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Footwear Science
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Verification of toe allowance of children's footwear

and its categorisation
a a b a
Jana Pavlackova , Pavlina Egner , Pavel Mokrejs & Martina Cernekova
a
Department of Fat, Tenside and Cosmetic Technology, Faculty of Technology, Tomas Bata
University, Zlín, Czech Republic
b
Department of Polymer Engineering, Faculty of Technology, Tomas Bata University, Zlin,
Czech Republic
Published online: 10 Jun 2015.

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To cite this article: Jana Pavlackova, Pavlina Egner, Pavel Mokrejs & Martina Cernekova (2015): Verification of toe allowance
of children's footwear and its categorisation, Footwear Science, DOI: 10.1080/19424280.2015.1049299

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 Footwear Science, 2015
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19424280.2015.1049299

Verification of toe allowance of children’s footwear and its categorisation

Jana Pavlackovaa*, Pavlina Egnera, Pavel Mokrejsb and Martina Cernekovaa
a
Department of Fat, Tenside and Cosmetic Technology, Faculty of Technology, Tomas Bata University, Zl
ın, Czech Republic;
b
Department of Polymer Engineering, Faculty of Technology, Tomas Bata University, Zlin, Czech Republic
(Received 20 November 2014; accepted 5 May 2015)

This study verifies the declared sizes of children’s footwear, categorising it according to gender and age, the cut of the
upper, the assembling method, the material of the upper, the lining material, the fastening, the heights of the upper and the
heights of the heel. The study looked into the allocation given to toe allowance, which represents growing room for a
child’s foot, while ensuring the shoes remain comfortable. Research was conducted on 115 pairs of children’s footwear, at
the French sizes of 22, 25 and 30. It was found that in all examples at size 22, the recommended design specifications for
toe allowance were most consistently observed, while for size 25 this applied in 91% of cases, but an alarming percentage

54% of pairs
was discerned for size 30. This provision for growth exists to prevent possible damage to the soft tissues
of children’s feet and also to prevent forefoot deformities from occurring. Maintaining the specifications for toe allowance
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also contributes to easier customer guidance when selecting the optimum shoe size.
Keywords: children’s footwear; comfort; fit; foot; size; toe allowance

1. Introduction and shape determining footwear generally, it still has to

At present, the range of footwear available is greatly conform to the foot, even under varying conditions. The
diverse and varied, mainly as a consequence of technolog- right foot may differ from the left foot in length, perimeter
ical advances. Footwear is capable of delivering assorted and width measurements. As is apparent from the exam-
special properties (drainage of moisture, elimination of ples provided, even so-called close-fitting footwear shall
odour, insulation of feet from the cold, etc.), but the exert a certain degree of discomfort (poor fit) on one foot
requirement to maintain the proportionality of footwear in but not the other (Penkala, Harris, Hunt, & Naughton,
relation to the foot remains utterly crucial. Some types of 2011; Pivecka & Laure, 1995). Comfort is a subjective
fashionable footwear serve as accessories to garments, sensation experienced by the user and, therefore, it can
meaning the form of such footwear has importance but prove very difficult to find ‘the right shoe for the right
does not always fully support the physiological function foot’. If the shoe is too tight, it causes pressure on the tis-
of the foot (Goonetilleke 1999; Kuklane, 2009; Park, sue of the feet, so the shoe becomes uncomfortable for its
2012; Staheli, 1991; Tailby, 1997). user. However, if footwear is too loose, the wearer experi-
The appropriate size of a shoe is one of the most ences shoe slippage when walking, thereby increasing
important requirements for healthy footwear, primarily physical exertion and potentially causing injury to the
among children. Aligning the shape of the foot with the soft tissue of the foot as a result of friction (Au &
interior space of the shoe is termed the ‘fit’, which is opti- Goonetilleke, 2007). Studies conducted (Alemany,
mum when all parts or sections of the foot correspond to Gonz
alez, Garc
ıa, & Olaso, 2005; Cheng & Perng, 1999;
the relevant parts of the footwear (Hawes & Sovak, 1994; Coughlin, 1995; Echarri & Forriol, 2003; Goonetilleke,
Janisse, 1992; Mauch, Grau, Krauss, Maiwald, & Horst- Luximon, & Tsui, 2000; Gould, Moreland, Alvarez, Tre-
mann, 2009; Rossi, 1994; Rossi & Tennant, 1984). vino, & Fenwick, 1989; Hawes et al. 1994; Klein, Groll-
The behaviour of a foot enclosed in a shoe is different Knapp, Kundi, & Kinz, 2009; Luximon, Goonetilleke, &
when walking or at rest, while variation can also be Tsui, 2001; Miller et al., 2000; Rao & Joseph, 1992;
observed in the morning and in the evening, or even at dif- Sachithanandam & Joseph, 1995; Staheli, 1991) suggest
ferent conditions of humidity and temperature. As several that the poor fit of the shoe on the foot can cause health
hours are spent in shoes every day, these factors need to problems such as blisters, abrasions, bunions and other
be taken into account. Despite the overriding uniformity forefoot deformities, as well as painful and tired feet.

