Pdyck 06
Pdyck 06
Pdyck 06
CHAPTER 6
PRODUCTION
TEACHING NOTES
This chapter represents a turning point away from the theory of demand and toward a theory
of supply. This is a good time to review the derivation of demand and present an overview of the
theory of competitive supply, particularly because many ideas that were presented in Chapters 3 and
4 will now be used in a slightly different context. Point out that while we could not measure utility,
we can measure output, and thus develop a richer theory for production than we could for
consumption. In presenting the production function, emphasize the assumption of technical efficiency:
the production function defines the highest level of output for every combination of inputs. Also stress
that throughout this chapter we focus on real quantities; there are no prices, which will be introduced
in Chapter 7. Exercises (3) through (5) deal more with intuitive concepts, while Exercises (6) through
(8) are more mathematical.
After introducing production, we hold capital fixed and examine the productivity of labor.
Emphasize the time dimension of fixed vs. variable: in the short run, some forms of capital are fixed
and some forms of labor are variable. Build on students’ appreciation of Examples (1) and (2) in the
text. Because of the national attention given to the competitiveness of U.S. industry, students
appreciate the discussion of labor productivity in developing countries; see Table 6.4. In this context,
you can add a discussion of the relationship between total, average, and marginal products. If you
have not discussed marginal utility, now is the time to make sure that they know the difference
between average and marginal. An example that captures students’ attention is the relationship
between average and marginal test scores. If their latest midterm grade is greater than their
average grade to date, this will increase their average. The three stages of production help students
remember the relationship between average and marginal products:
Exercises (1), (2), and (5) rely on the relationship between AP and MP.
This chapter also focuses on the use of isoquants to represent the relationships between inputs
(the marginal rate of technical substitution) and between inputs and output (returns to scale). Rely
on the students’ understanding of indifference curves when discussing isoquants. As with indifference
curves, isoquants are a twodimensional representation of a threedimensional production function.
Use Examples 6.3 and 6.4 to give concrete meaning to MRTS and returns to scale. Exercise (4)
discusses MRTS. Exercise (6) discusses returns to scale.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is a production function? How does a longrun production function differ from a
shortrun production function?
A production function represents how inputs are transformed into outputs by a firm.
We focus on the firm with one output and aggregate all inputs or factors of production
into one of several categories, such as labor, capital, and materials. In the short run,
one or more factors of production cannot be changed. As time goes by, the firm has the
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opportunity to change the levels of all inputs. In the longrun production function, all
inputs are variable.
2. Why is the marginal product of labor likely to increase and then decline in the short
run?
When additional units of labor are added to a fixed quantity of capital, we see the
marginal product of labor rise, reach a maximum, and then decline. The marginal
product of labor increases because, as the first workers are hired, they may specialize
in those tasks in which they have the greatest ability. Eventually, with the quantity
of capital fixed, the workplace becomes congested and the productivity of additional
workers declines.
3. Diminishing returns to a single factor of production and constant returns to scale are
not inconsistent. Discuss.
Diminishing returns to a single factor are observable in all production processes at
some level of inputs. This fact is so pervasive that economists have named it the “law
of diminishing marginal productivity.” If there is diminishing marginal productivity,
at least one factor of production is held constant. For example, when holding the level
of capital constant, each additional unit of labor has less capital to work with.
Unlike the returns to a single factor, returns to scale are proportional increases in all
inputs. While each factor by itself exhibits diminishing returns, output increases
more than proportionately (increasing returns to scale), proportionately (constant
returns to scale), or proportionally less (decreasing returns to scale).
4. You are an employer seeking to fill a vacant position on an assembly line. Are you more
concerned with the average product of labor or the marginal product of labor for the last
person hired? If you observe that your average product is just beginning to decline,
should you hire any more workers? What does this situation imply about the marginal
product of your last worker hired?
In filling a vacant position, you should be concerned with the marginal product of the
last worker hired because the last worker hired will influence total product. The point
at which the average product begins to decline is the point where average product is
equal to marginal product. Although adding more workers results in a further decline
in average product, total product continues to increase. Only when total product
declines do we necessarily stop hiring. When average product declines, the marginal
product of the last worker hired is lower than the average product of previously hired
workers.
