Semantiāke Funkcije Subjekta, Teorija Prototipova I Metonimija
Semantiāke Funkcije Subjekta, Teorija Prototipova I Metonimija
Semantiāke Funkcije Subjekta, Teorija Prototipova I Metonimija
UDK 81'373.612.2
Izvorni znanstveni þlanak
Primljen 06.06 2004.
Prihvaüeno za tisak 23.10. 2005.
Gabrijela Buljan
Dubravko Kuþanda
Sveuþilište Josipa Juraja Strossmayera
Filozofski fakultet
Osijek
1. Uvod
Još otkad je Fillmore (1968) objavio svoj þuveni þlanak The Case for Case
relevantnost tog þlanka odražavala se na nekoliko razina analize.1 U poþetku, ali
1
Fillmore (1968:24) je dubinske padeže definirao kao “a set of universal, presumably innate,
concepts human beings are capable of making about the events that are going around them,
judgements about such matters who did it, whom it happened to and what got changed” pa ga
zbog toga neki autori (npr. Lee 2001) ubrajaju meÿu preteþe kognitivne lingvistike.
Gabrijela Buljan i Dubravko KuĀanda:
ɱ 88 SemantiĀke funkcije subjekta
(1) Ag > Go > Rec > Ben > Instr > Loc > Temp
Subject + + + + + + +
Object + + + + + +
(2)
a. John gave the book to Peter. AgSubj
b. The book was given to Peter by John. Go Subj
c. Peter was given the book by John. RecSubj
?
d. Mary was bought a car by John. BenSubj
2
I ideja da se gramatiþka relacija subjekta pridružuje semantiþkim funkcijama na temelju
hijerarhije semantiþkih funkcija potjeþe od Fillmorea (1968:33): “If there is an A, it becomes
the subject, otherwise, if there is an I, it becomes the subject, otherwise, the subject is O.”
Ovu je tvrdnju Fillmore (1968) ilustrirao primjerima poput (i)- (iii):
(i) John opened the door with the key.
(ii) The key opened the door.
(iii) The door opened.
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5.1-2 (2004): 87-101 ɱ 89
3
“One can compare semantically equivalent (or near-equivalent) predicates in the two
languages, and ask whether some argument, A, can be mapped onto the subject relation in one
or the other language, without necessarily having to resolve the issue whether A is a semantic
‘benefactive’, ‘dative’, or ‘experiencer’.” (Hawkins 1986: 62).
4
“Note further, that on this type of definition, subjects of certain sentences, and more
generally of certain sentence types, will be more subject-like than the subjects of others. The
reason is that they will exhibit more of the complement of properties which characterize b-
subjects in general. Thus the subjecthood of an NP (in a sentence) is a matter of degree.”
Keenan 1976: 307).
Gabrijela Buljan i Dubravko KuĀanda:
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a. The construction describes events involving two, and only two participants, encoded
by the subject and direct object NPs respectively.
b. The two participants are highly individuated, i.e. they are discrete, specific entities
(from this it follows that both the NPs in the construction have specific reference)
distinct both from each other, and from the background environment.
c. The event is initiated by the referent of the subject NP, i.e. by the agent.
Responsibility for the event thus lies exclusively with the agent. Furthermore, the
subject NP is the sentence topic; the subject is what the sentence is about.
d. The agent acts consciously and volitionally, and thus controls the event. Since
consciousness and volition are typically human attributes, it follows that the agent is
typically a human being.
e. The agent's action on the patient usually involves direct physical contact, and the
effect on patient is immediate.
f. The event has a causative component – the agent's action causes the patient to
undergo a change.
g. Typically, agent and patient are not only clearly differentiated entities, often they
also stand in an adversative relationship.
Reþenica (3) je primjer u kojoj subjekt ima sva svojstva prototipnog subjekta
(naravno i ove su reþenice izvan konteksta potencijalno višeznaþne jer moguüa
je i interpretacija prema kojoj se Ivan okliznuo, pao i prilikom pada razbio
prozor):
2. Diskusija
nije vidljivo radi li se o namjernoj ili nenamjernoj radnji. Jezici poput hrvatskog
i njemaþkog tu razliku kodiraju na taj naþin da namjernog i nenamjernog agensa
izriþu razliþitim padežima. Nenamjerni agens izriþe se dativom:
5
Vidi i Comrie (1981); Shibatani (1991).