*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]

Ó 2015 Taylor & Francis

 2 J. Pavlackova et al.

The length of the foot is a crucial dimension in select- 2. Materials and methods
ing the most appropriate size of footwear. Properly fitting 2.1. Materials
shoes should be approximately 9
15 mm longer than the
Verifying the declared size of footwear took place in two
foot (Cheskin, Sherkin, & Bates, 1987; Maier & Kill-
independent children’s footwear specialised stores, when
mann, 2003; McInnes et al., 2012; Pivecka & Laure,
a total of 115 (N D 115) right half-pairs were checked,
1995; Stastna, 2003). This parameter is referred to as toe
size 22 (N22 D 37), 25 (N25 D 43) and 30 (N30 D 35), in
allowance. Maintaining toe allowance values is some-
accordance with the French sizing system, these emanat-
thing that has been increasingly violated by footwear
ing from different footwear manufacturers and represent-
modellers and designers. The main problem is failure on
ing contemporary children’s footwear from the youngest
the part of the manufacturers to indicate the allocation of
children (start of walking) to pre-school children. The
toe allowance for each shoe when selecting suitable
vast majority of shoe samples were manufactured in the
children’s footwear in terms of proportion. In fact, this is
EU (38% in Austria, 25% in the Czech Republic, 22% in
even not required by traders (Hlavacek, 2010). Toe
Italy, 8% in Denmark and 5% in Norway), 2% of shoe
allowance refers to the space (in) which the children’s
samples were produced in the USA. The samples com-
foot can grow, the toes move when walking, allows a
prised from 12 shoe brands
Superfit, Richter, Geox, Pri-
designer to modify the shape of the front (tip) of footwear
migi, Fare, Ecco, Sant
e, KTR, Olang, Viking, ESSI, Keen;
according to trends in fashion (Pivecka & Laure, 1995;
the biggest representatives among them was Austrian
Rossi & Tennant, 1984).
company Superfit, the second and third ones were Richter
Irregular leaps or bursts in growth, a facet not shared
and Geox. Distribution of the nation of manufacturers
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by all children, can be observed in children’s feet that do

amongst the shoe sizes sampled is presented in Table 1
not display regular growth. For this reason, periodical
and distribution of the brands amongst the shoe sizes sam-
checks are necessary on the size of feet and footwear. The
pled is presented in Table 2.
average annual increase in foot length at children
Each model was photographically documented and
aged 3
15 equals approximately 12 mm (Maier, 1990;
recorded under a unique serial number. Categorising the
Pavlackova, Benesova, & Hlavacek, 2011; Pavlackova &
footwear was conducted in terms of age and gender