5. Faced with constantly changing conditions, why would a firm ever keep any factors
fixed? What determines whether a factor is fixed or variable?
Whether a factor is fixed or variable depends on the time horizon in consideration: all
factors are fixed in the very short run; all factors are variable in the long run.
Therefore, the firm must, by definition, have one or more factors fixed in the short run.
As stated in the text: “All fixed inputs in the short run represent outcomes of previous
longrun decisions based on firms’ estimates of what they could profitably produce and
sell.”
6. How does the curvature of an isoquant relate to the marginal rate of technical
substitution?
The isoquant represents the tradeoff between inputs in production while holding
output constant. The curvature of the isoquant represents the change in this tradeoff
as inputs are added or subtracted. The marginal rate of technical substitution is the
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Chapter 6: Production
slope of the isoquant. One can show that this slope is equal to the ratio of the
marginal rates of productivity for the respective inputs. The marginal rate of
technical substitution changes with different levels of each input because of declining
marginal productivity. The marginal rate of technical substitution changes at
different input levels, thus forming the isoquant in its typical curved shape.
If inputs are perfect substitutes, the ratio of marginal productivities is constant and
the isoquant is linear. If the inputs are perfect complements, an addition unit of one
input does not increase output, unless there is a complementary addition of the other
input. This case leads to an Lshaped isoquant in which the slope of the horizontal
segment is zero and the slope of the vertical segment is undefined.
7. Can a firm have a production function that exhibits increasing returns to scale,
constant returns to scale, and decreasing returns to scale as output increases? Discuss.
Most firms have production functions that exhibit increasing, constant, and
decreasing returns to scale. At low levels of output, proportional increases in all
inputs may lead to largerthanproportional increases in output due to increased
opportunities for specialized factors of production. As the firm grows, it may duplicate
its level of operation such that output increases at the same rate as the increased use
of all inputs. At some scale, the firm experiences an inability to increase output at the
same rate as increases in input, a situation that can arise from management
diseconomies.
8. Give an example of a production process in which the short run involves a day or a
week and the long run any period longer than a week.
Any small business where one input requires more than a week to change would be an
example. The process of hiring more labor, which requires announcing the position,
interviewing applicants, and negotiating terms of employment, can take a day, if done
through a temporary employment agency. Usually, however, the process takes a week
or more. Expansion, requiring a larger location, will also take longer than a week.
EXERCISES
1. Suppose a chair manufacturer is producing in the short run when equipment is fixed.
The manufacturer knows that as the number of laborers used in the production process
increases from 1 to 7, the number of chairs produced changes as follows: 10, 17, 22, 25, 26,
25, 23.
a. Calculate the marginal and average product of labor for this production function.
Q
The average product of labor, APL, is equal to . The marginal product of labor,
L
Q
MPL, is equal to , the change in output divided by the change in labor
L
input. For this production process we have:
L Q APL MPL
0 0 __ __
1 10 10 10
2 17 8 1/2 7
3 22 7 1/3 5
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Chapter 6: Production
4 25 6 1/4 3
5 26 5 1/5 1
6 25 4 1/6 1
7 23 3 2/7 2
b. Does this production function exhibit diminishing returns to labor? Explain.
This production process exhibits diminishing returns to labor characteristic of all
production functions with one fixed input. The first worker has a marginal product of
10; from the second to the fifth workers, the marginal product is declining, but still
positive. The sixth and seventh workers have negative marginal products.
c. Explain intuitively what might cause the marginal product of labor to become
negative.
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Chapter 6: Production
3. A political campaign manager has to decide whether to emphasize television
advertisements or letters to potential voters in a reelection campaign. Describe the
production function for campaign votes. How might information about this function (such
as the shape of the isoquants) help the campaign manager to plan strategy?
The output of concern to the campaign manager is the number of votes. The
production function uses two inputs, television advertising and direct mail. The use of
these inputs requires knowledge of the substitution possibilities between them. If the
inputs are perfect substitutes, the resultant isoquants are line segments, and the
campaign manager will use only one input based on the relative prices. If the inputs
are not perfect substitutes, the isoquants will have a convex shape. The campaign
manager will then use a combination of the two inputs.
