow,
(ii) the temperature difference between the produce and the cold air and (iii) produce diameter.
Hydrocooling: The use of cold water is an old and effective cooling method used for quickly
cooling a wide range of fruits and vegetables before packaging. For the packed commodities it
is less used because of difficulty in the movement of water through the containers and because
of high cost involved in water tolerant containers. This method of cooling not only avoids water
loss but may even add water to the commodity. The hydrocooler normally used are of two types
i.e., showertype and immersion type.
Vacuum cooling: Vacuum cooling take place by water evaporation from the product at
very low air pressure. In this method, air is pumped out from a larger steel chamber in which the
produce is loaded for pre-cooling. Removal of air results in the reduction of pressure of the
atmosphere around the produce, which further lowers, the boiling temperature of its water. As
the pressure falls, the water boils quickly removing the heat from the produce. Vacuum cooling
causes about 1 per cent produce weight loss (mostly water) for each 6oC of cooling.
Package-icing: In some commodities, crushed or flaked ice is packed along with produce
for fast cooling. However, as the ice comes in contact with the produce, it melts, and the cooling
rate slows considerably. The ice keeps a high relative humidity around the product. Package ice
may be finely crushed ice, flake ice or slurry of ice. Liquid icing distributes the ice throughout
the container, achieving better contact with the product. Packaged icing can be used only with
water tolerant, non-chilling sensitive products and with water tolerant packages (waxed
fiberboard, plastic or wood).
PACKAGING OF HORTICULTURE PRODUCE

Packing is a coordinated system of preparing goods for transport, distribution, storage,
retailing and end use and a means of ensuring safe delivery to the ultimate consumer in sound
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conditions at minimum cost. Packaging helps in safe transportation, storages, marketing and
distribution of produce. It protects the produce from pilferage, microorganisms and adverse
weather condition and it is also used to advertise the product.
Requirements of a good package

¾ Should be environment friendly.
¾ Should have sufficient strength in compression and against impact and vibrations
¾ Should be stable during the entire distribution chain.
¾ Should be compatible with the automatic packing/filling, handling machines
(mechanical filling systems)
¾ Should facilitate special treatments like pre-cooling.
¾ Should have consumer appeal.
¾ Should be easily printable.
¾ Should be cost effective.
Materials for packaging
¾ Wood - boxes, bins, trays, barrels, pallets
¾ Jute/canvas - sacks
¾ Paper and card board - liners, boxes, trays
¾ Plastic - Rigid - crates, pallets, trays
• Flexible - films (single & multi layered)
• Polystyrene boxes / trays
¾ Combined materials - CFB and plastic
CFB has almost replaced wood and jute and is considered as most important package
material to be used in combination with other materials.
Some materials used for fresh horticultural produce include:
¾ Wooden box having CFB liners.
¾ CFB box with plastic film wraps
¾ CFB trays with wooden corner supports
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¾ CFB laminated or waxed containers.
¾ CFB box with plastic retailer packs (strawberry boxes)
¾ CFB or polystyrene trays/boxes with plastic film wraps.
STORAGE OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

`The management of temperature and relative humidity are the most important factors
determining storage life of horticultural produce. The natural means like ice, cold water, night
temperature have been used for long time for protecting food materials from spoilage and these
are still common. However, with the development of innovative technologies, it is possible to
achieve optimal environments in the insulated stores.
Objective of storage
¾ Regulate the market in an orderly manner.
¾ Avoid glut and distress sale in the market, thus prolonging the market period.
¾ In long-term storage, making the food available in off-season.
Cold storage: Lowering the temperature to the lowest safe handling temperature is of
paramount importance for enhancing the shelf life, reducing the losses and maintaining higher
quality during marketing. Always, handle produce gently and never store produce unless, it is
of the best quality. Damaged produce will lose water faster and have higher decay rates in
storage when compared to undamaged produce.
Recommended temperature and RH conditions