Tomasova, 2001; Stastna, 2000). Nevertheless, the neces-
group size, the upper cut, the manner of production, the
sary allocation of toe allowance must be determined as
upper and lining materials used, fastenings, and the
precisely as possible at the moment of purchasing foot-
heights of the upper and pitch. The heterogeneity in
wear, this stemming from the individual shape of the feet
shoes sizes, shoe construction and gender split repre-
and the insoles of the footwear selected.
sents children’s footwear market offer of most popular
Current scientific footwear literature does not deeply
styles in the Czech Republic. These styles can be consid-
discuss children’s footwear and toe allowance. The
ered as a representative nationwide data for the Czech
importance of keeping toe allowance is reported in
market.
papers of worldwide-known shoe experts, such as Piv-
ecka, Laure, Rossi and Tennant who settled construction
principles of harmless foot. Pivecka and Laure emphasize
the importance of additional toe allowance not to prevent 2.2. Measurements
fingers movement in shoe during walking (Pivecka & 2.2.1. Pitch measurement
Laure, 1995). In children’s shoes, the extra length of The pitch of the heel was measured as the difference
width allowed foot growth (Rossi & Tennant, 1984). between the height of the sole measured at the toe cap
Based on the gap in current literature, there is the need of and the height of the heel at the heel seat, utilising a
the study focused on verification of toe allowance of shoemaking meter placed perpendicularly to the ground
children’s footwear. Results of such study will be wel- level.
comed by shoe manufacturers and customers as well.
The research question of our study is as follows. Guaran-
tees the current offer of children’s footwear within the
frame of toe allowance in The European Union (EU) Table 1. Distribution of the nation of manufacturers (%)
amongst the shoe sizes sampled.
shoe sizes 22, 25 and 30 sufficient growing room for
healthy development of children’s foot? The goals of our Country of origin
study are: (1) to study the declared sizes of children’s Shoe
footwear and verify of toe allowance; (2) categorise size Austria Czech Republic Italy Denmark Norway USA
children’s footwear according to gender and age, the cut 22 33 29 24 14 0 0
of the upper, the assembling method, the material of the 25 55 17 16 7 5 0
upper, the lining material, the fastening, the heights of 30 32 17 34 0 11 6
the upper and the heights of the heel.
 Footwear Science 3

Table 2. Distribution of the brands (%) amongst the shoe sizes sampled.

Brands of manufacturers

(Austria) (Czech Republic) (Italy) (Denmark) (Norway) (USA)

Shoe size Superfit Richter KTR ESSI Sant
e Fare Geox Primigi Olang Ecco Viking Keen

22 22 11 5 8 5 11 11 13 0 14 0 0
25 39 16 5 0 5 7 9 5 2 7 5 0
30 23 9 3 0 3 11 20 11 3 0 11 6

2.2.2. Measurement of footwear length allowance were defined under four mathematical inter-
The inside length of footwear was determined in each vals: unacceptable in the interval <5; 0), permissible in
half-pair from the toe cap to the curve of the heel using a the interval <0; 5), healthy in the interval <5; 15), critical
special in-shoe length measuring device (PFI, Germany), in the interval <15; 25). The healthy range covered foot-
see Figure 1. This hand-held device determines the in- wear that was found to have a toe allowance of 5
15 mm,
shoe length and hence the insole length of shoes with dif- allowing space for the feet to move in when walking, as
ferent heel and toe spring values. The measurement well as providing sufficient growing room. A 5
15 mm
border was set, because 5 mm toe allowance is still
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arrived at was adjusted by a conversion table value

expressing the heel height or the pitch of the toe cap, this acceptable in open patterns of shoes (Pivecka & Laure,
comprising an accessory to the instrument. 1995). In the critical range was included footwear with a
toe allowance greater than 15 mm, as well as footwear
with no toe allowance. Footwear extended by more than
2.2.3. Determining toe allowance 15 mm often causes one to slip or trip up while walking,
Toe allowance values were established as the difference with the resultant risk of injury ( Goonetilleke et al., 2000;
between the footwear’s interior length and the foot length Miller et al., 2000). Totally unacceptable designs of foot-
(FL22 D 136.7 mm, FL25 D 156.8 mm and FL30 D 190.1 wear feature a toe allowance of 0 and less. Such products
mm) according to equation for each pair of the set of foot- may naturally be sought out in the store by customers
wear, disregarding fashionable toe allowance, the value of requiring a short sole. Items exhibiting a permissible
which is unfounded design-wise in the toe-cap shapes of range of toe allowance of up to 5 mm provide users with a
children’s footwear: less comfortable experience than items falling under the
healthy range; said toe allowance meets minimum values,
and the foot may suffer discomfort through contact with
FL D ½ðF ¢0:667Þ
1 ¢10: (1)
the footwear, thereby leading to damage of the foot.

FL is foot length (mm) and F is French size (Pivecka,

1991). The value expressing the difference between foot
length and the measured length of the footwear denotes 2.3. Statistical analysis
how footwear length relates to the length of the foot, pri- The denoted categories herein studied were processed
marily in terms of design. Computed values for toe using Microsoft Excel 2010 (Microsoft Corporation,

Figure 1. In-shoe length measuring device.