Gabrijela Buljan i Dubravko KuĀanda:
ɱ 92 SemantiĀke funkcije subjekta
Degree of individuation
Singular > plural
Degree of egocentricity
1st person > 2nd person > 3rd person6
6
Do zakljuþka da egocentriþnost igra važnu ulogu pri topikalizaciji došao je i Havers (1911)
analizirajuüi tzv. Dativus sympatheticus (vidi i Bally, 1926).
7
Uporaba pojma podizanje subjekta ne znaþi prihvaüanje ideje da je jedna reþenica izvedena
iz druge, osnovnije reþenice. Ovaj pojam iz praktiþnih razloga upotrebljavaju i funkcionalisti
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5.1-2 (2004): 87-101 ɱ 93
(npr., Dik 1979) i kognitivisti (npr., Lee, 2001:78ff), iako i jedni i drugi negiraju razliku
izmeÿu dubinske i površinske strukture.
8
Sumnju da se svaki subjekt zavisne reþenice bez obzira na njegovu semantiku, može ‘podiüi’
na razinu glavne reþenice izrazila je još davno Borkin (1984: 45): “Not just any NP can be
felicitously raised to object position, and the restrictions on what kind of NP may be raised
are often reminiscent of restrictions on what kind of prepositional phrase can be raised (for
those speakers who allow raising of prepositional phrases). That is, these restrictions seem to
all be in some way related to the referring nature of the NP involved.” Na primjer, Borkin
(1984: 79) smatra reþenice (i) i (ii) marginalno ovjerenima
(i) ?When I looked at the files, I found her to be Mexican.
(ii) ?Our latest evidence indicates Harry to be a plumber in L.A.
Gabrijela Buljan i Dubravko KuĀanda:
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Za ovu je diskusiju najrelevantnije pitanje pod b.: naime, iako velik broj
autora smatra da se tu radi o moguünosti ili nemoguünosti subjektivizacije neke
semantiþke uloge (npr., Dik 1978, 1989; Hawkins 1986; Kuþanda 1998), neki
pak autori (npr., Schlesinger 1989, 1992) smatraju da je primjerenije govoriti o
agentivizaciji instrumenta ili doživljaþa,9 što otvara pitanje Sapir-Whorfove
hipoteze u koju ovdje ne želimo ulaziti.
9
“Verbs may differ in the degree of deliberation and intentionality implied by them and this
difference may affect the possibility of agentivization of the instrument.” (istakli autori,
Schlesinger 1989: 195).
Jezikoslovlje
5.1-2 (2004): 87-101 ɱ 95
Agent is a cluster concept (in the sense that the subject is, according to Keenan
(1976); in other words a concept that is not defined by a set of necessary and
sufficient features.” (Schlesinger 1989: 207).
Also unproblematic, in English, are sentences with the names of institutions as subjects.
In such cases we can say that the name of the institution is being used metonymically
for the human agent who holds an important position in the institution. (ibid.).
10
Napominjemo da used to test koji povremeno koristi Schlesinger (1989) kako bi pokazao da
je neki nominalni izraz instrument nije pouzdan test u reþenicama poput (i') i (ii'), kao što
pokazuje njihova parafraza s with +NP jer se with + NP ne može u njima shvatiti kao
instrument:
(i) They used fraternity boys to get the building painted.
(i') *They painted the building with fraternity boys.
(ii) Nixon used Agnew to promote his own views.
(ii') *Nixon promoted his own views with Agnew.