o
Name of commodity Temp ( C) RH (%) Approximate Shelf-life
Apple -1-4 90-95 1-12 months
Banana 13-15 90-95 1-4 weeks
Grape -0.5-0 90-95 2-8 weeks
Guava 6-8 90-95 2-3 weeks
Lychee, Litchi 1-2 90-95 3-5 weeks
Mandarin (Kinnow) 4-5 90-95 2 months
Mango 13 85-90 2-4 weeks
Pomegrante 5 90-95 2-3 months
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Strawberry 0 90-95 7-10 weeks
Beans 4-7 90-95 7-10 days
Bitter gourd 10-12 85-90 2-3 weeks
Broccoli 0 95-100 10-14 days
Cabbage 0 90-95 3-6 weeks
Carrots 0 90-95 6-8 months
Cauliflower 0 90-95 3-4 weeks
Eggplant 10-12 90-95 1-2 weeks
Peas 0 90-95 1-2 weeks
Tomato 10-13 90-95 1-3 weeks
Controlled atmosphere (CA) storage
The term implies the addition or removal

CA storage: Systems where atmospheric
of gases resulting in an atmospheric composition
control is accurately controlled.
different from that of normal air. Thus the levels MA storage: System where degree of
of carbon dioxide, oxygen, nitrogen, ethylene, and atmospheric control is less accurate.
metabolic volatiles in the atmosphere may be
manipulated. Controlled atmosphere storage generally refers to keeping produce at decreased
oxygen and increased carbon dioxide concentrations and at suitable range of temperature and
RH. Systems where atmospheric control is accurately controlled are generally called CA storage
and where degree of control "less accurately" monitored are called MA (modified atmosphere)
storage. In MAP (modified atmospheric packaging) produce is enclosed in polymeric films and
is allowed to generate its own atmsophere (passive MAP) or air of known composition is flushed
into the bag (active MAP) and depending upon gas / vapour transmission characteristics of the
film on appropriate atmosphere develops in the package to prolong shelf life. MAP is ideally
combined with temperature control for maximum benefit.
Benefits of CA storage
¾ Slow down respiration and ethylene production rates, softening and retard senesence
of horticultural produce.
¾ Reduce fruit sensitivity to ethylene action
¾ Alleviate certain physiological disorders such as chilling injury of various
commodities, russet spotting in lettuce, and some storage disorders including, scald
of apples.
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Harmful effects of CA storage
¾ Initiation or aggravation of certain physiological disorders can occur, such as blackheart

in potatoes, brown stain on lettuce, and brown heart in apples and pears.
¾ Irregular ripening of fruits, such as banana, mango, pear and tomato, can result from
exposure to O2 levels below 2% or CO2 levels above 5% for more than 2 to 4 weeks.
¾ Off- flavors and off-odours at very low O2 or very high CO2 concentration may
develop as a result of anaerobic respiration and fermentative metabolism.
Recommended CA or MA conditions for selected fruits and vegetables
Commodity Temperature (°C) % O2 % CO2
Apple 0-5 1-2 0-3
Banana 12-16 2-5 2-5
Mango 10-15 3-7 5-8
Beans, green 5-10 2-3 4-7
Broccoli 0-5 1-2 5-10
Cabbage 0-5 2-3 3-6
Onions (bulb) 0-5 1-2 0-10
Tomatoes 10-15 3-5 3-5
ACTIVITY/EXERCISE
1. Visit fruit orchard or vegetable garden during harvesting and find out the methods of
harvesting used by farmers.
2. Meet fruit and vegetable growers and enquire about the different steps followed by
them after harvesting of produce.
3. Visit fruit and vegetable market in your locality and try to know about packaging
materials used and storage methods adopted for fruits and vegetables.
4. Visit cold storage or CA storage facility in your locality and enlist the fruits and
vegetables stored.
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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1) Differentiate between physiological and horticultural maturity.
2) Enumerate the types of maturity indices used for adjudging the maturity in fruits
and vegetables.
3) What you understand by judging maturity using calendar dates and heat units.
4) Discuss about method of harvesting in fruit crops.
5) Enumerate the handling operation after harvest.
FILL IN THE BLANKS