 4 J. Pavlackova et al.

USA) as histograms of relative frequencies. Basic analy- 3.1. Analysis of footwear length and toe allowance
ses of the internal length of the footwear and toe allow- The conducted 2D box plot analysis supplemented with
ance were carried out on Excel 2010 and Statistica 10.0 values for foot length (Figure 2) illustrates that the larger
(StatSoft, Inc. Tulsa, USA). A 2D box plot was used to the size, the more such footwear exhibited a greater varia-
display the statistically processed values of the footwear’s tion in length. This, in theory, suggests a wider diversity in
length and toe allowance. For each size, the box is defined the variability of length compared with smaller sizes, e.g.
by the arithmetic mean (&), its upper and lower limits rep- 22; thus, a more thorough trial when choosing footwear of
resenting §SD (standard deviation). Attached is also a lin- appropriate length is necessary. This means that it is better
ear definition of the minimum and maximum measured to try on such footwear properly, on the right and left feet,
values of toe allowance, including foot length indicated rather than simply relying on the size given. Nevertheless,
by () for better representation of outlying samples. it can be noted that rules governing the design of toe allow-
ance are followed more strictly in lesser shoe sizes.
Figure 2 corresponds to Figure 3, showing the allocation
3. Results and discussion of an average amount of toe allowance, ranging from 9.5 to
11.3 mm, for all the pairs of shoes of selected size. Size 30
Footwear toe allowance is primarily given by the con-
was found to have diminished, unsatisfactory values for toe
struction of front part of the last, which is the basis form
allowance. Low frequency check-up of fitting such footwear
for its production. Selected categorized criteria of child-
could easily promote certain forefoot deformities. It should
ren’s footwear (the cut of the upper, the assembling
be noted that even size 30 footwear is still designed to facili-
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method, the material of the upper, the lining material, the

tate the growth and development of children’s feet.
fastening, the heights of the upper and the heights of the
Figure 4 shows the toe allowance range for footwear
heel) does not influence of the value of toe allowance.
of different sizes. As regards size 22, all the pairs of foot-
Thus, toe allowance in relation to categorized criteria is
wear were in compliance with the allocation of toe allow-
not discussed. The issue of toe allowance in relation to
ance, while for size 25 it was 91% of shoes. For size 30,
footwear length, respectively, its shoe size, is therefore
only 54% of footwear corresponded to sufficient amounts
discussed.

Figure 2. Footwear length in relation to size.

 Footwear Science 5
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Figure 3. Toe allowance in relation to shoe size.

of toe allowance; for this size, 40% of the footwear was With respect to the research question of our study,
indicated to fail to give the guarantee of comfortable foot- values of toe allowance found in lower shoe sizes
wear. Therefore, it pertains to shoes in which customers (22 and 25) correspond with children’s foot length
may not provide the expected sense of comfort because of increment at this age. Contrarily, in higher size (30)
their length when trying them in a shop and if they buy approximately 50% of tested samples do not provide
such footwear, such feelings of discomfort or potential sufficient growing room for healthy development of
damage to the foot may occur as the feet continue to grow. children’s foot.

Figure 4. Representation of toe allowance values in intervals of 5 mm.

 6 J. Pavlackova et al.

3.2. Children’s footwear categorisation design has the rear sections applied to the instep section,
3.2.1. Size groups permits better ‘throat’ opening as compared with, for
example, the instep cut. The latter features instep sections
Generally, size groups represent the categorisation of
stapled to the rear sections, which partially limits space
footwear by age and gender. Due to the controversial
when putting on the shoes. Therefore, the Derby style is
trend known as ‘unisex’, such footwear also included
highly suited to small children, meaning that putting on
shoes designed for both genders. This clothing and foot-
shoes is easier for them due to their developing motor
wear fashion is characterised by the neutral colours of the
skills.
materials used and the overall design of shoes acceptable
to both genders. Size 22 comprised 33% of footwear
designed for girls, 43% designed for boys and 24% made 3.2.3. Assembling method
under the unisex category herein being checked. As
Connecting the sole to the upper was done via three tech-
regards size 25, 58% of girls’ footwear, 28% of boys’
nologies: (1) conventional
using an adhesive (22
32%,
shoes and 14% of unisex shoes were assessed, while size
25
35% and 30
46%); (2) by connecting the upper to
30 comprised 43% of girls’ shoes, 54% of boys’ footwear
the soft insole using Strobel technique (22
57%, 25

and 3% of unisex shoes.
42% and 30
54%) which is specific way of stitching
upper leathers and lining to the insole of footwear, as a con-
3.2.2. Footwear upper style sequence of which such footwear benefits from excellent
flexibility properties; (3) direct injection moulding, which
Children’s footwear featured three distinct styles of the
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means direct moulding of a sole material onto the upper,