4. A firm has a production process in which the inputs to production are perfectly
substitutable in the long run. Can you tell whether the marginal rate of technical
substitution is high or low, or is further information necessary? Discuss.
The marginal rate of technical substitution, MRTS, is the absolute value of the slope
of an isoquant. If the inputs are perfect substitutes, the isoquants will be linear. To
calculate the slope of the isoquant, and hence the MRTS, we need to know the rate at
which one input may be substituted for the other.
5. The marginal product of labor is known to be greater than the average product of labor
at a given level of employment. Is the average product increasing or decreasing? Explain.
MPK = 200 computer chips per hour.
7. Do the following production functions exhibit decreasing, constant or increasing
returns to scale?
a. Q = 0.5KL
Returns to scale refers to the relationship between output and proportional increases
in all inputs. This concept may be represented in the following manner, where l
represents a proportional increase in inputs:
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Chapter 6: Production
F(lK, lL) > lF(K, L) implies increasing returns to scale;
F(lK, lL) = lF(K, L) implies constant returns to scale; and
F(lK, lL) < lF(K, L) implies decreasing returns to scale.
Therefore, we can substitute lK for K and lL for L, and check the result against an
equal increase in Q.
Q* = 0.5(lK)(lL) = (0.5KL)l2 = Ql2 > lQ
This production function exhibits increasing returns to scale.
b. Q = 2K + 3L
Q* = 2(lK) + 3(lL) = (2K + 3L)l = Ql = lQ.
This production function exhibits constant returns to scale.
8. The production function for the personal computers of DISK, Inc., is given by Q =
10K0.5L0.5, where Q is the number of computers produced per day, K is hours of machine
time, and L is hours of labor input. DISK’s competitor, FLOPPY, Inc., is using the
production function Q = 10K0.6L0.4.
a. If both companies use the same amounts of capital and labor, which will generate
more output?
Because Q = Q2, both firms generate the same output with the same inputs.
b. Assume that capital is limited to 9 machine hours but labor is unlimited in supply.
In which company is the marginal product of labor greater? Explain.
L Q MPL Q MPL
Firm 1 Firm 1 Firm 2 Firm 2
For each unit of labor above 1, the marginal productivity of labor is greater for the
first firm, DISK, Inc.
9. In Example 6.3, wheat is produced according to the production function Q = 100(K0.8L0.2 ).
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Chapter 6: Production
a. Beginning with a capital input of 4 and a labor input of 49, show that the marginal
product of labor and the marginal product of capital are both decreasing.
For fixed labor and variable capital:
K = 4 Þ Q = (100)(40.8 )(490.2 ) = 660.21
K = 5 Þ Q = (100)(50.8 )(490.2 ) = 789.25 Þ MPK = 129.04
K = 6 Þ Q = (100)(60.8 )(490.2 ) = 913.19 Þ MPK = 123.94
K = 7 Þ Q = (100)(70.8 )(490.2 ) = 1,033.04 Þ MPK = 119.85.
For fixed capital and variable labor:
L = 49 Þ Q = (100)(40.8 )(490.2 ) = 660.21
L = 50 Þ Q = (100)(40.8 )(500.2 ) = 662.89 Þ MPL = 2.68
L = 51 Þ Q = (100)(40.8 )(510.2 ) = 665.52 Þ MPL = 2.63
L = 52 Þ Q = (100)(40.8 )(520.2 ) = 668.11 Þ MPL = 2.59.
Notice that the marginal products of both capital and labor are decreasing as the
variable input increases.
b. Does this production function exhibit increasing, decreasing, or constant returns to
scale?
Constant (increasing, decreasing) returns to scale imply that proportionate increases
in inputs lead to the same (more than, less than) proportionate increases in output. If
we were to increase labor and capital by the same proportionate amount (l) in this
production function, output would change by the same proportionate amount:
lQ = 100(lK)0.8 (lL)0.2, or
lQ = 100K0.8 L0.2 l(0.8 + 0.2) = Ql
Therefore, this production function exhibits constant returns to scale.
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