1) As fruit mature, their specific gravity ……………………….
2) Extra class grapbunches weigh in between ……… to ………… g
3) The hydro-cooler normally used are of two types i.e., ………..and

…………………….
4) Packaging material for fruits and vegetables should be ………………………… and

should have sufficient ………………
5) …………… has almost replaced wood and jute and is considered as most important
package material to be used in combination with other materials.
o
6) CA storage conditions for apple …………… C, ……….. O2 and ……….. CO2
o
7) CA storage conditions for tomato .…………… C, ……….. O2 and ……….. CO2.
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CHAPTER 11
Traits and Quality Standards of

Horticultural Produce
OBJECTIVES
• Understand the quality standards of horticultural produce.
• Know about grade designation and quality specification of important fruits and
vegetables.
• To market their produce more efficiently.
• To start their own business of marketing of fruits and vegetables.
INTRODUCTION
India's diverse climate ensures availability of all varieties of fresh fruits & vegetables. It
ranks second in fruits and vegetables production in the world, after China. India is the largest
producer of ginger and okra Amongst vegetables and ranks second in production of potato,
onion, cauliflower, brinjal, Cabbage, etc. Amongst fruits, the country ranks first in production of
banana, mango and papaya. The vast production base offers India with tremendous opportunities
for export. Mango, walnuts, grapes, bananas, pomegranates accounts for larger portion of fruits
exported from the country while onions, okra, bitter gourd, green chilles, and potatoes contribute
largely to the vegetable export basket. Though India's share in the global market is still nearly
1% only, there is increasing acceptance of horticulture produce from the country. Standing
Committee on Fresh Fruits and Vegetables was set up under the Chairmanship of the Agricultural
and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA) to look into formulation
of export standards for fresh fruits and vegetables. In this chapter, the guidelines formulated by
AGMARK and APEDA for some important fruits and vegetables are mentioned.
PRODUCE SPECIFICATIONS AND QUALITY STANDARDS FOR FRUITS

& VEGETABLES
QUALITY STANDARDS OF MANGO
Mangoes shall be fruits obtained from Varieties (cultivars) of plant Mangifera indica L. of
Anacardiaceae family.
Minimum requirements
i. Mangoes shall be:
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¾ whole, firm, sound and fresh in appearance. Produce affected by rotting or
deterioration such as to make it unfit for consumption is excluded;
¾ clean, practically free of any visible foreign matter;
¾ free of black necrotic stains or trails;
¾ free of marked bruising;
¾ free of abnormal external moisture, excluding condensation following removal

from cold storage;
¾ free from damage caused by low/or high temperature;
¾ free of any foreign smell and/or taste;
¾ free of damage caused by pests;
¾ sufficiently developed and display satisfactory ripeness;
ii. When a peduncle is present, it shall not be no longer than 1.0 cm.
iii. Mangoes shall comply with the residue levels of heavy metals, pesticides and other
food safety parameters as laid down by the Codex Alimentarius Commission for
exports.
Grade designation and requirements of mango
Extra class
Grade requirement: Mango fruit must be of superior quality. They must be characteristic
of the variety. They must be free of defects, with the exception of very slight superficial defects,
provided these do not affect the general appearances of the produce, the quality, the keeping
quality and presentation in the package.
Grade tolerances: Five per cent by number or weight of mangoes not satisfying the
requirements for the grade, but meeting those of Class I or exceptionally, coming within the
tolerances of that grade.
Class I
Grade requirement: Mango fruit must be of good quality. They must be characteristic of
the variety. Mango fruits may have slight defects in shape, slight skin defects due to rubbing or
sunburn,suberized stains due to resin exudation (elongated trails included) and healed bruises
not exceeding 2,3,4,5 sq. cm for size groups A, B, C, D respectively, provided these do not affect
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the general appearance of the produce, the quality, the keeping quality and presentation in the
package.
Grade tolerances: Ten per cent by number or weight of mangoes not satisfying the
requirements for the grade, but meeting those of Class II grade or, exceptionally coming within
the tolerances of that grade.
Class II
Grade requirement: This grade includes mango fruits which do not qualify for inclusion in
the higher grades, but satisfy the minimum requirements. Mangoes may have defects in shape,
slight skin defects due to rubbing or sunburn, suberized stains due to resin exudation (elongated
trails included) and healed bruises not exceeding 4,5,6,7 sq. cmfor size groups A, B, C, D
respectively, provided they retain their essential characteristics as regards the quality, keeping
quality and presentation.
Grade tolerances: Ten per cent by number or weight of mango not satisfying the
requirements of the grade, but meeting the minimum requirements.
Size code Weight Maximum permissible Maximum permissible