Gabrijela Buljan i Dubravko KuĀanda:
ɱ 96 SemantiĀke funkcije subjekta
marginalno ovjerena, dok engleski ekvivalent iste reþenice prihvaüa kao potpuno
ovjeren, s time da za razliku od Schlesingera (1989) govori o metonimizaciji, a
ne o agentivizaciji instrumenta. I hrvatski ekvivalent iste reþenice (??Kljuþ je
otvorio vrata.) þini nam se marginalno prihvatljivim. Meÿutim, reþenica (19):
11
“The category of subject, defined in this way, does have universal validity, and certain
universal syntactic phenomena follow from it. An imperative sentence, for instance, involves
the speaker requesting the addressee to DO something; in every language an imperative must,
in the deep structure, have an underlying second person S or A NP. A further example
involves jussive constructions, complex sentences that have a main clause involving a verb
like tell or order e.g. I told him to return, She ordered me to eat up the meat. Here the object
of the main clause must be, at the level of deep structure, coreferential with the S or A NP in
the subordinate clause. The subordinate clause describes an instruction that has been given to
someone to do something – plainly this participant must be agent, and thus subject, for the
subordinate clause.” (Dixon 1980: 440).
12
U ovom radu koristimo se sljedeüom definicijom metonimije: “Metonymy is a cognitive
process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle, provides mental access to another
conceptual entity, the target, within the same idealized cognitive model.” (Radden i Kövecses
1999: 21).
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5.1-2 (2004): 87-101 ɱ 97
Van Oosten (1977) i O’Grady (1980) kažu da su one moguüe upravo zato što se
u njima subjektu pripisuju odreÿeni stupanj agentivnosti (referent subjekta ima
takva svojstva da se približava semantiþkom prototipu subjekta).13 U našoj
interpretaciji to znaþi da su neka svojstva takvog subjekta dovoljno blizu
prototipu subjekta da omoguüe metonimijsko preslikavanje s neke semantiþke
uloge niže na ljestvici prototipnosti na gramatiþku relaciju subjekta. Na kraju,
gotovo je nepotrebno reüi da takvi netipiþni subjekti nemaju sintaktiþko
ponašanje tipiþnih subjekata.
??*
(23) We believe American cars to handle like oil tankers.
??*
(24) He expected the tent to up in his back yard.
13
“... properties of the patient bear the responsibility for the occurrence of the action of the
verb.” (Van Oosten 1977: 461).
Gabrijela Buljan i Dubravko KuĀanda:
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3. Zakljuþak
U ovom radu pokušali smo pokazati dvije stvari: (i) sintaktiþko ponašanje
subjekta nije neovisno o njegovoj semantici. Što je subjekt kao morfosin-
taktiþka kategorija bliži semantiþkom/pragmatiþkom prototipu subjekta to
pokazuje više morfosintaktiþkih karakteristika prototipnog subjekta; (ii)
semantiþke uloge (npr. lokativ ili instrument) nisu same po sebi dovoljne da bi
sprijeþile preslikavanje neke semantiþke uloge na gramatiþku relaciju subjekta
jer pri tome znaþajnu ulogu igraju i tipovi metonimijskih preslikavanja, pri þemu
su neke metonimije prihvatljivije od drugih metonimija, npr. metonimije tipa
MJESTO-UMJESTO-INSTITUCIJE (Pantovþak za sada šuti) prihvatljivije su od
metonimija MJESTO-UMJESTO-ODGOVORNE OSOBE (uspredi This lake forbids
motor boats i *Ovo jezero zabranjuje motorne þamce). Uzroci ovih razlika
svakako zaslužuju daljnja istraživanja, no inicijalna pretpostavka mogla bi biti
da je metaforiþko/metonimijsko preslikavanje NEŽIVO-UMJESTO-ŽIVOG þešüe u
engleskom zbog veüeg stupnja gramatikalizacije subjekta u engleskom, odnosno
veüeg stupnja korelacije agens/topic.
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Adresa autora:
Odsjek za anglistiku
Filozofski fakultet
L. Jägera 9
HR-31000 Osijek
[email protected]
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This paper has argued that morphological and syntactic properties of subjects decrease as
subjects deviate from the prototypical subject, which simultaneously encodes the semantic
function Agent and the pragmatic function topic. On the other hand, the paper also argues that
the mapping of a particular semantic role/function is not independent of the type of
metonymic mapping, as is evident from the acceptability of some metonymic mappings
(LOCATION-FOR-INSTITUTION vs. LOCATION-FOR-RESPONSIBLE PERSON(S)). The initial hypo-
Jezikoslovlje
5.1-2 (2004): 87-101 ɱ 101
thesis is that such discrepancies between English and Croatian are an instation of a more
general metaphorical/metonymic difference: INANIMATE-FOR-ANIMATE.