upper
Oxford (shoelace eyelets attached under
this technique appeared only in the footwear of foreign
the vamp), Derby (shoelace eyelets attached to the top of
manufacturers (22
11% and 25
23%), probably due to
the vamp) and Court shoe style (shoe with a low-cut front
the financial cost of preparing the mould flow.
and usually without a fastening). The Derby style pre-
vailed most frequently (67%) at size 22. The same applied
to size 25 (58%). The Oxford style was prevalent at size 3.2.4. The upper material
30 (51%), while the Derby style came in at 5% less. The
The most common upper material (Figure 5) was natural
least represented among all the sizes was the court shoe
leather in the collection of children’s shoes (22
51%,
style (22
3%, 25
9% and 30
3%), which can be
25
40% and 30
40%). This material meets, from the
rated as positive health-wise. The court shoe upper is held
aspect of hygiene, the most demanding requirements on
onto the foot by pressure on the front and rear of the foot.
the properties of materials used in the manufacture of
Structurally, it is possible to eliminate this pressure using
children’s footwear. Furthermore, combinations of leather
various instep strips. The Derby style, whose structural
with other materials were discerned, particularly in order

Figure 5. Frequency of upper materials for shoe uppers.

 Footwear Science 7
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Figure 6. Frequency of the lining material in shoe uppers.

to reduce the final price of the end product, such examples leather with textile and synthetic leather combinations.
included textile, Gore-Tex (a waterproof/breathable fabric One apparent aspect is the uptake of membrane materials
based on expanded polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE) and like Gore-Tex that have thus far been primarily incorpo-
other fluoropolymer products) and synthetic leather. rated in children’s sports shoes.

3.2.5. Lining material 3.2.6. Footwear fastenings

Shoe linings (Figure 6) were most frequently made of nat- The most typical fastenings in the studied selection of
ural leather and textile or combinations of both. Less fre- footwear (Figure 7) were Velcro (a type of hook-and-loop
quent design comprised textile with Gore-Tex, synthetic fastener). Highly useful in terms of ease of putting on and
leather with Gore-Tex, textile with synthetic leather and taking off the items, it also makes it easy to control the

Figure 7. Frequency of shoe fastenings methods.

 8 J. Pavlackova et al.

Figure 8. Frequency of footwear heel heights.

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width of the shoe at the instep. This applies to shoelaces as shoes in shops. Children’s footwear within the frame of
well, followed by a lacing and zip combination. Laces toe allowance in EU shoe sizes 22 and 25 guarantees suffi-
combined with Velcro were a rarer hybrid form. cient growing room for healthy development of children’s
foot, while in size 30 approximately only a half of child-
ren’s footwear available on the market does the same. The
3.2.7. Footwear upper height
study shows that periodically checking the foot measure-
The heights of the upper of the rated footwear were ments of children is an absolute necessity, as is buying
defined under two categories
low shoes (22
38%, footwear with sufficient growing room in length. This
25
30% and 30
66%) and ankle boots (22
62%, would ensure comfortable shoes suitable for the growing
25
70% and 30
34%), of which the latter was more feet of children, while preventing possible deformities
prevalent. It can be stated that all-year-round walking that may occur primarily in the forefoot. In addition, the
shoes for children designed in this ankle footwear manner shoes currently available on the market are sold in several
are considered most suitable in terms of health, such size systems, which are not uniform, thus complicating
height of the upper leg above the ankle providing the best the matter of choosing suitable shoes if an experienced
support for the foot in the shoe. shop assistant is not involved in the selection process. In
particular, it is children that should be provided with
high-quality, comfortable footwear, designed for their
3.2.8. Heel height
specific needs. Shoe manufacturers should focus on con-
The heel height or pitch (Figure 8) for children should not struction of front part of a last.
exceed the value of 25 mm; more than 25 mm is unaccept-
able from the point of healthy development of plantar arch
Acknowledgements
(Dungl, 2014). The heel heights observed in our selection
The authors gratefully acknowledge our teacher, supervisor and
ranged between 5 and 25 mm, most of them were 15 mm
colleague
world-wide known shoe expert associated professor
(22
40%, 25
46% and 30
57%). Petr Hlav
acek (in memoriam)
for his personal support and
knowledge he provided.

5. Conclusions Disclosure statement

Respecting the allocation of toe allowance is something No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
that should take place as primarily at the design phase of
footwear. Once this allowance is incorporated in footwear,
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