(g) difference within the difference between
package (g) fruit in each package (g)
A 100-200 90-220 50.0
B 201-350 180-425 112.5
C 351-550 251-650 150.0
D 551-800 426-925 187.5
QUALITY STANDARDS OF TABLE GRAPE

Table grapes shall be fruits obtained from varieties of Vitis viniferaL.
i. Bunches and berries of table grapes shall be:

¾ clean, sound, free of any visible foreign matter
¾ free of pests, affecting the general appearance of the produce
¾ free of damage caused by pests or diseases
¾ free of abnormal external moisture
126
¾ free of any foreign smell and/or taste
¾ free of all visible traces of moulds
ii. Berries shall be intact, well formed and normally developed.
iii. Table grapes shall comply with the residue levels of heavy metals, pesticides and
other food safety parameters as laid down by the Codex Alimentarius Commission
for Exports.
iv. Table grapes shall have minimum soluble solids of 16 oBrix.
v. Table grapes shall have minimum sugar/ acid ratio of 20:1.
vi. Pigmentation due to sun is not a defect.
Grade designation and requirements of grape
Extra class
Grade requirement: Grapes must be of superior quality. The bunches must be typical of
variety in shape, development and colouring and have no defects. The berries must be firm,
firmly attached to the stalk, evenly spaced along the stalk and have their bloom virtually intact.Size
limit for large berries 200 g and for small berries 150 g.
Grade tolerance: Five per cent by weight of bunches not satisfying the requirements for the
grade, but meeting those of Class I grade or exceptionally coming within the tolerances of that
grade.
Class I
Grade requirement: Grapes must be of good quality. The bunches must be typical of variety
in shape, development and colouring. Berries must be firm, firmly attached to the stalk and, as
far as possible, have their gloom intact. The may, however, be less evenly spaced along the stalk
than in the extra class.Slight defect in shape and colouring may be there, provided these do not
affect the general appearance of the produce and keeping quality of the package.Size limit for
large berries 150 g and for small berries 100 g.
Grade tolerance: Ten per cent by weight of bunches not satisfying the requirements for the
grade, but meeting those of Class II grade or exceptionally coming within the tolerances of that
grade.
Class II
Grade requirement: The bunches may show defects in shape, development and colouring
provided these do not impair the essential characteristics of the variety. The berries must be
127
sufficiently firm and sufficiently attached. They may be less evenly spaced along the stalk than
Class I grade.Defects in shape, colouring, slight sun scorch affecting the skin only, slight bruising,
may be there, provided these do not affect the general appearance of the produce and keeping
quality of the package.
Grade tolerance: 10% by weight of bunches and satisfying the requirements of the grade,
but meeting the minimum requirements.
QUALITY STANDARDS OF TOMATO

Tomatoes shall be fruits obtained from varieties of Lycopersicumesculentum Mill of the
Solanaceae family. Tomatoes may be classified into four commercial types i.e., round, ribbed,
oblong or elongated and cherry tomatoes (including cocktail tomatoes)
i. Tomatoes shall be:
¾ whole, sound and fresh in appearance
¾ clean, free of any visible foreign matter
¾ free of pests affecting the general appearance of the produce
¾ free of damage caused by pests
¾ free of abnormal moisture excluding condensation following removal from cold

storage
¾ free of any foreign smell and/or taste
ii. In the case of trusses of tomatoes, the stalk must be fresh, healthy, clean and free from
all leaves and any visible foreign matter.
iii. Tomatoes shall comply with the residue levels of heavy metals, Pesticides and other
food safety parameters as laid down by the Codex Alimentarius Commission for
exports.
Grade designation and requirements of tomato
Extra class
Grade requirement: Tomatoes shall be of superior quality. They shall have firm fresh and
must be characteristic of the variety as regards to shape, appearance and development. They
must be free of green backs and other defects. Very slight superficial defects may be there
128
provided these do not affect the general appearance of the produce, the quality, the keeping
quality and presentation in the package.
Grade tolerance: Five per cent by number or weight of tomatoes not satisfying the
requirements of the grade, but meeting those of Class I or exceptionally, coming within the
Class I
Grade requirement: Tomatoes shall be of good quality. They shall have reasonably firm
flesh and shall be characteristics of the variety as regards shape, appearance and development.
They must be free of cracks and visible green back. The slight defects like a slight defect in
shape and development, colouring, skin defects, very slight bruises, ribbed tomatoes may be
there provide these do not affect the general appearance of the produce, the quality, the keeping
quality and presentation in the package: slight superficial defects may be there provided these
do not affect the general appearance of the produce, the quality, the keeping quality and
presentation in the package.
Grade tolerance: Ten per cent by number or weight of tomatoes not satisfying the
requirements of the grade, but meeting those of Class II or, exceptionally, coming within the
Class II
Grade requirement: Tomatoes shall be reasonably firm flesh and shall be character
(but may be slightly less firm than in class I) and must not show unhealed cracks. The defects
like defects in shape, development and colouring, skin defects or bruises, provided the fruit is
not seriously affected, healed cracks not more than 3 cm. in length may be there provided the
tomatoes retain their essential characteristics as regards the quality and keeping quality and
presentation.
Grade tolerance: Ten per cent by number or weight not satisfying the requirements of the
grade but meeting the minimum requirements. In case of trusses of tomatoes, 10% by number or
weight of tomatoes detached from the stalk.
Provisions concerning sizing: Sizing is determined by the maximum diameter of the

equatorial section in accordance with following table. The provisions shall not apply to "cherry"
tomatoes. The minimum size is set at 35 mm for "round and "ribbed" tomatoes and 30 mm for
"oblong" tomatoes:
129
Size code Diameter (mm)
Minimum Maximum
1 30 34
2 35 39
3 40 46
4 47 56
5 57 66
6 67 81
7 82 101
8 102 Above 102
Provision concerning tomato colour: Following terms may be used in the description of
the colour as an indication of the storage and brightness of any lot and matured tomatoes.
Mature green: when the tomatoes present a yellow colour;
Green: when the surface of the tomato is completely green varying from light to dark green.
Breakers: when there is a definite break in colour from green to tannish - yellow, pink or
red on not more than 10% of the surface.
Mottled: When yellow, rose or red are present in more than 10% but no more than 30% of
the fruits.
Rose: when rose or red colour are present in more than 30% but less than 60% of the fruit.
Red: When more than 60% but no more than 90% of the fruits are rose or red colour.
Mature red: when more than 90% of the surface of the fruit shows red colour.
ACTIVITY/EXERCISE
1. Visit fruit orchard or vegetable garden during harvesting and find out the methods of
handling of horticultural produce.
2. Visit fruit orchard or vegetable garden during harvesting and find out the size garding
at farm carried out by the farmers.
3. Visit fruit and vegetable markets in your locality. Try to differentiate between extra
class, class I and class II mango, grape and tomato fruits.
130
4. Visit vegetable markets in your locality. Try to differentiate tomato fruits on the basis
of colour development.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) Enumerate the quality standards of tomato and mango.
2) Give details of grades designated in grape. Also give information on grade tolerance
in each class.
3) Enlist different grades identified in case of mango and tomato.
4) Give details of quality standards for extra clss mango and grape.
FILL IN THE BLANKS

1. APEDA stands for ……………………. ……………………………………………
2. AGMARK stands for ………………………………….………….... ………………..
3. Extra class grapes have size of ..……… for large berries and …………for small
berries
4. Fruit weight of Class 'A' mangoes range between …………….. and ……………….…
5. Table grapes shall be fruits obtained from varieties of ………………………………
REFERENCES
1. Bal, J.S. (2007). Fruit growing Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana, India.
2. Chadha, T.R. (2000). Textbook of temperate fruits. ICAR, New Delhi
3. Chattopadhyay, T.K. A textbook on Pomology, Vol. 4 (Temperate fruits), Kalyani
publishers, Ludhiana, India.,
4. http://agmarknet.nic.in/fveggmrules04.htm#rules
5. http://nhb.gov.in/area%20_production.html
6. http://www.apeda.gov.in/apedawebsite/index.asp
7. Sharma, R.R. (2006). Fruit production: Problems and solutions. Intl. Book Distributing
Co., Lucknow, India.
8. Sharma, R.R. (2009). Adhunikphalotpadan.Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana, India.
131

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Preface

Vineet Joshi, IAS

Editing & Coordination

Convener & Editor

JUSTICE, social, economic and political;

LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;

EQUALITY of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all

THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA

Fundamental Duties. It SHALL be the duty of every citizen of India

(i) to safeguard public property and to abjure violence;

Horticulture is defined by Webster's

MAIN DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF HORTICULTURE

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

3) How do fruit crops differ from plantation crops?

FILL IN THE BLANKS

2. Garden is originated from the latin term Gyrdan meaning ………………

4. Medicinal plants are rich source of ………………………….

5. Aromatic plants possess…………………..in them.

SUGGESTED FURTHER READINGS

• Develop an appreciation of nature and the environment

IMPORTANCE OF HORTICULTURAL CROPS IN HUMAN DIET

Deficiency of any minerals and

Vitamin -C (Ascorbic Acid): This

Vitamin-K: This vitamin prevents blood clotting.

Calcium : It is essential for development of bones, regulation of heartbeat, controlling blood

Iron: It is required for production of haemoglobin and it is constituent of red blood

Sources: Papaya-Papain and Pineapple-Bromelin.

IMPORTANCE OF HORTICULTURE IN THE NATIONAL ECONOMY

Table: Area and production of Horticultural Crops.

Particulars Area (million hectare) Production (million tones)

Table: Export of Horticulture Produce in India (APEDA Website)

Product Quantity (MT) Value (Rs. Lakhs)

2. Increased production of horticulture crops is possible in comparison to other agronomical

Aesthetic value and religious importance

FILL IN THE BLANKS

SUGGESTED FURTHER READINGS

Principles of Horticulture Crop

PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT PRODUCTION

Preliminary Operations for establishing an orchard

LAYOUT SYSTEMS OF PLANTING

In square system the trees are planted in four corners of a

In rectangular system the trees are planted in the same way as in

C. Quincunx or Diagonal system

Basically, quincunx or diagonal system is the same as the square

D. Hexagonal/ septuple system

In the hexagonal system, the trees are planted at the corners of an

High density planting system

S. No. Crop Variety Density Spacing (m) Yield (t/ha)

CHOICE OF FRUIT TREES

Table 2. Choice of fruit crop as affected by soil and climatic conditions.

Table 3. Rootstocks of fruit crops.

Fruit crop Rootstocks

Spacing (m) Tree number/hactare Fruit crop

METHODS OF SOIL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

b. Clean culture with cover crops

Crop Age Intercrop

Multi-tier system of cropping

PRINCIPLES OF VEGETABLE CULTIVATION

Vegetable nursery raising